Frequency Control on an Island Power System

with Increasing Proportions of Combined Cycle

Gas Turbines
Gillian Lalor, and Mark OMalley, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractAs combined cycle gas turbines (CCGTs) comprise an
ever-increasing proportion of generating capacity on an island
electricity system, the importance of understanding the effects of
their characteristic behaviour on the system, particularly on
frequency control, becomes crucial. A suitable mathematical
model of a CCGT is developed to study its response following a
frequency disturbance. This model is then integrated into a
larger model, representative of the Irish electricity system, and
the effects of increasing proportions of CCGT generation are
examined. The results of this study are then considered in
conjunction with the impact of increased amounts of wind power
and of interconnection via HVDC to a larger system.

Index TermsCombined cycle gas turbine, frequency control,
island electricity system.
I. NOMENCLATURE
SP = Set Point (per unit)
K = 1/Droop
T
s
= Speed Controller Time Constant
T
r
= Ratio Valve Positioner Time Constant
T
gc
= Gas Control Valve Positioner Time Constant
T
f
= Gas Fuel Time Constant
T
cd
= Compressor Discharge Time Constant
T
t
= Temperature Controller Integration Rate
T
i
= Inlet Guide Vane Controller Integration Rate
K
i
= Inlet Guide Vane Controller Constant
T
av
= Inlet Guide Vane Actuator Time Constant
P
gt
= Gas Turbine Power Output (per unit)
T
or
= Allowable Over-firing Temperature (C)
T
a
= Ambient Temperature (C)
T
rc
= Rated Turbine Exhaust Temperature Corrected for
Ambient Temperature (C)
N = Speed (per unit)
T
x
= Exhaust Gas Temperature (C)
W
x
= Exhaust Gas Flow (per unit)
IGV = Inlet Guide Vanes Angle ()

This work has been conducted in the Electricity Research Centre,
University College Dublin, which is supported by the Electricity Supply
Board (ESB), ESB National Grid, Commission for Energy Regulation (CER)
and Cylon Controls.

G. Lalor and M. OMalley are with the Electricity Research Centre,
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University College
Dublin, Belfield Ireland (Ph: +353 1 7161857) (e-mail: gill@ee.ucd.ie
Mark.OMalley@ucd.ie).
L
igv
= Inlet Guide Vane Position (per unit)
T
c
= Heat Capacitance Time Constant
T
b
= Boiler Storage Time Constant
P
st
= Steam Turbine Power Output (per unit)
II. INTRODUCTION
T
he Irish electricity system is an island system, comprising
of two AC interconnected power systems, operated by
Northern Ireland Electricity and ESB National Grid. The only
interconnection between this island system and the larger UK
system is the HVDC Moyle Interconnector. The generating
capacity of the system is predominantly composed of thermal
generating units, gas turbines, hydro units and one pumped
storage unit. However, with the advantages of combined cycle
gas turbines (CCGTs) over conventional units, such as
increased efficiency and reduced emissions, combined with
the fact that CCGTs are comparatively quick to install, it is no
surprise that many companies are considering CCGTs as the
best option for expansion. Recently, three large CCGTs have
been installed on the Irish system, and at present, there are
plans for several more. This leads to the question of what
impact these changes will have on the existing electricity
system, especially from the perspective of frequency control.
It has been recognised that when a significant share of the
generation spread is made up of CCGTs, their response
critically affects the system response to disturbances that
could lead to large frequency deviations [1], and as numbers
increase, their response becomes increasingly important.
When the frequency of the system falls, it has several
effects on the CCGT unit. One consequence is that the unit
delivers an inertial response. The size of this response depends
on both the rate and extent of the frequency drop. This
response is of utmost importance to the system, with the
inertial responses of the generating units, along with the load
response on the system, invaluable in alleviating the initial
frequency fall [2].
Another effect of the falling system frequency on CCGT
units is a fall in the speed of the compressor. Consequently the
output pressure of the compressor is reduced, and there is also
a reduction in airflow. Reduced output pressure of the
compressor leads to a decrease in the pressure ratio across the
gas turbine and results in a lower power output from the gas
turbine. The reduction of airflow into the combustor increases
the fuel to air ratio, leading to a rise in temperature. However,
0-7803-7967-5/03/$17.00 2003 IEEE
Paper accepted for presentation at 2003 IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conference, June 23th-26th, Bologna, Italy

