Technical University Gh.

Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
Assignment no.3
Theodolites
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
A theodolite is an instru"ent for "easuring #oth hori$ontal and vertical angles% as
used in triangulation net&or's. It is a 'ey tool in surveying and engineering &or'% #ut
theodolites have #een ada(ted for other s(eciali$ed (ur(oses in fields li'e "eteorology
and roc'et launch technology. A "odern theodolite consists of a telesco(e "ounted
"ova#ly &ithin t&o (er(endicular a)es% the hori$ontal or trunnion a)is% and the vertical
a)is. *hen the telesco(e is (ointed at a desired o#+ect% the angle of each of these a)es can
#e "easured &ith great (recision% ty(ically on the scale of arcseconds.
The transit refers to a s(eciali$ed ty(e of theodolite that &as develo(ed in the
early ,th century. It featured a telesco(e that could -flo( over- .-transit the sco(e-/ to
allo& easy #ac'0sighting and dou#ling of angles for error reduction. So"e transit
instru"ents &ere ca(a#le of reading angles directly to thirty arc0seconds. In the "iddle of
the 12th century% transits ca"e to #e 'no&n as a si"(le for" of theodolite &ith less
(recision% lac'ing features such as scale "agnification and "echanical "eters. The
i"(ortance of transits is &aning since co"(act% accurate electronic theodolites have
#eco"e &ides(read tools% #ut transits still find use as a light&eight tool for construction
sites. So"e transits do not "easure vertical angles.

An o(tical theodolite% "anufactured in the Soviet Union in ,3! and used for to(ogra(hic surveying.

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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services

