MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHORO

ASSIGNMENT
SUBJECT: RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
Submitted By: Samiullah Qureshi
Roll Number: 14-ME-ESE-01

Q1. (a) What is a run off river hydropower plant? Discuss its merits and demerits.
Answer:
Run off river (ROR) hydropower plant
Small scale Hydro Power (SHP) is normally known as "run of river", i.e. not involving significant
impounding of water and therefore not requiring the construction of large dams and reservoirs,
though where these exist and can be utilized easily they do help. There is no general
international consensus on the definition of SHP; the upper limit varies between 2.5 and 25
MW in different countries.
Run-of-the-river power plants may either have no storage at all, or a limited amount of storage,
in which case the storage reservoir is referred to aspondage. A plant without poundage has no
storage and is, therefore, subject to seasonal river flows and may operate as an intermittent
energy source while a plant with poundage can regulate water flow and serve either as
a peaking power plant or base load power plant.
Merits of ROR hydropower plant
Small-scale hydropower is one of the most cost-effective and reliable energy technologies to be
considered for providing clean electricity generation. In particular, the key advantages that
small hydro has over wind, wave and solar power are:
A high efficiency (70 - 90%), by far the best of all energy technologies.
A high capacity factor (typically >50%), compared with 10% for solar and 30% for wind
A high level of predictability, varying with annual rainfall patterns
Slow rate of change; the output power varies only gradually from day to day (not from
minute to minute).
A good correlation with demand i.e. output is maximum in winter
It is a long-lasting and robust technology; systems can readily be engineered to last for 50
years or more.
It is also environmentally benign. Small hydro is in most cases run-of-river; in other
words any dam or barrage is quite small, usually just a weir, and little or no water is
stored.
Therefore run-of-river installations do not have the same kinds of adverse effect on the
local environment as large-scale hydro.
De-Merits of ROR hydropower plant

Un-firm power

Run-of-the-River power is considered an un-firm source of power: a run-of-the-river project

has little or no capacity for energy storage and hence can't co-ordinate the output of electricity
generation to match consumer demand. It thus generates much more power during times

when seasonal river flows are high (i.e., spring freshet), and depending on location, much less
during drier summer months or frozen winter months.

Availability of sites

The potential power at a site is a result of the head and flow of water. By damming a river, the
head is available to generate power at the face of the dam. Where a dam may create a
reservoir hundreds of kilometers long, in run of the river the head is usually delivered by a
canal, pipe or tunnel constructed upstream of the power house. Due to the cost of upstream
construction, a steep drop in the river is desirable.

Environmental impacts

Small, well-sited ROR projects can be developed with minimal environmental impacts. Larger
projects have more environmental concerns. For example, Plutonic Power Corp.s
canceled Bute Inlet Hydroelectric Project in BC would have seen three clusters of run-of-river
projects with 17 river diversions; as proposed, this run-of-river project would divert over 90
kilometres of streams and rivers into tunnels and pipelines, requiring 443 km of new
transmission line, 267 km of permanent roads, and 142 bridges to be built in wilderness areas.
British Columbias mountainous terrain and wealth of big rivers have made it a global testing
ground for run-of-river technology. As of March 2010, there were 628 applications pending for
new water licences solely for the purposes of power generation representing more than 750
potential points of river diversion.
Q1. (b) What are the mini and micro hydropower plants? Why are they important these days?
Answer:
Mini and Micro Hydropower Plants
The definition for SHP as any hydro systems rated at 10 MW or less will therefore be used
herein. SHP can be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as those systems with
capacity < 500kW, and micro hydro for systems with capacities < 100kW.

Importance of Mini and Micro Hydropower Plants

In relation to rural development, the simplicity and low relative cost of micro hydro systems
open up new opportunities for some isolated communities in need of electricity. With only a
small stream needed, remote areas can access lighting and communications for homes, medical
clinics, schools, and other facilities. Micro hydro can even run a certain level of machinery
supporting small businesses.

Micro hydro power is generated through a process that utilizes the natural flow of water. This
power is most commonly converted into electricity. With no direct emissions resulting from this
conversion process, there are little to no harmful effects on the environment, if planned well,
thus supplying power from a renewable source and in a sustainable manner. Micro hydro is
considered a "run-of-river" system meaning that water diverted from the stream or river is
redirected back into the same watercourse. Adding to the potential economic benefits of micro
hydro is efficiency, reliability, and cost effectiveness.
It only takes a small amount of flow (as little as two gallons per minute) or a drop as low as two
feet to generate electricity with micro hydro. Electricity can be delivered as far as a mile away
to the location where it is being used. Hydro produces a continuous supply of electrical energy
in comparison to other small-scale renewable technologies. The peak energy season is during
the winter months when large quantities of electricity are required.
Micro hydro is considered to function as a run-of-river system, meaning that the water passing
through the generator is directed back into the stream with relatively little impact on the
surrounding ecology.
Building a small-scale hydro-power system can cost from $1,000 $20,000, depending on site
electricity requirements and location. Maintenance fees are relatively small in comparison to
other technologies.
Because of the low-cost versatility and longevity of micro hydro, developing countries can
manufacture and implement the technology to help supply much needed electricity to small
communities and villages.
If your site produces a large amount of excess energy, some power companies will buy back
your electricity overflow. You also have the ability to supplement your level of micro power
with intake from the power grid.
Q 2. (a) A municipality is considering an investment in a small-scale energy system that will cost
Rs. 6.5 billion to install, and then generate a net annuity of Rs. 400 million/year for 25
years, with a salvage value at the end of Rs. 1 billion.
(i) Calculate the net worth of the project using simple payback.
(ii) Suppose they set the MARR at 5%, what is the net present worth of the project by
this approach?
Solution
(i) The net worth of the project by the simple payback method is the total value of the
annuities, plus the salvage value, minus the initial cost of the project, or 25 ($400,000) +
$1,000,000 $6,500,000 = $4,500,000
(ii) Using discounting, the following factors are needed: (P/A, 5%, 25) = 14.09 and (P/F, 5%, 25)
= 0.295.
The NPV is then
14.09 ($400,000) + 0.295 ($1,000,000) $6,500,000 = $567,119 EU

Thus the project is not viable at an MARR of 5%.