due to operational constraints on the machine, the upper
temperature at which the turbine may operate is limited. This
limit can be broken for short periods of time but can impact on
the lifespan of the machine. The temperature controller comes
into play in such a situation and the fuel flow is reduced
accordingly. So clearly the maximum power output of the gas
turbine element of the CCGT during a low frequency event
will be constrained by the temperature control. This results in
a further reduction in power output by the CCGT. Unlike the
inertial response of the CCGT to falling frequency, this drop
in power output with declining frequency is far from
beneficial. During a frequency transient CCGTs may also
suffer from compressor surge, which can adversely affect the
power output [3].
If a CCGT is operating at base load, the unit is not capable
of producing and maintaining any increase in power output.
In fact, if the frequency falls, the temperature controller will
actually reduce fuel demand and the power output of the gas
turbine will drop. Consequently the output of the unit remains
at a value less than its rated output until the frequency of the
system returns to normal.
When operating below base load, a CCGT unit is capable of
providing an increase in power output in response to falling
frequency. The effectiveness of this response is modulated by
the characteristics described above and the maximum
achievable power is lower than at nominal frequency. In
certain circumstances the response can be initially negative
[3]. One option available for preventing the initial reduction
in power output of the CCGT is to modify the unit by
including fast acting inlet guide vanes. These work so as to
oppose the natural reduction in airflow due to the reduction in
compressor speed. This will only be an improvement in the
situation where the unit is running below base load. However
the practise of modifying the CCGT to prevent its natural
response adds additional cost. Unless some incentive to
modify the units is provided, it is unlikely that the response of
future installations of CCGTs will be improved.
If the response of a combined cycle gas turbine to a fall in
frequency can be a decline in the power output, then the
introduction of multiple CCGTs is a worrying prospect for
any system operator of an isolated system. The response from
the unit, instead of helping to reduce the drop in frequency
and rate at which it is falling, could actually exacerbate the
problem, leading to possible tripping and load shedding [4].
The frequency nadir, in the event of a contingency on the
Irish system, is generally reached after about 5 seconds.
Therefore the initial response of the system is vitally
important. On a larger system, this phenomenon would have a
negligible consequence on the overall system frequency.
However this is not the case on this system.
The reason for developing the CCGT component for the
model of the Irish system [2] is to be able to see to what extent
the initial response of the CCGTs affects the frequency. This
is necessary to determine any requirements and alterations to
the existing grid code and market [5] that may be necessary as
larger numbers of these units are proposed and ultimately
come online. In the present Grid Code, a CCGT operating at
base load is expected to maintain constant active power output
for system frequency changes down to 49.5Hz [6].
The impact of an increasing proportion of the Irish
generating capacity coming from CCGTs is a serious enough
prospect. However when the effects of bringing wind
generation onto the system compound this, an in-depth
knowledge of the likely responses of individual units are more
important than ever.
III. CCGT MODEL
A. Modelling Combined Cycle Gas Turbines
Several CCGT models have been developed in recent years,
with varying degrees of complexity and success. Most are
based on the original gas turbine model produced by Rowen
[7][8]. The research shows that there is a lot of interest in the
behaviour of these units. However most research is carried out
based on the assumption that the CCGTs are being integrated
into large interconnected electricity systems. There has been
considerably less research undertaken into the primary
frequency response. Generally longer time periods are
considered with a greater emphasis on the overall response.
A basic mathematical model of the CCGT is to be used in
the study. It is derived from the general gas turbine model
developed by Rowen [7][8] with reference to [9][10][11] and
[12] for the heat recovery steam generator and steam turbine
section of the model.
As each CCGT on the Irish system has its own particular
characteristics, the model needs to be modified to suit each
individual unit. Various modifications have been made to
some of the units on the Irish system during manufacturing
and installation to improve their frequency response, and these
need to be taken into account. One of the more significant
modifications is the inclusion of fast acting inlet guide vanes,
and these are present on one of the existing units. Different
configurations are to be tested to see the individual responses
and to determine exactly which model is suitable for each unit.
Each CCGT unit will be integrated into the overall system
model [2].
However as these modifications lie predominantly within
the parameter values for each unit, rather than in the overall
structure, an outline of the basic model is possible.
B. Overview of Model
The CCGT modelled in this paper consists of a single shaft,
constant speed gas turbine, with modulating inlet guide vanes
(IGV), and a simple heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
and steam turbine. The IGV control the airflow into the
compressor and as a result the pressure ratios and turbine
exhaust temperature. The HRSG efficiency is optimal when
the temperature of the exhaust gases is at its maximum
allowable level. At partial loads the IGV close sufficiently to
maintain the temperature at this limit, consequently
maximising power output for a given fuel input.
In this model it is assumed that the pressure ratios across
the compressor and turbine are equal (no cooling air is
extracted from the compressor). Also since the fuel flow is

