PART 11: STABILISATION OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURE IN

ROCK MASS PRINCIPLE & METHOD

Construction cost of structures (tunnel & slope) will increase if they need some
methods of stabilisation. The cost will increase further if the stabilisation is of higher
degree & to be maintained for a long period of time. Appropriate design &
construction method help to reduce the amount & cost of stabilisation.
Design & construction method that are not according to correct procedures will
induce significant disturbance to rock mass consequently more problems on
providing stabilisation methods and the associated cost!
As soon as a tunnel is excavated,
surrounding rock mass will be disturbed
formation of yield zone. Design & method
of
construction
must
be
carefully
considered
so
that
disturbance
to
surrounding rock is reduced (thinner yield
zone, less affected volume).

As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock

mass will be disturbed formation of yield zone.
Design & method of construction must be carefully
considered so that disturbance to surrounding rock is
reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Usually stabilisation of structure is an aspect that

must be implemented. Stabilisation method is basically to increase FOS, by
increasing resisting forces.
FOS = [ resisting forces] / [ disturbing forces]
Disturbing forces are factors that sometimes beyond our control (uncertainties)
rainfall, weathering rate, groundwater, rock mass, earthquakes etc.
Resisting forces are methods that can be implemented to increase FOS slope
profiles, avoiding problem areas & installing stabilisation method.
What is Important about Mode of Instability in Rock and Method of
Stabilisation?
Different mode of instability in rock requires different methods of stabilisation
(support or reinforcement method). Therefore, it is important to understand:
- What is the prevailing instability in the excavated rock mass? (is it plane, wedge,
toppling or rock fall).
- How specific method of stabilisation works to produce effective stability to the
unstable rock mass?
Most of stabilisation methods for rocks are different from those used in soils. This is
mainly due to the mode of instability in rock (the less weathered ones) are mainly
induces by weakness plane rather than material strength.
Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Rock:

 The basic principle of rock mass stabilisation method is to help rock mass to stabilise
itself. Correct installation of method can help to mobilise the inherent/internal
strength available in the rock (e.g. frictional or residual strength of fractured rock,
shear strength of discontinuities).
Methods of stabilisation for rock are divided into 2:
(1)Support system (sistem penyokong)
(2)Reinforcement system (sistem pengukuhan)
Support System:
The use of support elements (e.g. steel U-section, pre-cast slabs, shotcrete & wiremesh) that are installed on rock surface.
This system increased the stability of rock body by imposing a confining pressure
into the rock.
The confining pressure increased the contact between fracture surfaces (joints) and
consequently elevated the existing frictional strength in the fractured rock.
Reinforcement System:
The use of reinforcement elements (e.g. dowel, rockbolt, rock anchor & grout) that
are installed inside the rock body.
This system stabilised the rock by increasing its internal inherent strength.
The element must be installed across a weakness plane.
In principal it is similar to the action of rebars in reinforced concrete or pre-tensioned
rebar in pre-stressed concrete.
Important Considerations in Selecting Suitable Stabilisation Method:
1) Types, size and geometrical orientation of weakness planes presence in the rock
(joint, fault and bedding plane).
2) Mode/type of instability in rock mass (plane, wedge, flexural & rock fall). The mode
of unstability is dictated by the type, orientation and sets of weakness plane (Fig
11.1).
3) Understanding of the reinforcement mechanisms (reinforcing mode) of each method
i.e. how each element reacts with the existing instability so to increase FOS (Rajah
11.2).
4) Type of rock, strengths, weathering grade (HW & CW). Weaker rocks like schist &
highly weathered granite are not suitable to be reinforced with rock-bolt & dowel.

Fig 11.1: Mode of instability in rock is controlled by type, number of set and
orientation of weakness planes.

Plane failure is normally associated with

one set and almost parallel inclined
discontinuities (inclined bedding plane
in fold, faults. Usually the unstable
blocks are relatively larger in size
More than 3 sets of joint intersecting
with each other may result in rock fall
(smaller loose rock blocks) which
eventually producing or larger size
failure (ravelling)

A single larger size joint (in granite) can lead to

plane failure, and two intersect joints may lead
to wedge failure

Plane failure + rock fall

resting on an inclined

Larger unstable blocks

joint plane or bedding plane can
lead to
plane failure

Three or more intersecting joint sets that are closely spaced may produce smaller
loose/unstable rock blocks and eventually lead to rock falls

Rock fall

Combination of several small intersecting

joints & larger joints may produce rock
falls and wedge failure

One or two joint sets that are near

vertical position can produce flexural or
toppling failure

U-section/steel arch support methods installed on tunnel surface, for effectiveness

the system must be active (it must yields along with the movement of rock in the
tunnel walls

