Qanat - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

9/10/2014 Qanat - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat 1/17
A qanat tunnel near Isfahan
Qanat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A qant (Arabic: , Persian: ) is one
of a series of well-like vertical shafts,
connected by gently sloping tunnels.
Qants create a reliable supply of water for
human settlements and irrigation in hot,
arid, and semi-arid climates.
The qanat technology is known to have
been developed by the Persian people
sometime in the early 1st millennium BC
and spread from there slowly westward
and eastward.
[1][2][3][4][5]
The value of the qanat is directly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of the water flow. Much of the
population of Iran and other arid countries in Asia and North Africa historically depended upon the water from
qanats; the areas of population corresponded closely to the areas where qanats are possible. Although a qanat was
expensive to construct, its long-term value to the community, and thereby to the group that invested in building and
maintaining it, was substantial.
[6]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Technical features
3 Features common to regions that use qanat technology
4 Impact of qanats on settlement patterns
5 Construction
5.1 Preparations
5.2 Excavation
6 Shareholders
6.1 Maintenance
6.2 Restoration
7 Applications of qanats
7.1 Irrigation and drinking water supply
7.2 Cooling
7.3 Ice storage
8 Qanats by country
8.1 Asia
8.1.1 Afghanistan
8.1.2 China
8.1.3 India
8.1.4 Indonesia
8.1.5 Iran
8.1.6 Iraq
8.1.7 Jordan
8.1.8 Pakistan
8.1.9 Syria
8.2 Arabian Peninsula
8.2.1 Oman
8.2.2 United Arab Emirates
8.3 North Africa
8.3.1 Egypt
8.3.2 Libya
8.3.3 Tunisia
8.3.4 Algeria
8.3.5 Morocco
8.3.6 Armenia
8.3.7 Azerbaijan
8.3.7.1 International Organization for Migration and the Revival of Kahriz
8.3.7.2 KOICA and IOM's Ongoing Kahriz Rehabilitation Project in Azerbaijan
8.4 Europe
8.4.1 Greece
8.4.2 Italy
8.4.3 Luxembourg
8.4.4 Spain
8.5 The Americas
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Etymology
Cross-section of a Qanat.
Qanats are also called krz (or krz from Persian: ) (Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Central Asia, derived
from Persian: ), kahan (from Persian: ), kahriz/khriz (Azerbaijan); khettara (Morocco); galera
(Spain); falaj (United Arab Emirates and Oman); Kahn (Baloch) or foggara/fughara (North Africa).
[7]
Alternative terms for qanats in Asia and North Africa are kakuriz, chin-avulz, and mayun. Common variants of
qanat in English include kanat, khanat, kunut, kona, konait, ghanat, ghundat.
Technical features
Qanats are constructed as a series of well-like vertical
shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. Qanats tap
into subterranean water in a manner that efficiently
delivers large quantities of water to the surface without
need for pumping. The water drains by gravity, with
the destination lower than the source, which is typically
an upland aquifer. Qanats allow water to be
transported over long distances in hot dry climates
without loss of much of the water to evaporation.
It is very common in the construction of a qanat for the
water source to be found below ground at the foot of a
range of foothills of mountains, where the water table is
closest to the surface. From this point, the slope of the
qanat is maintained closer to level than the surface above, until the water finally flows out of the qanat above
ground. To reach an aquifer, qanats must often extend for long distances.
[6]
Qanats are sometimes split into an underground distribution network of smaller canals called kariz. Like qanats,
these smaller canals are below ground to avoid contamination. In some cases water from a qanat is stored in a
reservoir, typically with night flow stored for daytime use. An Ab Anbar is an example of a traditional qanat-fed
reservoir for drinking water in Persian antiquity.
The qanat system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods, and to
deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with
only gradual variations from wet to dry years.
Features common to regions that use qanat technology
The qanat technology is used most extensively in areas with the following characteristics:
An absence of larger rivers with year-round flows sufficient to support irrigation
Proximity of potentially fertile areas to precipitation-rich mountains or mountain ranges
Arid climate with high surface evaporation rates so that surface reservoirs and canals would result in high
losses
An aquifer at the potentially fertile area which is too deep for convenient use of simple wells
Impact of qanats on settlement patterns
Alluvial Fan in Southern Iran. Image
from NASA's Terra satellite
A typical town or city in Iran, and elsewhere where the qanat is used, has more than one qanat. Fields and gardens
are located both over the qanats a short distance before they emerge from the ground and below the surface outlet.