very much smaller than the airflow, the gas flow through the
turbine is regarded to be the equivalent to airflow through the
compressor. Since the ambient temperature appreciably affects
the performance of the gas turbine, a correction to incorporate
ambient conditions is built-in to the rated and calculated
exhaust temperatures and gas flow.
It is assumed that prior to any frequency disturbance the
CCGT is operating in a steady state position. In the model
described below, all signals are in per unit, with the exception
of temperatures, which are measured in degrees Celsius
C. Gas Turbine Model
A schematic of the gas turbine model and its controls is
shown in Fig. 1.
1) Fuel System and Turbine
The fuel signal selector takes the outputs of gas turbine
controllers and selects whichever signal requires the least fuel
to determine the fuel signal. A set of fuel limits ensures that
the fuel signal remains within physically attainable
boundaries.
In a gas turbine, there is a no-load fuel requirement that is
necessary at all times for internal load and to maintain a flame
in the combustor, and this requirement is assumed fixed,
irrelevant of the operating point of the gas turbine. To take
this into account, the fuel signal coming from the selector
controls the variable fuel supply only, and is scaled
accordingly and added to the no-load fuel requirement.
In models previously developed [7,8,9,10,11] the fuel
signal is modulated by the speed to get the actual fuel flow.
This is to take into account the effect of the frequency on the
fuel pump. However, having spoken to various sources in
industry, it seems that the fuel supply currently in use is
essentially independent of frequency, and so it is assumed that
the difference between the fuel signal and the fuel flow is
negligible.
The fuel is fed into the combustor through a set of two
valves. The first valve controls the pressure between the two
valves, and the second regulates the actual fuel flow into the
combustor. Two first order transfer functions with relevant
time constants represent the valve positioners and a third
represents the delay in fuel flow through the fuel system. A
short time delay is also incorporated in the fuel system, to take
into account the time delay associated with the combustion
reaction.
The torque in the turbine is then calculated (F2). In the
restricted operating range of this model, the gas turbine torque
has been found to be linear with respect to fuel flow and
turbine speed. The mechanical power output of the gas turbine
is the product of the torque and the speed. An additional first
order lag associated with the compressor discharge volume is
incorporated before the turbine torque is calculated.
2) Exhaust Temperature
There is a transport delay associated with gases in the
turbine and exhaust system and this is included prior to any
temperature calculations. The temperature of the exhaust
gases from the turbine is then determined (F1), the
characteristics of which can be assumed to be linearly
dependent on speed, fuel flow and ambient temperature in this
operating range. This exhaust temperature assumes that the
IGV are fully open however. The exhaust temperature is then
divided by the exhaust flow, to obtain the corrected exhaust
temperature, taking the actual airflow into account.
Fig. 1 Outline of Gas Turbine model and controls

