Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Institut fr Geologie/Palontologie
TU Bergakademie Freiberg
Freiberg, Oct. 3rd 7th, 2005
Contents
1. Some physical characteristics of magma and lava
2. Types of eruption
3. Volcanic forms
11
18
20
22
Lava flow
22
27
36
37
42
43
Table 1.1 Estimates of eruption temperatures for some common magmas (After Cas & Wright 1987).
4
Temperature
estimates
of
some
common
most
flow
processes
of
magma
5
ascent/emplacement and of lava are laminar (Reynolds Number < 1). Generally,
magma, lava and some pyroclastic flows behave as a Bingham plastic fluid.
Deformational behaviour of magma
or hot glass is complex. Below the
glass transition temperature Tg,
glass reacts always in a brittle
manner upon deformational stress.
Above Tg, the behaviour depends
on the deformation rate (Fig. 1.4).
Thus, at the same temperature,
swift deformation leads to brittle
fragmentation
whereas
slow
Nucleation
and
growth
of
during
ascent
and
change
the
chemical
6
strong supercooling (T = temperature below the liquidus of the system) and time to
generate and grow crystals (Lofgren 1970, 1971a,b; Swanson et al. 1989; Fig. 1.5).
Thus, eruption of rhyolitic and phonolitic melts often results in the formation of glassy
Depth (m)
Fig. 1.6 Bubble growth and water oversaturation in an ascending rhyolitic magma. The curves
define oversaturation in % as a function of the depth in the system during magma ascent. The
labels on the curves refer to the ascent or rise rates. The initial conditions are 4 km (a) and 1 km
(b), which correspond to initial water concentrations dissolved in the magma of 3.72 and 1.86
wt.%, respectively. Reproduced from Proussevitch and Sahagian (1996) (From Dingwell 1998).
2. Types of eruption
Eruption type strongly controls textures apparent in volcanic or volcanoclastic
products. The explosivity and the degree of fragmentation during eruption depends
on magmatic factors, such as volatile content, eruption rates, viscosity, and
deformation rate, as well as on the presence of external water at the vent
(groundwater, lake, sea, glacier) and the degree of water-melt interaction. Eruptions
in which external water is involved are called phreatomagmatic eruptions. The
classification of eruptions is depicted in Fig. 2.1.
Figure 2.2 schematically shows a highly explosive magmatic eruption. Above a
certain depth in the conduit (< 4 km), vesicles may nucleate in the rising melt due to
decompression (first boiling). During this process, embayed phenocrysts may
fragment if vesicles form inside the embayment (Fig. 2.3; Best and Christiansen
1997). Depending on the volatile content of the melt this process can culminate into a
melt foam with up to 75 vol% of bubbles. At this point, the yield strength of SiO2-rich
viscous melts is surpassed, due to the pressure inside the bubbles and due to high
deformation rates, and it starts to fragment. Above the fragmentation surface, a hot
low-viscosity dispersion of gas and fragments is present in the conduit which strongly
expands and accelerates upwards. The dispersion reaches the mouth of the conduit
with high, sometimes supersonic velocities and forms an eruption column.
In
the
lower
convective
region.
Here
cooler,
highly
the volcanic fragments by strong turbulence. The bouyant eruption column rises up to
9
the level where its density equals
that of the ambient atmosphere (up
to 65 km). Volcanic fragments fall
out of the column or are drifted by
winds in the respective atmospheric
levels
according
to
their
parts
of
it
pyroclastic
collapse
flows.
forming
Important
eruptions
according
into
are
to
their
hawaiian,
eruption
are
phreatomagmatic
and
on
the
pressure
10
(> 100C), becomes a supercritical fluid, or vapor. The hot fluid infiltrates the magma
along a fine network of cracks that form during movements or seismic shocks. A thin
vapor film (Leidenfrost phenomen) may thermally isolate the hot magma fragments
from the coolant, temporarily.