Water from the qanats defines both the social regions in the city and the layout of the city.
[6]
The water is freshest, cleanest, and coolest in the upper reaches and more prosperous people live at the outlet or
immediately upstream of the outlet. When the qanat is still below grade, the water is drawn to the surface via water
wells or animal driven Persian wells. Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domestic
use and garden irrigation as well. Further, air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room
(shabestan) found in many older houses and buildings.
[6]
Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called jubs (jbs) which run downhill, with lateral
branches to carry water to the neighborhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the jubs and their
lateral branches. As a result, the cities and towns are oriented consistent with the gradient of the land; this is a
practical response to efficient water distribution over varying terrain.
[6]
The lower reaches of the canals are less desirable for both residences and agriculture. The water grows
progressively more polluted as it passes downstream. In dry years the lower reaches are the most likely to see
substantial reductions in flow.
[6]
Construction
Traditionally qanats are built by a group of skilled laborers, muqanns, with hand labor. The profession historically
paid well and was typically handed down from father to son.
[6]
Preparations
The critical, initial step in qanat construction is identification of an
appropriate water source. The search begins at the point where the
alluvial fan meets the mountains or foothills; water is more abundant in the
mountains because of orographic lifting and excavation in the alluvial fan
is relatively easy. The muqanns follow the track of the main water
courses coming from the mountains or foothills to identify evidence of
subsurface water such as deep-rooted vegetation or seasonal seeps. A
trial well is then dug to determine the location of the water table and
determine whether a sufficient flow is available to justify construction. If
these prerequisites are met, the route is laid out aboveground.
[6][8]
Equipment must be assembled. The equipment is straightforward:
containers (usually leather bags), ropes, reels to raise the container to the surface at the shaft head, hatchets and
shovels for excavation, lights, spirit levels or plumb bobs and string. Depending upon the soil type, qanat liners
(usually fired clay hoops) may also be required.
[6][8]
Although the construction methods are simple, the construction of a qanat requires a detailed understanding of
subterranean geology and a degree of engineering sophistication. The gradient of the qanat must be carefully
controlled: too shallow a gradient yields no flow and too steep a gradient will result in excessive erosion, collapsing
the qanat. And misreading the soil conditions leads to collapses, which at best require extensive rework and at
worst are fatal for the crew.
[8]
Excavation
Construction of a qanat is usually performed by a crew of 3-4 muqanns. For a shallow qanat, one worker
typically digs the horizontal shaft, one raises the excavated earth from the shaft and one distributes the excavated
earth at the top.
[8]
The crew typically begins from the destination to which the water will be delivered into the soil and works toward
the source (the test well). Vertical shafts are excavated along the route, separated at a distance of 2035 m. The
separation of the shafts is a balance between the amount of work required to excavate them and the amount of
effort required to excavate the space between them, as well as the ultimate maintenance effort. In general, the
shallower the qanat, the closer the vertical shafts. If the qanat is long, excavation may begin from both ends at once.
Tributary channels are sometimes also constructed to supplement the water flow.
[6][8]
Most qanats in Iran run less than 5 km, while some have been measured at ~70 km in length near Kerman. The
vertical shafts usually range from 20 to 200 meters in depth, although qanats in the province of Khorasan have been
recorded with vertical shafts of up to 275 m. The vertical shafts support construction and maintenance of the
underground channel as well as air interchange. Deep shafts require intermediate platforms to simplify the process
of removing spoil.
[6][8]
The construction speed depends on the depth and nature of the ground. If the earth is soft and easy to work, at 20
meters depth a crew of four workers can excavate a horizontal length of 40 meters per day. When the vertical shaft
reaches 40 meters, they can excavate only 20 meters horizontally per day and at 60 meters in depth this drops
below 5 horizontal meters per day. In Algeria, a common speed is just 2 m per day at 15 m depth. Deep, long
qanats (which many are) require years and even decades to construct.
[6][8]
The excavated material is usually transported by means of leather bags up the vertical shafts. It is mounded around
the vertical shaft exit, providing a barrier that prevents windblown or rain driven debris from entering the shafts.
These mounds may be covered to provide further protection to the qanat. From the air, these shafts look like a
string of bomb craters.