The corrected exhaust temperature is measured using an
arrangement of thermocouples. Temperature measurement is
not instantaneous and the time lags associated with the
radiation shield and the thermocouples are represented in the
temperature measurement section.
3) Gas Turbine Controllers
The gas turbine section of a combined cycle gas turbine has
three discrete control loops regulating the fuel signal, and
ultimately the power output of the CCGT. These control loops
are speed control, temperature control and acceleration
control. Acceleration control, which will generally only
influence the fuel signal during start-up, is neglected in this
model. This is due to the assumption that the CCGT is initially
operating at steady state.
a) Speed Control
Under the Grid Code in the Irish Electricity System [6], all
speed controllers are droop governors, with a droop setting of
four percent required. The speed governor is fed by the
frequency error, which is the difference between nominal and
actual frequency. The output of the speed governor, added to
the set point of the unit, is fed into the fuel signal selector.
b) Temperature Control and Inlet Guide Vane Control
The measured exhaust temperature is compared with the
maximum allowable exhaust temperature and the error
generated is fed into the temperature controller. The
temperature controller produces a signal, which is then fed
into the fuel signal selector. The temperature controller has no
impact on the fuel signal unless the output is negative.
The measured exhaust temperature is compared with the
rated exhaust temperature, which has been corrected to take
into account the ambient temperature. The error produced is
fed into the inlet guide vane temperature controller, to produce
a signal to control the IGVs. The IGV actuator is represented
by a first order lag.
4) Over-Firing
On some CCGTs over-firing is permitted. The transient
temperature is allowed to rise above the rated exhaust
temperature for a short period of time. Even though over-
firing
is not generally used on the CCGTs on the Irish system, the
model has the capability if required. In the case of over-firing,
the rated exhaust temperature used in the comparison with the
measured exhaust temperature at the input to the temperature
controller is raised temporarily.
D. HRSG and Steam Turbine Model
The purpose of this CCGT model is to study the primary
response of the CCGT (approximately the first twenty
seconds) following a frequency event. Therefore the dynamics
of the HRSG and the steam turbine will have little impact on
the overall response of the unit due to the long time constants
associated with the processes. The steam turbine will not be
able to provide any primary response of its own due to the fact
that it is normally operated in sliding pressure mode.
A simplified HRSG model has been included in the CCGT
model. The steam production of the HRSG primarily depends
on the exhaust gas temperature and the flow of the exhaust
gases and therefore these are the inputs. The resultant steam
flow then passes through two time lags, which take into
account the heat capacitance and the much longer boiler
storage time constants. The output from the steam turbine is
then simply a scaled form of the steam flow.


Fig. 2. Outline of Heat Recovery Steam Generator and steam turbine
model
E. Parameter Values
The parameter values used in the CCGT models are largely
based on standard industrial values and the values used in
previous work in this area. However some tuning of the model
to represent individual units on the Irish system has taken
place with the limited data available at the moment. More
detailed monitoring of CCGT responses is currently taking
place and more thorough tuning and validation of the
developed model is proposed once this data is available.
IV. SYSTEM MODEL
The system model being used in this study is a frequency
model of the island electricity system of Ireland. This
emergency reserve model of the Irish system [2] reproduces
the primary frequency response of the Irish system following
a system event. It is a single busbar model, consisting of
dynamic models for each generating unit and also a single
measurement based dynamic load model. The inertias of the
individual units are lumped together as a single generating
inertia. This is achieved by summing the kinetic energies of
the individual units to obtain a single generation kinetic
energy value. The single kinetic energy value is then
incorporated in the feedback loop to calculate the system
frequency. This simplification is possible since it is assumed
that the frequency at all points on the system is the same at all
times and thus any change in kinetic energy will be felt
uniformly through out the network.
The generating capacity of the system largely consists of
thermal generators, with gas turbines, hydro generators,
combined cycle gas turbines and a single pumped storage unit.
In this study the effects of bringing increasing proportions of
combined cycle gas turbines onto the system are being
examined. Since thermal units are the oldest generating units
on the system, in this study these units are being replaced pro
rata with combined cycle gas turbines to study the effects of
bringing increasing proportions of CCGTs onto the system.
V. RESULTS
The software used for these simulations is Matlab Simulink.
Initially 3300MW is generated and consumed on the system.
Base loaded thermal units generate 1200MW and the other
2100MW is generated by a mixture of thermal units, gas
turbines [7][8] and a single pumped storage unit, all at an