Fig. 2.6 Interrelations of explosive energy, water-magma ratio, style of volcanic activity and
volcaniclastic fragments in basaltic hydrovolcanic eruptions (largely after Wohletz & Sheridan,
1983). The smallest fragments are produced in Taalian eruptions when most thermal energy is
transferred to mechanical energy. The shape of shards produced (1-5) depends on the viscosity of
the magma and its degree of vesiculation: blocky shards (1) of poorly vesicular magma are most
common; irregular, globular and spherical shards (2-4) indicate fluidal melts; platy and cuspate
shards are part of vesicle walls and develop if vesiculated, generally more viscous magma
interacts with water. Non-explosive quench fragmentation can occur in any environment. For
instance, views of hyaloclastites are from the Mid-Atlantic ridge (Schmincke et al., 1978) and a
Permian example where lava flowed over unconsolidated nearshore marine sediments (From
Orton 1996).
If this vapor film breaks down vigorous explosions happen which send supersonic
shock waves through the magma. In the course of these true explosions (in the
definition of physics) and of other dynamic processes, the magma and eventually
11
material from the conduit wall are being strongly fragmented (high F-values in Fig.
2.1). Phreatomagmatic eruptions produce relatively cool eruption columns which,
compared to magmatic eruptions, do not rise very high into the atmosphere.
Therefore, dispersal of volcanic fragments (D in Fig. 2.1) remains low. Fig. 2.6
emphasises the water/magma ratio in phreatomagmatic eruptions of basaltic magma
and the type of resulting fragments.
3. Volcanic forms
Since volcanic textures are more controlled by eruption style than by the form of
volcanoes, the latter is only briefly considered here. The form of a volcano depends
on the prevailing eruption style(s), (volcano-)tectonic and surface processes (erosion,
land slides, vegetation, glaciation, marine abrasion...). There are monogenetic
volcanoes, which form during a relatively short time displaying one or two eruption
And
polygenetic
there
are
volcanoes,
complex
which
or
have
12
maars are monogenetic volcanoes which are typical for subaerial, explosive, SiO2poor intraplate volcanism. Scoria cones, the most abundant terrestrial volcanic form,
are built up by the fall out products of strombolian eruptions (Fig. 2.1). Tuff rings, cones and maars are the products of different phreatomagmatic eruptions (Fig. 3.2)
the type depending mainly on the depth of magma-water interaction. In particular
during maar-forming eruptions, the volcanic explosions cut deep into the country rock
leading to the formation of a diatreme (Fig. 3.3). The architecture of a diatreme and
its internal facies is controlled, among others, by the soft vs. hardrock nature of the
host material.
13
Pyroclastic
erup-
lava(-domes)
as
as
volcanoclastic
stratovolcano
complex
network
conduits,
dykes,
a
of
sills,
circuits develops. As a
consequence,
canoes
experience
stratovol-
tend
to
edifice
14
the volcanic ring plain facies the evolution of the former stratovolcano is preserved
best.
shape of many calderas is related to ring fractures that form prior or during the initial
eruption (Fig. 3.4). Other complexes have a network of faults which are used as
magma conduits and along which vertical block movements take place during
eruption (piecemeal caldera, trapdoor caldera, Fig. 3.5).
15
When basaltic lava flows into a lake or the sea, strong explosions can occur. The
resulting fragments sometimes pile up to litoral cones, which of course do not have
magmatic roots.
Considering magma production rates, subaquatic volcanism is the most important
volcanic activity on earth. It includes volcanism at the mid ocean ridges (MOR), at
seamounts, in lakes and, as a special case, below ice. In comparison to subaerial
volcanoes, the main difference is the abundance of external water. Thus
phreatomagmatic and other hydromagmatic processes are dominant. Consequently,
Fig. 3.6 Schematic illustration of characteristics of volcanoes and the central rift of mid-oceanic
spreading ridges with different spreading rates (From Cas & Wright 1987, after Macdonald 1982).
subaquatic
volcanism
associated
with
abundant
volcanoclastic
mass
which
the
carry
magmatic
fragments
and
is
flows,
phreatohyaloclastic
downslope
the
high
enough
to
Batiza, 1980).
ascending
magma
and
16
outflowing lava (pressure compensation level, PCL), thus explosive volcanism and
associated explosive fragmentation is absent in deep ocean regions (deep water
stage, Fig. 3.10). However, recent studies indicate the existence of deep marine
explosive volcanism (e.g. Gill et al. 1990). Furthermore, the presence of watersaturated soft sediment is a special feature in many subaquatic volcanic sites.
Contact of magma/lava with wet sediments may lead to the formation of peperites
(see next chapter).
Fig. 3.6 depicts volcanic forms at fast and slow spreading mid-ocean ridges (MOR).