[8]
The qanat's water-carrying channel must have a sufficient downward slope that water flows easily. However the
downward gradient must not be so great as to create conditions under which the water transitions between
supercritical and subcritical flow; if this occurs, the waves that result can result in severe erosion that can damage or
destroy the qanat. In shorter qanats the downward gradient varies between 1:1000 and 1:1500, while in longer
qanats it may be almost horizontal. Such precision is routinely obtained with a spirit level and string.
[6][8]
In cases where the gradient is steeper, underground waterfalls may be constructed with appropriate design features
(usually linings) to absorb the energy with minimal erosion. In some cases the water power has been harnessed to
drive underground mills. If it is not possible to bring the outlet of the qanat out near the settlement, it is necessary to
run a jub or canal overground. This is avoided when possible to limit pollution, warming and water loss due to
evaporation.
[6][8]
Shareholders
Ancient Persian clock
Reconstruction of the scene with a
real manager of the water clock, Iran
The Persians were using water clocks in 328 BC to ensure a just and
exact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for
agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in Iran, especially in
Zeebad, dates back to 500 BC. Later they were also used to determine
the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the Yald (winter
solstice), Tiregn (mid-summer) or Nowruz (spring equinox) - the
shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The
water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for
timing the yearly calendar.
[9]
Water clocks, or Fenjaan, in Persia
reached a level of accuracy comparable to today's standards of
timekeeping. The fenjaan was the most accurate and commonly used
timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer
must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation, until it was replaced
by more accurate current clocks. Persian water clocks were a practical
and useful tool for the qanat's shareholders to calculate the length of time
they could divert water to their farms. The qanat was the only water
source for agriculture and irrigation, so that a just and fair water
distribution was very important. Accordingly a fair and astute elder was
elected to be the manager of the water clock, and at least two full-time
managers were needed to control and observe the number of fenjaans
and announce the exact time during the days and nights.
The fenjaan was a big pot full of water and a bowl with small hole in the
center. When the bowl become full of water, it would sink into the pot,
and the manager would empty the bowl and again put it on the top of the
water in the pot. He would record the number of times the bowl sank by putting small stones into a jar.
The place where the clock was situated, and its managers, were collectively known as khaneh fenjaan. Usually
this would be the top floor of a public house, with west- and east-facing windows to show the time of sunset and
sunrise. There was also another time-keeping tool named a staryab or astrolabe, but it was mostly used for
superstitious beliefs and was not practical for use as a farmers' calendar. The Zeebad Gonabad water clock was in
use until 1965, when it was substituted by modern clocks.
.
[9]
Maintenance
The vertical shafts may be covered to minimize blown-in sand. The channels of qanats must be periodically
inspected for erosion or cave-ins, cleaned of sand and mud and otherwise repaired. For safety, air flow must be
assured before entry.
Restoration
Some damaged qanats have been restored. To be sustainable, restoration needs to take into account many
nontechnical factors beginning with the process of selecting the qanat to be restored. In Syria, three sites were
chosen based on a national inventory conducted in 2001. One of them, the Drasiah qanat of Dmeir, was completed
Wind tower and qanat used for cooling.
Yakhchal in Yazd Province
in 2002. Selection criteria included the availability of a steady groundwater flow, social cohesion and willingness to
contribute of the community using the qanat, and the existence of a functioning water-rights system.
[10]
Applications of qanats
Irrigation and drinking water supply
The primary applications of qanats are for irrigation, providing cattle with water, and drinking water supply. Other
applications include cooling and ice storage.
Cooling
Qanats used in conjunction with a wind tower can provide cooling
as well as a water supply. A wind tower is a chimney-like
structure positioned above the house; of its four openings, the one
opposite the wind direction is opened to move air out of the
house. Incoming air is pulled from a qanat below the house. The
air flow across the vertical shaft opening creates a lower pressure
(see Bernoulli effect) and draws cool air up from the qanat tunnel,
mixing with it. The air from the qanat is drawn into the tunnel at
some distance away and is cooled both by contact with the cool
tunnel walls/water and by the transfer of latent heat of evaporation
as water evaporates into the air stream. In dry desert climates this
can result in a greater than 15C reduction in the air temperature
coming from the qanat; the mixed air still feels dry, so the
basement is cool and only comfortably moist (not damp). Wind
tower and qanat cooling have been used in desert climates for
over 1000 years.