initial operating point of eighty percent of capacity. Ambient
Temperature is assumed to be 15C. The inertias of the
individual units are lumped together into one inertial constant,
as described in Section III, and all units on the system,
including CCGTs, have a 4% droop. Combined cycle gas
turbine units, each of generating capacity of 300MW, are then
introduced onto the system. These base loaded CCGTs replace
base loaded thermal plant one at a time, until the entire base
loaded portion of the generation consists of base loaded
CCGTs. It is assumed for simplification that the inertias of the
CCGTs are identical to the inertias of the large thermal units
that they are replacing.
At time t=5s, an increase of 10% occurs in the load on the
system. This is as equivalent to losing 330MW of generation,
except the inertia of the unit is not lost. It is important to note
that the size of the largest generating unit on the Irish system
is now 400MW, so this is not the worst-case scenario. The
frequency response of the system is shown in Fig. 3 and Fig.
4. Note: For clarity, responses in Fig. 3, 4 and 5 are shown for
the extreme cases of (a) no base loaded CCGTS and (b) four
base loaded CCGTs. The responses for the intermediate cases
of one, two and three base loaded CCGTs lie between these
responses.


Fig. 3. System frequency response following 10% step load increase, with
(a) No CCGTs, (b) 1 CCGT, (c) 2 CCGTs, (d) 3 CCGTs and (b) 4 CCGTs.


Fig. 4. System frequency response following 10% step load increase (close
up of Fig. 3), with (a) No CCGTs, (b) 1 CCGT, (c) 2 CCGTs, (d) 3 CCGTs
and (b) 4 CCGTs

It can be seen from Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 above that when there
are no base loaded combined cycle gas turbine units, the
frequency nadir is reached at 0.542Hz. As base loaded
thermal units are replaced by base loaded CCGTs, it can be
seen that the frequency nadir is lower as the proportion of
CCGTs is increased. When four CCGT units are online
(1200MW) the frequency drop is 0.657 Hz. Thus by
replacing base loaded thermal units with base loaded CCGTs,
there is a 20% increase in frequency drop. It can also plainly
be seen that the rate at which the frequency falls is influenced
by the amount of CCGT units online, with the rate increasing
with higher amounts of CCGT generation.



Fig. 5. A 300MW thermal units response following 10% step load
increase, with (a) No CCGTs, (b) 1 CCGT, (c) 2 CCGTs, (d) 3 CCGTs and
(b) 4 CCGTs

In Fig. 5 above the power output of a single 300MW
thermal unit free to respond to any frequency change is
presented. It can be seen that a peak of 34.9MW is reached,
which corresponds to the increase in power output of the unit,
when there are no CCGTs on the system. When the base
loaded portion of the generation consists entirely of CCGTs, it
can be seen that this peak is 13.9% higher, at 40.9MW.
However, not only are the governing units responding with
higher power output with increasing amounts of CCGTs
online, the rate of increase is marginally faster too.

Fig. 6. A simulated example of the power output change of a 300MW base
loaded CCGT generated by the model, when (a) No de-rating is applied and
(b) the CCGT is de-rated by 1%. The frequency is also included.

The deviation in power output with changing frequency of a
base loaded CCGT as generated by the model is illustrated in

Fig. 6. It can be seen that the active power drop follows the
decline in frequency, and also that as long as the frequency
remains below nominal frequency, the active power will
remain below its rated value.
It was clearly illustrated in Fig. 3 and 4 that as the number
of base loaded CCGTs on the system increase, they have a
detrimental impact on the system frequency. Fig 7 reveals that
this negative effect does not grow linearly with increasing
numbers of base loaded CCGTs, but actually grows more
rapidly.