At MORs, and other subaquatic volcanic sites, low production rates of basaltic
magma leads to the formation of pillow lavas and pillow breccias (Fig. 3.7). High
rates result in lava sheets. Intermediate to SiO2-rich subaquatic volcanism produces
complex structures of domes, cryptodomes, sills, dykes and abundant fragmentation
(Fig. 3.8). These settings are also of large economic importance (e.g. Kuroko-Type,
volcanic hosted massive sulfide deposits etc., Allen 1992). Fig. 3.9 highlights the very
complex processes and textures which can develop in englacial volcanoes (e.g. in
Iceland).
Fig 3.8 Various forms of subaqueous silicic lavas and domes. (a) Intrusive and
partially extrusive domes. (b) Vent-top submarine dome. (c) Lava lobehyaloclastite complex (From Orton 1996, collated by Cas, 1992).
17
18
pyroclastic
magmatic
phreatomagmatic*
phreatic*
hydrothermal*
hydrauliclastic*
autoclastic
All processes marked * involve magma-water interaction, and therefore are grouped
under the term hydroclastic fragmentation by many authors (Fig. 4.1). Pyroclastic
fragmentation
comprises
all
explosive
volcanic
processes.
These
include
collisions
cause
further
fragmentation.
Phenocrysts
with
melt-filled
19
Fig. 4.1 Processes by which subaerial hydroclastic flow and fallout deposits
originate (From Fisher & Schminke 1984).
20
the magma is called essential or juvenile. Lithics comprise any other volcanic or
non-volcanic material that did not form in the erupting magma and which was
incorporated into the magma before and during eruption, or picked up by a lava flow,
a pyroclastic surge or flow. A grainsize classification of pyroclasts is given in Table
4.1:
21
crystallize very quickly. Thus, most basalts have a more or less fine-grained
crystalline groundmass. Only upon very quick cooling in direct contact with water or
air, basaltic glass forms (sideromelan). SiO2-poor glass which is clouded by Fe- and
Ti-oxide microliths is called tachylite. During eruption of SiO2-rich melts glassy
pumice, glass shards and glassy lava (obsidian) may form. The different colours of
pumice and obsidian originate from microliths that form during early stages of
eruption (Paulick and Franz 1997). Also some pyroclastic flow deposits can have
glassy zones, called vitrophyre. If not devitrified during cooling (s. Chapter 6),
volcanic glass is generally subject to quick alteration during weathering and
diagenesis/hydrothermal activity. However, there are some rare examples of
Mesozoic and even Paleozoic glass. Exposed to water, glass takes in slowly water
(up to 7 wt% and more), this process is called hydration. During first stages of
subaquatic alteration, sideromelan transforms to silicate gel or fibrous minerals,
called palagonite (Fig. 4.2). Crystallisation of volcanic glass to clay minerals (mainly
smectite, chlorite, illite) is favored under conditions of high (pore-)water circulation.
The presence of stagnant, highly saline and alkaline pore water favors the formation
of zeolites. Other abundant alteration products are quartz, albite, calcite, and ore
minerals.
22
with
strombolian
Low-viscosity
flows
develop
smooth,
sometimes
wrinkled
surfaces
(pahoehoe
lava,
ropy
autobrecciated
lava),
tops
rough
form
on
In
SiO2-poor
lava
flows,
23
letting escape much of the volatiles into porous sediment or volcanic breccia
(Eichelberger et al. 1986). Ascending further, the melt foam collapses again (see also
Manley 1996).
Fig. 5.2 Schematic cross sections of emplacement of a generic inflating pahoehoe sheet
flow. Vertical scale varies from 1-5 m for Hawaiian flows to 5-50 m for the CRB Flows
(CRB = Columbia River Basalt). (a) Flow arrives as a small, slow-moving, lobe of
molten lava held inside a stretchable, chilled viscoelastic skin with brittle crust on top.
Bubbles are initially trapped in both the upper and basal crusts. (b) Continued injection
of lava into the lobe results in inflation (lifting of the upper crust) and new breakouts.
During inflation, bubbles rising from the fluid core become trapped in the viscoelastic
mush at the base of the upper crust, forming horizontal vesicular zones. The growth of
the lower crust, in which pipe vesicles develop, is much slower. Relatively rapid cooling
and motion during inflation results in irregular jointing in the upper crust. (c) After
stagnation, diapirs of vesicular residuum form vertical cylinders and horizontal sheets
within the crystallizing lava core. Slow cooling of the stationary liquid core forms more
regular joints. (d) Emplacement history of flow is preserved in vesicle distribution and
jointing pattern of frozen lava (From Self et al. 1997).