[11]
Ice storage
By 400 BC Persian engineers had mastered the technique of storing ice in the
middle of summer in the desert.
[12]
The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains. But in a
more usual and sophisticated method they built a wall in the eastwest direction
near the yakhchal (ice pit). In winter, the qanat water would be channeled to the
north side of the wall, whose shade made the water freeze more quickly,
increasing the ice formed per winter day. Then the ice was stored in yakhchals
specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators. A large underground space with
thick insulated walls was connected to a qanat, and a system of windcatchers or
wind towers was used to draw cool subterranean air up from the qanat to maintain temperatures inside the space at
low levels, even during hot summer days. As a result, the ice melted slowly and was available year-round.
[12]
Qanats by country
Probable diffusion of Qanat technology
Karez gallery near Turpan, Xinjiang,
China
Asia
Afghanistan
The Qanats are called Kariz in Dari (Persian) and
Pashto and have been in use since the pre-Islamic
period. It is estimated that more than 20,000 Karizes
were in use in the 20th century. The oldest functional
Kariz which is more than 300 years old and 8
kilometers long is located in Wardak province and is
still providing water to nearly 3000 people.
[13]
The
incessant war for the last 30 years has destroyed a number of these ancient structures. In these troubled times
maintenance has not always been possible. To add to the troubles, as of 2008 the cost of labour has become very
high and maintaining the Kariz structures is no longer possible. Lack of skilled artisans who have the traditional
knowledge also poses difficulties. A number of the large farmers are abandoning their Kariz which has been in their
families sometimes for centuries, and moving to tube and dug wells backed by diesel pumps.
However, the government of Afghanistan is aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts are being
made to repair, reconstruct and maintain (through the community) the kariz. The Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation
and Development along with National and International NGOs is making the effort.
There are still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces are reported to have unintentionally destroyed
some of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local
community.
[14]
Some of these tunnels have been used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment
underground.
[15]
China
The oasis of Turpan, in the deserts of Xinjiang in northwestern China,
uses water provided by qanat (locally called karez). The number of
karez systems in the area is slightly below 1,000, and the total length of
the canals is about 5,000 kilometers.
[16]
Turpan has long been the center of a fertile oasis and an important trade
center along the Silk Road's northern route, at which time it was adjacent
to the kingdoms of Korla and Karashahr to the southwest. The historical
record of the karez extends back to the Han Dynasty. The Turfan Water
Museum is a Protected Area of the People's Republic of China because
of the importance of the Turpan karez water system to the history of the
area.
India
In Karnataka, India, a Qanat-type structure called Suranga is used to tap underground water. However, these are
rarely in use these days.
This qanat surfacing in Fin is from a
spring thought to be several thousand
years old, called The Spring of
Solomon ("Cheshmeh-ye Soleiman").
It is thought to have been feeding the
Sialk area since antiquity.
A Kariz surfacing in Niavaran,
Tehran. It is used for watering the
grounds of The National Library of
Iran.
There are karez (qanat) systems in Gulburga, Bidar and Burhanpur (Kundi Bhandara) as well. The system in Bidar
with 21 vertical shafts is said to extend for about two kilometers, with 21 vertical shafts, of which a few have been
closed by builders and developers, leaving 17 visible today. The karez vertical shafts are used by farmers and
neighborhood settlements. The Indian Heritage Cities Network Foundation (IHCNF) has been working towards
conservation of the Karez system. During its survey, IHCNF also discovered a royal bath (Bagh-e-Hammam)
probably of the Bahmani period. Local knowledge claims the presence of a terra cotta pipe from the karez mouth
to Bagh-e-Hammam.
Indonesia
It has been suggested that underground temples at Gua Made in Java reached by shafts, in which masks of a green
metal were found, originated as a qanat.
[17]
Iran
In the middle of the twentieth century, an estimated 50,000 qanats were
in use in Iran,
[6]
each commissioned and maintained by local users. Of
these, only 25,000 remain in use as of 1980.
One of the oldest and largest known qanats is in the Iranian city of
Gonabad, and after 2,700 years still provides drinking and agricultural
water to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than 360
meters and its length is 45 kilometers. Yazd, Khorasan and Kerman are
zones for known for their dependence on an extensive system of qanats.
In traditional Persian architecture, a Kariz () is a small Qanat,
usually within a network inside an urban setting. The Kariz is the structure
that distributes a qanat to its final destinations.