4iagra" of an 5(tical Theodolite

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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
Concept of operation
Both a)es of a theodolite are e6ui((ed &ith graduated circles that can #e read out
through "agnifying lenses. The vertical circle .the one associated &ith the hori$ontal
a)is/ should read ,27 or 22 grad &hen the sight a)is is hori$ontal .or 1827% 922 grad%
&hen the instru"ent is in its second (osition% -turned over- or -(lunged-/. If not% &e call
half of the difference &ith 922 grad inde) error.
The hori$ontal and vertical a)es of a theodolite "ust #e "utually (er(endicular.
The condition &here they deviate fro" (er(endicularity .and the a"ount #y &hich/ is
referred to as hori$ontal a)is error. The o(tical a)is of the telesco(e% called sight a)is and
defined #y the o(tical center of the o#+ective and the center of the crosshairs in its focal
(lane% "ust si"ilarly #e (er(endicular to the hori$ontal a)is. If not% &e call the deviation
fro" (er(endicularity colli"ation error.
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
:ori$ontal a)is error% colli"ation error and inde) error are regularly deter"ined
#y cali#ration% and re"oved #y "echanical ad+ust"ent at the factory in case they gro&
overly large. Their e)istence is ta'en into account in the choice of "easure"ent
(rocedure in order to eli"inate their effect on the "easure"ent results.
A theodolite is "ounted on the tri(od head #y "eans of a forced centering (late or
tri#rach% containing four thu"#scre&s .or in so"e "odern theodolites three
thu"#scre&s/ for ra(id levelling. Before use% a theodolite "ust #e (laced (recisely and
vertically over the (oint to #e "easured ; centering ; and its vertical a)is aligned &ith
local gravity ; leveling. The for"er is done using a (lu"# #o# or o(tical (lu""et% the
latter using a s(irit level. Fast and accurate (rocedures for doing #oth have #een
develo(ed.
Using theodolites in surveying
U.S. <ational Geodetic Survey technicians o#serving &ith a 2.1 arcsecond resolution
*ild T09 theodolite "ounted on an o#serving stand. =hoto &as ta'en during an Arctic
field (arty .circa ,32/.
Triangulation% as invented #y Ge""a Frisius around 399% consists of "a'ing
such direction (lots of the surrounding landsca(e fro" t&o se(arate stand(oints. After
that% the t&o gra(hing (a(ers are su(eri"(osed% (roviding a scale "odel of the landsca(e%
or rather the targets in it. The true scale can #e o#tained #y +ust "easuring one distance
#oth in the real terrain and in the gra(hical re(resentation.
>odern triangulation as% e.g.% (racticed #y Snellius% is the sa"e (rocedure
e)ecuted #y nu"erical "eans. =hotogra""etric #loc' ad+ust"ent of stereo (airs of aerial
(hotogra(hs is a "odern% three0di"ensional variant.
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
In the late 8!2s ?esse @a"sden% a Aor'shire"an fro" :alifa)% England &ho had
develo(ed the dividing engine for dividing angular scales accurately to &ithin a second of
arc% &as co""issioned to #uild a ne& instru"ent for the British 5rdnance Survey. The
@a"sden theodolite &as used over the ne)t fe& years to "a( the &hole of southern
Britain #y triangulation.
In net&or' "easure"ent% the use of forced centering s(eeds u( o(erations &hile
"aintaining the highest (recision. The theodolite or the target can #e ra(idly re"oved
fro"% or soc'eted into% the forced centering (late &ith su#0"" (recision. <o&adays G=S
antennas used for geodetic (ositioning use a si"ilar "ounting syste". The height of the
reference (oint of the theodolite 00 or the target 00 a#ove the ground #ench "ar' "ust #e
"easured (recisely.
The A"erican transit gained (o(ularity during the ,th century &ith A"erican
railroad engineers (ushing &est. The transit re(laced the railroad co"(ass% se)tant and
octant and &as distinguished #y having a telesco(e shorter than the #ase ar"s% allo&ing
the telesco(e to #e vertically rotated (ast straight do&n. The transit had the a#ility to
Bflo(B over on its vertical circle and easily sho& the e)act !2 degree sight to the user.
This facilitated the vie&ing of long straight lines% such as &hen surveying the A"erican
*ild *est. =reviously the user rotated the telesco(e on its hori$ontal circle to !2 and
had to carefully chec' his angle &hen turning !2 degree turns.
1. Indications concerning the scheme of theodolites and its main parts
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
Three-acrew base (1) is a triangular (ris" that is su((orted #y three leveling
scre&s. At the #otto" there are t&o (latesC one is stiff the other #eing fle)i#le. The scre&
that is used to fi) the three scre&s #ase on the tri(od is 'no&n as instru"ent0tri(od.
The limb () is the graduated hori$ontal circle. This is a "etallic disc &hose
(eri"eter is silvery and &hich is engraved &ith he)adeci"al or centesi"al degrees. The
hori$ontal circle is used in order to read the angular values of the hori$ontal directions.
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
The u((er circle rotating a#out the a)is (assing through the center of the li"# is
called vernier plate (!)" #ecause it has t&o o((osite verniers &hose $ero serves as
inde)es for reading on the li"#.

The arms for supporting the telescope (#) are "etallic and they are fi)ed on the
vernier (late. The ar"s are su((orting the vertical rotation a)is of the telesco(e. 5n one
of the ar" there is a scre& or a lever 'no&n as telesco(e clamping screw (1#). 5n the
other ar" there is a $enithal level (%) used to #ring to the hori$ontal the inde)es of
a$i"uth circle.
The telescope (&) is an o(tical device used to o#serve the far a&ay o#+ects and to
deter"ine the distances #y o(tical &ay.
The "odern theodolites are e6ui((ed &ith an internal0focusing telesco(e. This consist of
an o#+ective tu#e ./ and an eye (iece tu#e .1/. 5n their co""on a)is &e have the cross
hairs .9/ &hich travel inside the telesco(e #y rotating either a s(ecial rac' or a ring .3/
e"#racing the telesco(e at the eye(iece.
The cross hair (!) consists of a glass (late &hich has engraved t&o (er(endicular
lines 'no&n as cross hairs. The glass (late is fitted into a dia(hrag" a(erture &ith the aid
of for scre&s.
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services