Stabilisation of large tunnel using

shotcrete + concrete slab + rock bolt +
wire mesh

Steel U-section as support with concrete

slabs as lining in between the U-sections

Basic design of rock bolt & dowel

Main components of rock bolt and dowel

A rock bolt is an active (tensioned) dowel used

for stabilising rock joints. Similar to the use of
tensioned rebar in pre-stressed concrete

Installed rock bolt with spherical

bearing plate & tensioning nut.
Spherical seat ensure even
distribution of bolt tension

Various types and surface finished of

rebar used as for rock bolt, material
can steel, fibre reinforced concrete
(FRC)

Use of rock bolt as tunnel reinforcement

mechanism for rock slope

Rock bolt & dowel can be used to stabilise

unstable blocks. Bolt must be of sufficient
length so that it extends well beyond the
weakness planes thus anchoring the
unstable blocks to a stronger rock

Use of rock bolt as stabilising

Rock Dowel, Rock Bolt and Rock Anchor:

In principle, these three reinforcement elements are similar in design. The only
differences are their stabilisation capacity, purpose and installation.
They consist essentially of tendon/bar, anchorage (bonding agent) bearing plate &
tensioning device.

 Rock bolt is more expensive to install than rock dowel, they are effective for longterm stabilisation (civil engineering structure).
Rock dowel is for short-term reinforcement (for mining & temporary support in
tunnel).
They are used to increase the inherent strength of weakness planes in rock e.g.
shear strength of unstable joint.
For larger unstable blocks (e.g. unstable blocks of several tonnes in plane failure)
rock anchor is recommended.
Instead of tendon rock anchor consists of high capacity multiple strands steel cables
(cables used in suspension bridge).
The Difference Between Dowel and Rock Bolt:
Dowel is passive bolt, installed without any tension.
Tension in dowel develop eventually after there is movement in joints it intersect.
Rock bolt is active dowel, installed with pretension (usually about (60 70 % Tb).
Due to this pre-tension, rock bolt exhibits several positive characteristics as
permanent reinforcement.

Kesan Rockbolt yang

dipasang condong terhadap
satah kegagalan, peningkatan
daya penahan

Sliding of rough joint surfaces may lead to

dilation (opening of joint). Dilation induces
tension into rock dowel and additional
tension to rock bolt

Rock bolt intersecting rough clean joint:

dilation leads to an increase in bolt
tension (positive effect)

Rock bolt intersecting filled joint: no

dilation due to compressibility of infill,
this leads to eventual loss (creep) in
bolt tension (negative effect)

Roof section is the most critical part of a tunnel. Rock bolt of different lengths are
used to reinforced highly jointed/fractured roof section (reduce roof failure rock fall &
wedge failure)

Excavation of rectangular tunnel in

horizontally bedded sedimentary rock may
induce a phenomenon called bed separation
at the tunnel roof. If the lower bed is thinner
this leads to a larger deflection (as 1/h3).
When the lower bed deflects more
downwards, it will be separated from the
upper bed creating a gap between the beds

Bed separation can be reduced by

installing rock bolts at the roof
tunnel. When the lower & upper
beds are bolted together they form
a composite beam (beam setara),
the resulting bed is thicker (thus
smaller ) and higher shear strength
at the bedding plane.

Steel wire-mesh (chain-link or

welded mesh) is used to restrain
smaller size unstable rock blocks
from falling down especially the
key-blocks. Falling of smaller
rock blocks may lead to a larger
slope failure ravelling

Rock bolt or dowel is used to

secure/anchor the wire mesh to rock
surface. If this anchorage is not
effective (bolting in weak rock) then,
the wire mesh may be detached from
the rock surface & become effective

Steel welded mesh to restrain

smaller size, unstable rock blocks
from falling down, especially the
key-blocks. Falling of smaller rock
blocks may lead to a larger slope
failure - ravelling

Shotcrete is to reduce penetration of

surface run-off water into the slope &
occasionally to prevent falling of smaller
rock blocks. Bonding between the shotcrete
& rock surface must be strong or otherwise
the shotcrete will peel-off from slope surface

Mixing of shotcrete

Spraying of shotcrete on rock surface which

has been fixed with welded mesh

Shotcrete + wire mesh + weep holes

The difference in
properties between
soil and rock must be
understood, methods
applicable to rock
may not be suitable
for
soil (or weak rock
e.g. schist)
shotcrete is only
applicable for strong
rock for good
bonding between
shotcrete & slope
face
Since shotcrete is
impermeable to
water it must be
installed with
weep-holes. This to
drain water out of
the slope or
otherwise there
will be built-up of
pore water
pressure in the
slope.