Iraq
A survey of qanat systems in the Kurdistan region of Iraq conducted by
the Department of Geography at Oklahoma State University (USA) on
behalf of UNESCO in 2009 found that out of 683 karez systems, some
380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 in 2009. Reasons for the
decline of qanats include "abandonment and neglect" prior to 2004,
"excessive pumping from wells" and, since 2005, drought. Water
shortages are said to have forced, since 2005, over 100,000 people who
depended for their livelihoods on karez systems to leave their homes. The
study says that a single karez has the potential to provide enough
household water for nearly 9,000 individuals and irrigate over 200
hectares of farmland. UNESCO and the government of Iraq plan to
rehabilitate the karez through a Karez Initiative for Community
Revitalization to be launched in 2010. Most of the karez are in
Sulaymaniyah Governorate (84%). A large number are also found in Erbil Governorate (13%), especially on the
broad plain around and in Erbil city.
[18]
Jordan
Among the qanats built in the Roman Empire, the 94 km long Gadara Aqueduct in northern Jordan was possibly
the longest continuous qanat ever built.
[19]
Partly following the course of an older Hellenistic aqueduct, excavation
work arguably started after a visit by emperor Hadrian in 129-130 AD. The Gadara Aqueduct was never quite
finished and was put in service only in sections.
Pakistan
The Chagai district is in the north west corner of Balochistan, Pakistan, bordering with Afghanistan and Iran.
Qanats, locally known as karezes, are found more broadly in this region. They are spread from Chaghai district all
the way up to Zhob district. A number of them are present in Qilla Abdullah and Pishin districts. Karezes are also
extensively found in the neighbouring areas of Afghanistan such as Kandahar. The remains of karezes found in
different parts of the district are attributed to the Arabs.
Syria
Qanats were found over much of Syria. The widespread installation of groundwater pumps has lowered the water
table and qanat system. Qanats have gone dry and been abandoned across the country.
[20]
Arabian Peninsula
Oman
In Oman from the Iron Age Period (found in Salut, Bat and other sites) a system of underground aqueducts called
Falaj were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels. There
are three types of Falaj: Daudi () with underground aqueducts, Ghaili () requiring a dam to collect the
water, and Aini () whose source is a water spring. These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dryland
environment. According to UNESCO, some 3,000 aflaj (plural) or falaj (singular), are still in use in Oman today.
Nizwa, the former capital city of Oman, was built around a falaj which is in use to this day. These systems date to
before the Iron Age in Oman. In July 2006, five representative examples of this irrigation system were inscribed as
a World Heritage Site.
[21]
United Arab Emirates
The oasis of Al Ain in the United Arab Emirates continues traditional falaj (qanat) irrigations for the palm groves
and gardens.
North Africa
Egypt
There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The Kharga Oasis is one that has been extensively studied. There
is evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BC water brought in qanats was being used. The
qanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in
The falaj irrigation
system at Al Ain Oasis
Exit of a foggara in Libya
a basin behind a small dam at the end. The width is approximately 60 cm, but the height ranges from 5 to 9 meters;
it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran).
From there the water was used to irrigate fields.
[8][22]
There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved by
driving a side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage)
into the hill of Ayn-Manwr to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another
vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock
presumably at points where water seeped from the rocks are evident.
[22]
Libya
David Mattingly reports foggara extending for hundreds of miles in the Garamantes
area near Jarma in Libya: "The channels were generally very narrow - less than 2 feet
wide and 5 high - but some were several miles long, and in total some 600 foggara
extended for hundreds of miles underground. The channels were dug out and
maintained using a series of regularly spaced vertical shafts, one every 30 feet or so,
100,000 in total, averaging 30 feet in depth, but sometimes reaching 130."
[23]
Tunisia
The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar to
that of the Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steep
mountain range such as the eastern ranges of the Atlas mountains. Rainfall in the
mountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. The
foggara, 1 to 3 km in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water.
Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over a ten-
meter width, with width reckoned by the size of plot that the available
water will irrigate.
[24]
Algeria
Qanats (designated foggaras in Algeria) are the source of water for
irrigation in large oases like that at Gourara. The foggaras are also found
at Touat (an area of Adrar 200 km from Gourara). The length of the
foggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers.
Although sources suggest that the foggaras may have been in use as early as 200 AD, they were clearly in use by
the 11th century after the Arabs took possession of the oases in the 10th century and the residents embraced Islam.