Moving viscous melts develop flow foliation in the conduit and during emplacement.
In contrast to intrusions, which have a closed onion-like flow foliation architecture,
subaerial lava(-domes) have complex flower- or bowl-shaped flow structures (opensurface system; Figs. 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5). Early (high T) flow foliation develops a variety
of textures such as gradation in phenocryst content and size, and alignment of
phenocrysts, vesicles and lithics. Upon further cooling, deformation becomes more
and more resctricted to discrete foliation planes which experience wrinkling, folding,
tearing and brecciation (look again at Figs. 1.4 and 1.7!).
24
Due to the extreme rigidity, extended top and basal breccias form by
autobrecciation (Fink and Griffiths 1998). Already during outflow and later, during
final emplacement and cooling of the lava, remaining volatiles exsolve from the melt
(second boiling) and a three-fold layering can develop discordantly to the flow
banding: Often, the inner part is coarsely vesiculated (coarsely vesicular pumice,
CVP) and is overlain by dense non-vesicular glass (obsidian), the top is finely
vesicular (finely vesicular pumice, FVP; Fig. 5.6). Since the obsidian and FVP
layers
are
denser
than
the
exist,
of
CVP
and
Fig. 5.3 (a) and (b) Cross sections through two of the
rhyolite domes in southern Lipari. Horizontal scale same
as vertical. (c) 3-dimensional view of the growth of a
rhyolite dome (From Cas & Wright 1987, after
Richardson 1978).
Fig. 5.4 Cross section through the length of the Rocche Rosse obsidian coule, with generalised
flow foliation patterns (From Cas & Wright 1987, after Hall 1978).
25
Fig. 5.6 Cross section through four
rhyolite
flows.
Column
A:
Traditional view of rhyolite flows
(thickness approximate)(modified after
Christiansen and Lipman, 1966;
Williams and McBirney, 1979; and
Ekren et al., 1984). Columns B-E:
Textural zonation in flows discussed in
this article. FVP = finely vesicular
pumice; OBS = obsidian; CVP =
coarsely vesicular pumice; RHY =
lithoidal rhyolite. Except in Middle
Dome, FVP zone is divided into
breccia (above) and coherent rock
(below), and basal breccia into welded
(black matrix; above) and nonwelded
(open matrix; below). Internal breccias
(not shown) occur extensively in RHY
layer in Middle Dome and in several
thin bodies just above RHY layer in
Banco Bonito flow. Diagonal lines
between columns show correlations of
textural zones among various flows
(From Manley & Fink 1987).
26
Fig. 5.7 Rhyolitic obsidian flow profiles. (a)Stratigraphy for a typical 35 m thick rhyolitic
obsidian flow. (b) Density profile, based on measured densities of samples of coarse pumice,
obsidian, and fine pumice. Note density inversion at contact between obsidian and coarse
pumice. (c) Temperature profile, assuming constant internal temperature. Note steep surfacetemperature gradient. (d) Viscosity profile, based on (b), (c), and laboratory viscosity
measurements. Note rapid decrease of viscosity with depth near the upper surface (After
Friedman and others, 1963, from Fink 1983).
27
Pyroclastic transport and deposition
During (phreato-)magmatic eruptions three types of pyroclastic transport and
deposition occur separately or sometimes synchroneously (see Figs. 5.9, 4.1):
Pyroclastic
o - Fall
o - Surge
o - Flow
Fig. 5.9 Processes
by which subaerial
pyroclastic flow and
fallout
deposits
originate
(From
Fisher & Schminke
1984).
Pyroclastic fall out particles are called tephra and include ballistic bombs directly
from the vent and material falling out from the eruption column or from ash clouds
associated with pyroclastic flow and surge. Fall out deposits are relatively well-sorted,
clast-supported, and massive to parallel-bedded. Sometimes proximal tephra is hot
enough during deposition to weld together (fused tuff, or lapilli stone). Since
aerodynamic fractionation of the tephra occurs during transport in the eruption
column and during wind drift, caution has to be taken when different fall layers are
compared petrographically or chemically. Fallout deposits from tephra that settled
through the water column (sea, lake), may display prominent grading (normal with
dense fragments, inverse with vesicular fragments).