Fig. 7. The lowering of the frequency nadir with increasing proportions of
base loaded CCGTs on the system

VI. DISCUSSION
From the results presented in Section V, it can be seen that
as the proportion of base loaded combined cycle gas turbine
units is increased, replacing alternative base loaded units pro
rata, the frequency response of the system is adversely
affected. The frequency nadir deteriorates by 0.115Hz or 20%
when just over a third of the system is made up of base loaded
CCGTs. This deterioration in frequency is due to the inability
of base loaded CCGTs to maintain continuous active power
output when frequency falls without exceeding temperature
limits. A simulated example of this characteristic is illustrated
in Fig. 6.
As the number of base loaded CCGTs increases, the effect
on the frequency is exacerbated. However this worsening of
frequency response does not appear to be linear, but in fact
deteriorates more quickly. The reason for this is that as
increasing numbers of base loaded CCGTs are brought online,
a lower minimum frequency is achieved, which in turn causes
the power drop of each individual CCGT to increase further
still.
There are two possible means of preventing or minimising
the drop in active power with frequency of the base loaded
CCGT. The first is to allow over-firing for as long as the
frequency remains below nominal frequency in order to
sustain a steady output. However over-firing is not normally
used by CCGTs on the Irish system. The second option
available is to de-rate the CCGT unit. Although this method
will reduce the characteristic described above, it may not be
the best solution from an economic point of view. This is due
to the fact that CCGTs are generally designed to operate at
base load and this is where efficiency is greatest. Fig. 6
illustrates the case of a base-loaded 300MW CCGT both
before and after de-rating of 1% has been applied.
For other units operating online, at a load point below base
load, the consequences of any increase in the rate and extent
of frequency fall from nominal point are important, since they
would be required to respond to a greater extent and also at a
faster rate. This would increase fuel costs and also wear and
tear on the machine.
When minimising frequency deviation is of such vital
importance to the security of a power system, any increase in
the frequency drop is critical and needs serious consideration
[13]. From the point of view of the system operator, anything
that increases the frequency drop is very significant.
In the context of studying frequency control on the Irish
power system other concurrent developments need to be
considered. As well as growing numbers of CCGTs, there are
an increasing number of wind turbines being installed on the
system. These wind turbines do not generally have any
frequency control ability, and may not have any inertial
response to the changes in frequency. Currently the Moyle
interconnector does not provide frequency control and it also
has no inertia. So while the influence of these factors on the
overall system response to a contingency may not be
individually significant, the collective effect will be much
more substantial and could raise serious security concerns for
the system operator. In a borderline situation, on the threshold
of tripping customers, the effect of any further drop in
frequency is crucial. The development of ancillary services
markets will also have an impact on frequency control. The
strategy used by Independent Power Producers (IPP) when
operating their CCGTs is inherently related to the way in
which the markets are operated. IPP will not part load their
plant unless sufficient incentive is provided.
The loss of the HVDC interconnector may become the
largest single contingency on the system and may result in a
need for additional reserve. With the importance of adequate
reserve capacity, as the proportion of CCGTs on the system
grows, they may have to operate at less economical, part load
conditions in order to provide this reserve.
VII. APPENDIX
F1: T
x
= {1/[1+0.005*(15-T
a
)]}*{[T
r
-453*(N
2
+4.21N+4.42)
*0.82*(1-W
f
)]+722*(1-N)+1.94*(MaxIGV-IGV)}

F2: Torque = 1.3*(W
f
-0.23)+0.5*(1-N)

F3: W
x
= N*[519/(T
a(F)
+460)]*(L
igv
)
0.257

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the useful discussions
and interactions of A. Egan, ESB, T. Wilson, Viridian, J.
OSullivan, ESB National Grid, D. Barry, ESB National Grid,
N. King, ESB National Grid, P. Hayes, Synergen

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c
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X. BIOGRAPHIES
Gillian Lalor received a B.E. degree in Mechanical engineering from
University College Dublin in 2001. She is currently conducting research for a
Ph. D. in the University College Dublin.

Mark OMalley received B.E. and Ph. D. degrees from University College
Dublin in 1983 and 1987, respectively. He is currently a Professor University
College Dublin with research interests in power systems, control theory and
biomedical engineering. He is a senior member of the IEEE.