The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution weirs that meter flow to the various canals,
each for a separate user.
The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient in
the vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter the foggara. The moist air of the
agricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite direction to the water run-off. In the foggara it condenses
Water "metering" through a
distribution weir on a foggara in
Algeria
on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This
condensed moisture is available for reuse.
[25]
Morocco
In southern Morocco, the qanat (locally khettara) is also used. On the
margins of the Sahara Desert, the isolated oases of the Draa River valley
and Tafilalt have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14th
century. In Marrakech and the Haouz plain, the qanats have been
abandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area,
half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The Hassan Adahkil Dam's
impact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the
loss of half of the khettara.
[20]
The black berbers (haratin) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and
repair these systems. Their work was hazardous.
[7]
Armenia
Qanats have been preserved in Armenia in the community of Shvanidzor, in the southern province of Syunik,
bordering with Iran. Qanats are named kahrezes in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them
were constructed in XII-XIVc, even before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005.
Potable water runs through I, II and V kahrezs. Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition. In the summer,
especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water
supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.
Azerbaijan
The territory of Azerbaijan was home to numerous kahrizes many centuries ago. Archaeological findings suggest
that long before the ninth century AD, kahrizes by which the inhabitants brought potable and irrigation water to their
settlements were in use in Azerbaijan. Traditionally, kahrizes were built and maintained by a group of masons called
Kankans with manual labour. The profession was handed down from father to son.
It is estimated that until the 20th century, nearly 1500 kahrizes, of which as many as 400 were in the Nakhichevan
Autonomous Republic, existed in Azerbaijan. However, following the introduction of electric and fuel-pumped wells
during Soviet times, kahrizes were neglected.
Today, it is estimated that 800 are still functioning in Azerbaijan. These operational kahrizes are key to the life of
many communities.
International Organization for Migration and the Revival of Kahriz
In 1999, upon the request of the communities in Nakhichevan, taking into consideration the needs and priorities of
the communities, especially women as the main beneficiaries, IOM began implementing a pilot programme to
rehabilitate the kahrizes. By 2011 IOM rehabilitated more 143 kahrizes with funds from the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), European Commission (EC), Canada International Development Agency
(CIDA), Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and
Migration, US State Department (BPRM) and the self-contribution of the local communities.
KOICA and IOM's Ongoing Kahriz Rehabilitation Project in Azerbaijan
In 2010, IOM began a kahriz rehabilitation project with funds from the Korea International Cooperation Agency
(KOICA) which aims to fully renovate a total of 20 kahrizes in the mainland of Azerbaijan. Of these 20 kahrizes,
already 16 have been rehabilitated and four are currently under rehabilitation. IOM will complete the works by the
end of 2012.
Europe
Greece
The Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos runs for 1 kilometre through a hill to supply water to the town of
Pythagorion.
[26]
It was built on the order of Polycrates around 550 BC. At either end of the tunnel proper, shallow
qanat-like tunnels carried the water from the spring and to the town.
Italy
The 5,653 m long Claudius Tunnel, intended to drain the largest Italian inland water, Fucine Lake, was constructed
using the qanat technique. It featured shafts up to 122 m deep.
[27]
The entire ancient town of Palermo in Sicily was
equipped with a huge qanat system built during the Arab period (8271072). Many of the qanats are now mapped
and some can be visited. The famous Scirocco room has an air-conditioning system cooled by the flow of water in
a qanat and a "wind tower", a structure able to catch the wind and use it to draw the cooled air up into the room.
Luxembourg
The Raschptzer near Helmsange in southern Luxembourg is a particularly well preserved example of a Roman
qanat. It is probably the most extensive system of its kind north of the Alps. To date, some 330 m of the total tunnel
length of 600 m have been explored. Thirteen of the 20 to 25 shafts have been investigated.
[28]
The qanat appears
to have provided water for a large Roman villa on the slopes of the Alzette valley. It was built during the Gallo-
Roman period, probably around the year 150 and functioned for about 120 years thereafter.
Spain
There are still many examples of galeria or qanat systems in Spain, most likely brought to the area by the Moors
during their occupation of the Iberian peninsula. Turrillas in Andalusia on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de
Alhamilla has evidence of a qanat system. Granada is another site with an extensive qanat system.
[29]
The Americas
Qanats in the Americas, usually referred to as filtration galleries, can be found in the Nazca region of Peru and in
northern Chile.