The vertical circle (') is ali'e &ith the hori$ontal graduated circle rotating a#out the a)is
(assing through the center of the li"# is also called the vernier (late% #ecause it has t&o
o((osite verniers.
The u((er circle is (rotected #y a fi)ed circle.
The hori$ontal (osition of inde)es is "ade #y ad+ust"ent of the $enithal level using
the scre&.
The level tube (() is a s(ecial device used to "a'e so"e (lanes or lines hori$ontal
or vertical. 4e(ending on the ty(e &e haveC (lane level or circular level.
The main appendances of the theodolite areC
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
The tripod is a su((ort device that ena#les the theodolite to #e (ositioned into the
station (oint. The feet of the tri(od are telesco(ic for #etter trans(ortation.
The plumb bob is used for centering the instru"ent.
The surveyors compass is used to indicate the north "agnetic (ole.
. Indications in presenting its a)is" movements and different types of theodolites
The theodolite*s a)is are+
a/ The "ain a)is or the vertical a)is .v0vF/ is the a)is that is (assing through the center
of the hori$ontal angle #eing (er(endicular on the latter. 4uring "easure"ents the "ain
a)is has to have the sa"e direction of the vertical of station (oint.
#/ The secondary a)is or the hori$ontal a)is .o0oF/ is the one (assing through the center
of the $enithal circle #eing (er(endicular on the latter. ItFs also 'no&n as the rotation a)is
of the telesco(e.
c/ The line of sight is a strait line (assing through the intersection of the cross hairs and
the o(tical center of the o#+ective.
The a)es have to accomplish several
conditions+
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
0 The "ain a)is is (er(endicular to the secondary one
0 The line of sight is (er(endicular to the secondary one
0 The three a)is are intersecting one another in a single (oint &hich is 'no&n as the
"athe"atical (oints of the instru"ent
The theodolite has the following movements+
a. The hori$ontal "ove"ent G is the rotation of the instru"ent around its "ain a)is
v0vF. In this case there are general "ove"ent and recording "ove"ent
#. The vertical "ove"ent G the telesco(e and the $enithal circle are "oving around
the rotation a)is .o0oF/
,odern theodolites

>odern theodolite <i'on 4T>0312
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services

In todayBs theodolites% the reading out of the hori$ontal and vertical circles is
usually done electronically. The readout is done #y a rotary encoder% &hich can #e
a#solute% e.g. using Gray codes% or incre"ental% using e6uidistant light and dar' radial
#ands. In the latter case the circles s(in ra(idly% reducing angle "easure"ent to electronic
"easure"ent of ti"e differences. Additionally% lately CC4 sensors have #een added to
the focal (lane of the telesco(e allo&ing #oth auto0targeting and the auto"ated
"easure"ent of residual target offset. All this is i"(le"ented in e"#edded soft&are.
Also% "any "odern theodolites are e6ui((ed &ith integrated electro0o(tical
distance "easuring devices% allo&ing the "easure"ent in one go of co"(lete three0
di"ensional vectors 00 al#eit in instru"ent0defined (olar co0ordinates 00 &hich can then
#e transfor"ed to a (re0e)isting co0ordinate syste" in the area #y "eans of a sufficient
nu"#er of control (oints. The techni6ue is called free station (osition surveying and is
&idely used in "a((ing surveying. The instru"ents% -intelligent- theodolites called self0
registering tacho"eters or -total stations-% (erfor" the necessary o(erations% saving data
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Technical University Gh. Asachi Iasi
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
into internal registering units% or into e)ternal data storage devices. Ty(ically% ruggedi$ed
la(to(s or =4As are used for this (ur(ose.
SourceC
htt(CHHen.&i'i(edia.orgH&i'iHTheodolite
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