Pyroclastic mass flows have a large spectrum of forms. One end member of this
spectrum are surges. Base surges form during phreatomagmatic eruptions from
eruption column collapse or from lateral blasts directly at the mouth of the vent.
Fig. 5.11 Proximal to distal (LFS) and vertical (VFS) facies variation in pyroclastic surge
beds (i.e. single depositional units) on Songaksan tuff ring (after Chough & Sohn, 1990).
The lateral facies sequence (LFS 1) was distilled from common downcurrent facies
transitions in flank deposits whereas vertical facies sequences (VFS) are distilled using
Harpers (1984) method of facies sequence analysis. VFS1 and VFS2 are from proximal
near-vent deposits, probably where short-lived pyroclastic surges were overladen by
suspended sediment fallout (compare with Lowe, 1988). LFS1, and its vertical expression
(VFS3) indicates downcurrent decrease in particle concentration, grain size, and
suspended-load fallout rate with a resultant increase in traction and sorting processes (from
Orton 1996).
29
These are relatively cool (100 400C), dilute, highly turbulent and moist dispersions
which travel with high speed over the landscape, normally less than 15 km. Surge
deposits are ill-sorted, parallel to cross-bedded. Surges can form antidunes (Fig.
5.10, 5.11). Since the degree of fragmentation is high in phreatomagmatic eruptions
(remember Fig. 2.1), many base surge deposits are characterized by a high portion
of fine ash. Ground surges and ash cloud surges are associated with pyroclastic
flows (see below).
Pyroclastic flows are dense, turbulent to laminar, hot mixtures of pyroclastic
fragments, gas and entrained air. The deposits are normally ash-rich, very ill-sorted,
massive to faintly parallel-bedded (Fig. 5.12). They originate from eruption column
collapse during (phreato-)magmatic eruptions, or from explosive or gravitative
collapse of lavadomes and lava fronts (Fig. 5.13). While moving, the pyroclastic flow
entrains ambient air at the front and looses hot gas and fine ash at its top (leading to
pyroclastic fractionation), the latter giving rise to an ash cloud manteling the flow
(Fig. 5.14). At the base of the ash cloud, lateral bursts may develop which form ashrich, parallel to cross-bedded ash-cloud surge deposits. Surges of fine ash and gas
can burst out at the front giving way to the formation of fine parallel- to cross-bedded
deposits (ground surge deposit). Pumice-rich flows are associated with plinian
eruptions and with many caldera-forming eruptions. The deposits are called
ignimbrites.
Fig. 5.12 Idealized products of subaerial pyroclastic flows. P, pumice clasts; L, lithic clasts. Note
concentration of pumice at the top of the flow unit and lithics at the base in all cases (from Sparks,
Self & Walker, 1973; Sheridan, 1979; Fisher & Heiken, 1982; Branney, Kokalaar & Mc Connell,
1992). Note absence of Layer 1 deposits from block and ash flows and lava-like ignimbrites (From
Orton 1996)
30
Fig.
5.13
Mechanisms
generating
pyroclastic
flows. The pyroclastic
flow proper is a high
particle
concentration
underflow. The ash cloud
gives rise to other deposits
(From Cas & Wright
1987).
31
Flows that form as the consequence of lava(dome) collapse are called block-andash-flows. Since the classic work of Ross and Smith (1961) on ignimbrites, the
concepts of pyroclastic flows have developed considerably (e.g. Chapin and Elston
1979,
Branney
and
Kokelaar
2002).
Among
and
cooling
units.
Deposits from a
rapid succession
of
pyroclastic
flows behave as
one cooling unit
(see
Fig.
5.15
Today,
distinction
is
made
between
concept
of
turbidity currents
and turbidites). Branney and Kokelaar (1992) emphasized that there is a spectrum
ranging from highly turbulent expanded flows (EF) to dense high-grade, sometimes
lava-like flows (DF). At the base of the former, particles are sedimented continuously
(aggradation), whereas the latter moves as a viscous mass, the movement of which
eventually freezes to form a highly welded rheomorphic ignimbrite (Fig. 5.12).