Weathered strong rock like

granite (Zone 4 6) are not
suitable to be reinforced using
rockbolt/dowel. In weak rock the
bonding between bolt and
surrounding rock are weak.
Weak bonding will not produce
sufficient tension in the bolt

Minerals arrangement (slatey &

schistosity) in metamorphic rocks
induce weakening effect into these
rocks (almost similar to grannular soil).
Reinforcement method using rock bolt,
dowel & rock anchor are not
recommended in these rocks mainly
due to weak bonding

Stability & drainage are the main

problems with slope excavated in schist
& slate (metamorphic rocks). Even with
gentle and low angle profile (2 m height
with benching) the slope remains
unstable an important note for slope
in metamorphic rock!

Rock slopes can fail in various modes & each method of stabilisation is only
suitable/effective for specific mode of unstability.
Usually more than one methods are required to stabilise a rock slope.

 Commonly used method are: rock bolt + wire-mesh + shotcrete.

Long-term effect due to weathering is reduced by minimising the presence of
weathering agents through drainage system: surface drainage & weep-holes.
Sprayed concrete/shotcrete (special cement mix of 20-30mm thick) applied on the
slope face helps to reduce weathering agent from seeping into the slope (Chemical
weathering in Chap 6.0).
Use of stabilisation method shotcrete + wiremesh:
It is a normal practice to spray shotcrete on slope face which has been protected
with wiremesh, this is mainly due to:
a) Both methods compliment with each other although each method delivers
different mechanisms of stabilisation.
b) Thin layer of shotcrete is weak and exhibits lower stiffness, wire-mesh can act as
reinforcement for this layer of shotcrete. By covering the wire-mesh (steel) with
layer of shotcrete provide protection against corrosion (contact with water & O2).
c) This procedure ensures both methods to function effectively for a long period of
time.
Maintenance costs on slope & stabilisation methods (after construction) can be
costly.
Selection of appropriate & effective method, & correct installation procedures
ensure stabilisation methods are functioning effectively for the required safety level
and duration.
Rock bolt is a method recommended for long-term stabilisation however its
effectiveness greatly depending on how it is installed e.g. borehole size, tension
level & tensioning device (bearing plate & nut.
Figure 11.3 exhibits several methods for stabilising rock slope of different surface
conditions.
Table 11.1 Examples of stabilisation methods for slope & tunnel in rock mass.
Support & Reinforcement Methods
Type of Structures
Grouted rock bolt + wire-mesh + shotcrete. Structure excavated in rock mass
e.g. road tunnel and service tunnel
in mining.
Grouted bolt + wire-mesh + shotcrete +
Excavation of slope for highways
suitable drainage system (surface drainage and building structures.
& weep holes).
Yielding steel arches + concrete slab +
Permanent underground excavations
water proof lining + shotcrete + rock
e.g. h.e.p. cavern house, mining
anchor + grouted rock bolt.
service tunnel and sport complex.
Table 11.1: Methods of stabilisation for civil engineering structures and mining
activities (after Stacey & Page, 1986)

Plane failure is usually associated

with a large unstable block that
tends to slide along a weakness
plane (e.g. bedding or fault planes).

Reinforcing the unstable block to a more

stable rock mass is highly recommended,
using rock bolts and rock anchor.

Wedge failure is associated with

unstable medium to large size block
that tends to slide along intersecting
weakness planes (joints or faults).

Toppling or rocks fall is associated with

smaller size blocks. Failure is not along
distinctive sliding planes. The unstable
rocks are blocks that have been
separated from the main rock body by
intersecting joints (> 3 sets). Water can
penetrate the slope easily due to many
joint sets. Reinforcement alone is not
suitable for this type of unstability.
Support system like wire-mesh &

Similar to plane failure, reinforcing the

unstable block to a more stable rock mass is
recommended using rock bolts (for medium
block) or rock anchor (for large blocks).

shotcrete together with rock bolts are

recommended.
Flexural toppling is unstability due to
rock blocks that are separated by at least
one set of near vertical joints or bedding
planes. Failure is associated with sliding
plane. The slender (thin) vertical rock
blocks can be made stronger by bonding
them together (composite beams) using
rock bolts (smaller blocks) or rock anchor
(larger blocks)

Drainage system (method of stabilisation) is

an essential measure for rock slopes
excavated in tropical countries (high annual
rainfall). The drain also acts as buffer zone
for any fallen rock

Drainage system (method of

stabilisation) at the crest of
protected slop

Fig 11.3: Methods of stabilisation for rock slope

Comprehensive drainage system (surface & internal drainage] for large size slopes
and where water is a critical factor.