[20]
The Spanish introduced qanats into Mexico in 1520 AD.
[30]
See also
Ab Anbar
Acequia
Menara gardens
Oasis
Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity
Yakhchal, ancient natural refrigerators in Persia
Notes
1. ^ Wilson, Andrew (2008). "Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply". In John Peter Oleson. Handbook of
Engineering and Technology in the Classical World (New York: Oxford University Press). p. 291f. ISBN 978-0-
19-973485-6.
2. ^ Goldsmith, Edward. The qanats of Iran (http://www.edwardgoldsmith.org/1031/the-qanats-of-iran/).
3. ^ "The quanats of Iran" (http://users.bart.nl/~leenders/txt/qanats.html). Bart.nl.
4. ^ "Qanats" (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/qanats.pdf). Water History.
5. ^ "Kareez (kariz, karez, qanat)" (http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/kareez/index.htm). Heritage
Institute.
6. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j

k

l

m

n

o
Kheirabadi, Masoud (1991). Iranian Cities: Formation and Development. University of
Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-78517-8.
7. ^
a

b
Article titled Etymological Conduit to the Land of Qanat by Dr. V. Sankaran Nair, 2004
(http://www.boloji.com/environment/24.htm)
8. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j

k
Smith, Anthony (1953). Blind White Fish in Persia. London, George Allen & Unwin. ISBN
none.
9. ^
a

b
conference of Qanat in Iran - water clock in persia1] 1383]
(http://www.aftabir.com/articles/view/science_education/technical/c3c1183387267p1.php/%D9%82%D9%86%D8
%A7%D8%AA-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-
%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C-
%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86)
10. ^ Wessels, K. (2000), Renovating Qanats in a changing world, a case study in Syria, paper presented to the
International Syposuim on Qanats, May 2000, Yazd, Iran, quoted in:WaterHistory.org:Qanats
(http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/), accessed on October 25, 2009
11. ^ Bahadori MN (February 1978). "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture". Scientific American 238 (2):
14454. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0278-144 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144).
12. ^
a

b
Yakchal: Ancient Refrigerators (http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?/archives/1045-Yakhchal-
Ancient-Refrigerators.html)
13. ^ "Karez: Afghanistan's Traditional Irrigation System." The Alternative Development Knowledge Network. link
(http://www.adkn.org/en/agriculture/article.asp?a=67)
References
English, Paul Ward, The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/986162), in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 112,
14. ^ Michael M. Phillips Learning a Hard History Lesson in 'Talibanistan':To Accommodate New Troops, the U.S.
Military Expanded a Base and Inadvertently Disrupted Ancient Afghan Canals
(http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124224652409516525.html), The Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2009
15. ^ Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. "Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated
Bibliography." (http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101) US Army Corps of Engineers, Army Geospatial Center.
16. ^ Oasis at Turpan in northwestern China uses water provided by karez.
(http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/)
17. ^ Fiorella Rispoli, 'Unmasking a mystery: the curious case of the Gua Made Green masks' Current World
Archaeology 43 (Oct/Nov 2010), 42-9.
18. ^ UNESCO:Water shortage fueling displacement of people in northern Iraq, UNESCO study finds
(http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=46631&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html), October
2009, accessed on October 25, 2009
19. ^ Mathias Dring. "Wasser fr Gadara 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt"
(https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf).
Querschnitt 21: 2535. p 25, 32
20. ^
a

b

c
History from Waterhistory.org (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/)
21. ^ UNESCO:Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207/), accessed on October 25, 2009
22. ^
a

b
Michel Wuttmann, "The Qanats of 'Ayn-Manwr, Kharga Oasis, Egypt", in Jasr 2001, p. 1 (pdf)
(http://www.achemenet.com/pdf/jasr/jasr2000.1.pdf).
23. ^ The 153 Club Newsletter (112,): 1419. July 2007 reprinted from Current world Archaeology
24. ^ "Water: symbolism and culture" (http://www.institut.veolia.org/en/cahiers/water-symbolism/water-
symbolism/practical-issues.aspx)
25. ^ An excellent UNESCO article with numerous clear photographs showing the Foggara in Algeria
(http://www.mappeonline.com/unesco/atlas/data/photographical%20inventory/A17photograph.htm)
26. ^ *Apostol, Tom M. (2004). "The Tunnel of Samos" (http://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdf) (PDF).