Kobberger and Schmincke (1999) disagreed in this point, presenting an
aggradational model for a rheomorphic ignimbrite on Gran Canaria (Figs. 5.16, 5.17).
32
Fig. 5.16 Steps of the depositional and rheomorphic flow history of ignimbrite D by sketching the major
stages of deposition including the successive vertical changes of pyroclast strain, the development of fabrics
crucial to define the related deformation mechanism, and the progression in ascending and descending
lithification fronts. The model is based on the configuration of a gently but evenly inclined basal topography
during deposition and rheomorphic flow (From Kobberger & Schminke 1999).
Fig. 5.17 Model of sedimentation and initiation of rheomorphic flow during the early accumulation
phase of ignimbrite D on a slightly inclined basal topography. Note that pure flattening (compaction) is
the first step of deformation affecting the freshly deposited pyroclastic material in both cases. Shear
flow, in this configuration, is always secondary and depends on a critical load pressure as well as on the
speed of the upward prograding cooling/lithification front (From Kobberger & Schminke 1999).
33
Fig. 5.18 Proximal-distal depositional facies model for the products of ignimbrite-forming
eruptions based on the Bandelier Tuffs (From Cas & Wright 1987, after Wright et al. 1981).
Deposits from expanded flows (and from base surges: Fig. 5.11) display longitudinal
and lateral facies differentiations. Near the vent, large dense blocks which cannot
be transported by the flow form a coarse-grained lag-deposit (co-ignimbritic breccia,
Fig. 5.18). Thickness and, to a certain extend, grain size decrease distally and fine
ash deposits become important. When pyroclastic flows move down a valley, the
resulting deposits are thick and rich in large clasts (pumice, lithics) in the valley
whereas on the slopes the deposits get finer and eventually pinch out. Upon
deposition, the unit starts to deflate and cool, a process which can take month and
years (see next chapter). Additional gas is released from the cooling and eventually
devitrifying glass fragments. If the pyroclastic fragments are hot enough during
deposition primary welding can occur. Deposits from cooler flows can also develop
zones of welding where the rising gas lowers the glass transition temperature
(secondary welding). In both cases pumice and glass shards stick together and
compact (welding-compaction). Stretched or sheared pumice are called fiamme
(Fig. 5.17). Moderate welding-compaction produce an eutaxitic texture, textures
from strong welding-compaction are called parataxitic (Fig. 5.19a).
Above the welded zone, tiny crystals e.g. of cristobalite, tridymite, and feldspar grow
from the rising gases (vapor-phase crystallization, Figs. 5.15, 5.20) and lead to a
rapid solidification of large parts of the deposit (sillar facies). Frequently, the rising
gas concentrates in discrete pipes in which the fine ash is blown away and lapilli are
left behind (degassing pipes, Fig. 5.21). Around degassing pipes and in zones of
enhanced gas flow, vapor-phase crystallisation leads to a strong solidification of the
deposit (fumarole mounds, Fig. 5.20). Due to volume decrease upon cooling, welded
and sillar zones frequently develop columnar jointing.
34
Fig. 5.19 A Illustration of the welding profile in the Garth Tuff. B Idealised profile for vapourphase crystallisation in the Garth Tuff. C Idealised profile for spherulitic and granular crystalline
fabrics in the Garth Tuff. Boundaries between zones are gradational. D Timing of textural
development relative to the cooling history of the Garth Tuff (From Mc Arthur et al. 1998).
35
Fig. 5.21 Occurences of gas segregation
structures in pyroclastic flow deposits. 1, Pipes
and pods generated initially or formed entirely
by intraflow gas sources during emplacement;
1a, formed by continued post-emplacement gas
flow; 2, formed from heated ground water and
incorporating fluviatile pebbles; 3, formed
above burnt vegetation and logs (From Cas &
Wright 1987).
Fig.
In ancient volcanic successions, the distinction between low grade pyroclastic flow
deposits and volcanosedimentary mass flow deposits (lahars) is difficult to
impossible. The presence of degassing pipes, columnar jointing, welding and
devitrification textures (see below) and in situ cooling joints of large clasts (jig saw
fit) indicate a hot emplacement. Measurements of the anisotropy of the magnetic
susceptibility (AMS) in large clasts can help to prove a hot deposition.
There is much debate on whether pyroclastic flows can enter water or whether
pyroclastic flows can form and flow under water. Figs. 5.22 and 5.23 illustrate the
complex pyroclastic and sedimentary processes involved with explosive volcanism
near or under water (s. also Kokelaar & Kniger 2000, and White 2000).
36
37
600C
phenocryst growth
?
40 0C
200C
Autobrecciation (carap ace)
upon cooling
'secon d boilin g'
10
200
mod ified afte r L ofgren 197 1, Eich elbe rg er e t al. 1986, S wans on et al. 1 989, Dav ie s & Mc Phie 1996 , Manley 1996, McA rt hur et al. 1998
Fig. 6.1
Due to low diffusion rates, it take time and strong supercooling (T) to generate
crystals in rhyolitic glass. During early stages of cooling, microliths (tiny crystals of
Fe-, Ti-oxides, mafic or felsic silicates) form in SiO2-rich lava and in welded zones of
ignimbrites, which grow along flow or stretching foliation. In intermediate lavas (basic
dacites, andesites, trachytes) these keep growing to develop a more or less
completely crystallized groundmass (trachytic texture).
38
Further cooling can lead to partial or complete crystallisation of the glass. Quench
crystals (mainly tridymite, christobalite and/or feldspar) grow to spherulites or
axiolites, often using a crystal, a bubble, a flow foliation plane or a crack as a
nucleation surface (Fig. 6.2). Experiments (Lofgren 1971b) and textural observations
indicate that spherulites form in hot glass above Tg. Depending on growth rate and
nucleation density, they develop radiate or microcrystalline textures. Often fine
films of Fe-, Ti-phases form radiating between the crystals or they mark concentric
Fig. 6.2 A Axiolitic structure; spherulitic fibres radiate from a plane. B Fan spherulite with fibres
radiating from a point. C Bowtie (or wheat sheaf) spherulite. Two fan-like arrays are joined at their
apices. D Plumose spherulite showing extensive side branching. Unlike dendrites, branching does not
occur on crystallographic axes. E Spherical spherulite. F Pectinate texture defined by fine axiolites
growing inward from the walls of a juvenile pyroclast, in this case a tricuspate shard. Scale will vary
according to the size of the fragment. G Lithophysal structure with fibres radiating outward from a
central hollow. H Lithophysae with concentric hollows arranged parallel to the crystallisation front
(modified after Lofgren, 1974, from Mc Arthur et al. 1998).
growth fronts of the spherulites. In many cases these radiate or concentric ore
mineral textures survive later recrystallisation and are the only trace of the formerly
existing spherulites. The width of the quench crystals correlates positively with
formation temperature (Lofgren 1971a,b). In densely welded deposits, spherulites
and axiolites grow discordantly to the vitroclastic texture. However, in less- or nonwelded domains pectinate textures can develop with fibrous crystals growing
inwards from the glass shard surfaces (Fig. 5.19c).
39
In volatile-rich glass, crystallisation of spherulites leads to concentration of volatiles in
a halo at the crystallisation front. Many spherulites are associated with curvilinearshaped cavities which form prior or during spherulite formation. These so-called
lithophysae (McArthur et al. 1998, Fig. 6.2) may be filled by crystals during later
cooling or diagenesis. In contrast to vesicles which form due to volatile
oversaturation, lithophysae form due to tension in the glass.
Crystallisation can occur in the form of isolated spherulites, form domains with sharp
devitrification fronts or be complete (Fig. 5.19). It can occur in a single event or multiphase due to complex emplacement, cooling and fluid migration history (remember
that devitrification is controlled by T, which is dependent of temperature and volatile
saturation, Fig. 1.5). The central part of thick ignimbrites and lavas stays hot for a
long time since devitrification as any crystallisation is exothermic. Here the spherulitic
texture can recrystallize to a equigranular mosaic of quartz and feldspar (core
facies, see below; Lofgren 1970, McArthur et al. 1998, Fig. 5.19).
Fig. 6.3 Schematic sketches summarized from thin sections, showing the
relationship of (a) false nonwelded
shards to the original texture in
classical perlite, and (b) false welded
shards to the original texture in banded
perlite. To aid explanation, the portion
of the original perlitic texture marked
by heavy lines is repeated in the
diagrams of false shard textures. The
false shards may be preserved as
siliceous segments between phyllosilicate-altered
perlitic
fractures
(center), or as phyllosilicate altered
sections of the fractures themselves
(right) (from Allen 1988).