Engineering and Science (1): 3040
27. ^ Grewe, Klaus: Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau, Mainz 1998, ISBN
3-8053-2492-8, pp.94-96
28. ^ Pierre Kayser and Guy Waringo: Laqueduc souterrain des Raschptzer, un monument antique de lart de
lingnieur au Luxembourg (http://www.raschpetzer.lu/doc/RaschpVersionDeFr.pdf). Retrieved 2 December 2007.
29. ^ (Spanish) Water supplies in Granada
(http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/ghi/02143038/articulos/ELEM8484120249A.PDF) - A good visible qanat can
be seen to the west of the church of San Lorenzo, a suburb of Segovia, irrigating what were huertas (market
gardens).
30. ^ Libyan web site on qanats (http://web.archive.org/web/20041016133645/www.qanat.info/en/colloge.php)
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Qanat.
No. 3 (Jun. 21, 1968), pp. 170181, (at JSTOR)
Motiee H, Mcbean E, Semsar A, et al. (December 2006). "Assessment of the Contributions of Traditional
Qanats in Sustainable Water Resources Management"
(http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cijw/2006/00000022/00000004/art00005). Journal of
Water Resources Development 22 (4): 57588. doi:10.1080/07900620600551304
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F07900620600551304).
Madani K (2008). "Reasons behind Failure of Qanats in the 20th Century"
(http://scitation.aip.org/vsearch/servlet/VerityServlet?
KEY=ASCERL&smode=strresults&maxdisp=25&possible1=Madani%2C+Kaveh&possible1zone=a
uthor&OUTLOG=NO&aqs=true&viewabs=ASCECP&key=DISPLAY&docID=1&page=0&chapter
=0&aqs=true). World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008: 18.
doi:10.1061/40976(316)77 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1061%2F40976%28316%2977). ISBN 978-0-7844-
0976-3.
Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. "Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated
Bibliography," (http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101) US Army Corps of Engi, Army Geospatial Center.
Ozden, Dursun Directed & Written by; ANATOLIAN WATER CIVILIZATION & ANATOLIAN
KARIZES-QANATS, The Documentary Film & Book, 2004-2011 Istanbul, Turkey.
http://www.dursunozden.com.tr
Ozden, Dursun; Directed & Written by; ANATOLIAN WATER CIVILIZATION & ANATOLIAN
KARIZES-QANATS, The Documentary Film & Book, 2004-2011 Istanbul, Turkey.
"http://www.dursunozden.com.tr"
External links
" (http://www.dursunozden.com.tr "
(http://www.dursunozden.com.tr/anatolianwatercivilation/anatoliankarez,Turkey)
WaterHistory.org Article on Karez in Turpan, Xinjiang, China (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/)
World Wildlife Fund Editorial on Karez in Afghanistan
(http://www.panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/opinions/news.cfm?uNewsID=2637)
Useful information on Qanat provided by Farzad Kohandel, in arabic)
(http://web.archive.org/web/20040715213146/http://www.qanat.info/) and in english
(http://web.archive.org/web/20050205102218/http://qanat.info/en/index.php)
Qanat (http://www.livius.org/q/qanat/qanat.html)
Information on Qanats (includes photo of access shafts from above)
(http://www.destinationiran.com/Kariz_(Qanat).htm)
Site includes discussion of use of qanats in Libya (French)
(http://www.mondeberbere.com/civilisation/gourara/gourara.htm)
International Center on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures (http://www.qanat.info)
The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World (http://books.google.com/books?
as_brr=1&id=SFkLAAAAIAAJ&vid=ISBN1422371476&dq=achaemenid&jtp=170) - by PW English, in
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Volume 112, Number 3 June 21, 1968.
The art and science of water, in Saudi Aramco May/June 2006
(http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200603/the.art.and.science.of.water.htm)
Turpan, China (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/)
Carlo Trabia: Kanats of Sicily, in: Best of Sicily Magazine, March 2005, with Photo
(http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art154.htm)
[2] (http://www.hamsayeh.net/travel%20and%20tourism%20qanat%20in%20Isfahan.htm) A visit inside a
qanat in Ghehi-Isfahan
Lynn Teo Simarski, Oman's "Unfailing Springs", 1992, Saudi Aramco World
(http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199206/oman.s.unfailing.springs..htm)
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