40
During cooling, perlite cracks can develop which are often marked by clay minerals.
Davies and McPhie (1996) presume that perlite forms when the hot rock/glass gets in
contact with external water. However, some aspects of perlite formation remain
unclear. In places, these perlite cracks can resemble false vitroclastic (pyroclastic)
textures (Fig. 6.3, Allen 1988, Doyle 2001).
False vitroclastic textures from perlite are not the only trap door for students of
ancient SiO2-rich volcanic rocks as many aspects of this chapter revealed. They can
also develop as the consequence of fracturing and alteration of lava (Fig. 6.4, and
Allen 1988). Frequently, a network of tuffbreccias is present in SiO2-rich lavas. They
probably form during phreatic eruptions when the lava covers a pond or wet
sediment. The tuffbreccia often includes obsidian fragments, and, if hot enough, this
clastic fabric may experience ductile deformation. Furthermore, SiO2-rich lavas tend
41
to develop vesicular textures during early stages of cooling (see above, Fig. 5.6).
Compaction of the vesiculated glass during cooling and burial, and autoclastic or
phreatic fragmentation during emplacement and cooling can lead to textures that are
similar to those found in ignimbrites. Table 6.1 summarizes the status of this ongoing
discussion.
Table 6.1: Diagnostic characteristics of felsic lavas and pyroclastic flow deposits
(from Paulick and Breitkreuz 2005; largely based on several previous compilations
provided by Allen (1988), Henry and Wolff (1992), Manley 1996, Manley and Fink
(1987), and McPhie at al. (1993)).
Lava:
core facies
Lava:
carapace facies
Pyroclastic flow
deposit
Facies association
Internal organisation
Coherent, homogeneously
porphyritic, homogenous
groundmass, locally with
flow banding.
Coherent to brecciated
homogeneously
porphyritic, heterogeneous
groundmass; autoclastic
breccia are poorly sorted,
strictly monomictic, nongraded with common jigsaw fit textures.
Xenoliths/lithics
Rarely abundant,
concentrated in lenses.
Rarely abundant,
concentrated in lenses.
Typically common to
abundant.
Phenocysts
Evenly distributed.
Broken phenocrysts
Uncommon, optically
continuous.
Groundmass
Homogeneous
microcrystalline
(equigranular) locally with
remnant ghost textures of
pre-existing spherulites.
Heterogeneous, glassy,
vesicular to pumiceous
and/or devitrified
(spherulites, lithophysae);
flow foliation is common.
Welding textures
Absent.
*: The internal organisation of pyroclastic flow deposits varies dramatically depending on erupted volume,
temperature, composition and facies (proximal to distal, central to marginal, valley pond to overbank) and are
variably controlled by the topography.
42
Concept of carapace and core facies
Chapters 5 and 6 revealed that quite similar textures may form in different types of
cooling (sub-)volcanic bodies, such as high-grade ignimbrite, lava and subvolcanic
intrusions. Distinction between these rocks is difficult, especially with scattered small
outcrops or drill cores. Faulting, deformation, erosion and metamorphism complicate
this attempt. At the same time, this distinction is crucial for the reconstruction of the
volcanic and stratigraphic evolution.
Cooling ignimbrite, lava and sill/laccolith develop a core facies with a homogeneous
more or less equigranular crystallized groundmass (Fig. 5.5, 5.15, 5.19). The core
facies is surrounded by the inhomogeneous carapace which is characterized by
domains of coherent glass and breccias. Partial or complete crystallisation with
spherulites and lithophysae, vesiculation and perlitic cracks leads to very
inhomogeneous groundmass textures. Lava and ignimbrites typically have a thick
carapace, the carapace/core ratio is high. In contrast, laccolith and sills have a small
marginal carapace facies (low carapace/core facies). This concepts also helps to
estimate the degree of erosion of a volcanic unit. In conglomerates rich in volcanic
clasts, a careful facies analysis may reveal a lot of information about the volcanic
activity in the source area.
43
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Scientific journals
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
Bulletin of Volcanology (International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earths Interior,
IAVCEI)
Useful links
IAVCEI: http://www.iavcei.org/
Societ Volcanologique Europenne: http://www.sveurop.org/
USGS Cascade Volcano Observatory: http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/home.html
Institute of Nuclear Science, New Zealand: http://www.gns.cri.nz