Discussion The comparison of simple payback and present worth analysis using discounting
illustrates the potential effect of even a relatively low MARR on financial viability over a long
period such as 25 years. In this case, a project in which returns from annuity and salvage value
exceed initial costs by 69% using simple payback, is not viable when discounting is taken into
account. This effect can be large on renewable energy projects, where the initial capital cost is
often high per unit of productive capacity, relative to the annual output, so that these projects
are likely to have a long payback period.
Q 2. (b)
A renewable energy system that produces 2 billion kWh per year has an initial capital cost of Rs.
50 billion and an expected lifetime of 25 years, with no remaining salvage value. The capital
cost of the system is repaid at 18% interest. Total operating cost at the system is Rs. 2.5
billion/year, and annual return to investors is estimated at 10% of the operating cost plus
capital repayment cost. What is the levelized cost of electricity, in Rs./kWh?
Solution
Given values to find present value P
I= 0.18, N=20, A= Rs. 2.5 billions/year, so
We know that for annualize capital cost
P= A[(i+1)^N-1)/i*(i+1)^N]
So
(A/P, 18%, 20) = 0.186. The annual cost of capital is then
(50)(0.186) = Rs. 9.3 billion. Total annual cost is therefore
Rs. (9.3+2.5) = Rs. 11.8 billion,
and return to investors is 0.1x11.8 = 1.18 billion.
Then levelized cost is
[(Rs. 11.8 billion) + (1.18 billion)] / 2 billion kWh = Rs. 6.49 /kWh

Q. 3

Write short notes on the following.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

Energy generation using tides and waves

Environmental aspects of solar and wind power
Geothermal energy sources and conversion systems
Pumped hydro-electric system
Renewable energy policy of Pakistan
Hybrid energy systems

Answer:
(i). Energy generation using tides and waves
What is Wave and Tidal Energy?
In addition to its abundant solar, wind and geothermal resources, the Pacific Northwest is also
uniquely situated to capture the renewable energy of the ocean. Special buoys, turbines, and
other technologies can capture the power of waves and tides and convert it into clean,
pollution-free electricity. Like other renewable resources, both wave and tidal energy are
variable in nature. Waves are produced by winds blowing across the surface of the ocean.
However, because waves travel across the ocean, their arrival time at the wave power facility
may be more predictable than wind. In contrast, tidal energy, which is driven by the
gravitational pull of the moon and sun, is predictable centuries in advance.
Wave and tidal technologies are currently more expensive than traditional generating
resources, but with further experience in the field, adequate R&D funding, and proactive public
policy support, the costs of wave and tidal technologies are expected to fol-low the same rapid
decrease in price that wind energy has experienced.
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy
of tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides
are more predictable than energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal
power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with
sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However,
many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal
power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines),
indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed,
and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.
(a) Energy generation using waves
There are three main types of wave energy technologies. One type uses floats, buoys, or
pitching devices to generate electricity using the rise and fall of ocean swells to drive hydraulic
pumps. A second type uses oscillating water column (OWC) devices to generate electricity at
the shore using the rise and fall of water within a cylindrical shaft. The rising water drives air
out of the top of the shaft, powering an air-driven turbine. Third, a tapered channel, or
overtopping device can be located either on or offshore. They concentrate waves and drive
them into an elevated reservoir, where power is then generated using hydropower turbines as
the water is released. The vast majority of recently proposed wave energy projects would use
offshore floats, buoys or pitching devices.
The worlds first commercial offshore wave energy facility will begin operating by the end of
2007 off the Atlantic coast of Portugal. The first phase of the project, which Scottish company,

Ocean Power Delivery (OPD) developed, features three Pelamis wave energy conversion
devices and generates a combined 2.25 MW of electricity. OPD plans to expand the facility to
produce 22.5 MW in 2007.
(b) Energy generation using tides
Tidal power can be classified into four generating methods:
Tidal stream generator
Tidal stream generators (or TSGs) make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power
turbines, in a similar way to wind turbines that use wind to power turbines. Some tidal
generators can be built into the structures of existing bridges, involving virtually no aesthetic
problems. Land constrictions such as straits or inlets can create high velocities at specific sites,
which can be captured with the use of turbines. These turbines can be horizontal, vertical,
open, or ducted and are typically placed near the bottom of the water column.
Tidal barrage
Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or hydraulic head)
between high and low tides. When using tidal barrages to generate power, the potential energy
from a tide is seized through strategic placement of specialized dams. When the sea level rises
and the tide begins to come in, the temporary increase in tidal power is channeled into a large
basin behind the dam, holding a large amount of potential energy. With the receding tide, this
energy is then converted into mechanical energy as the water is released through large turbines
that create electrical power through the use of generators. Barrages are essentially dams across
the full width of a tidal estuary.
Dynamic tidal power
Dynamic tidal power (or DTP) is an untried but promising technology that would exploit an
interaction between potential and kinetic energies in tidal flows. It proposes that very long
dams (for example: 3050 km length) be built from coasts straight out into the sea or ocean,
without enclosing an area. Tidal phase differences are introduced across the dam, leading to a
significant water-level differential in shallow coastal seas featuring strong coast-parallel
oscillating tidal currents such as found in the UK, China, and Korea.
Tidal lagoon
A newer tidal energy design option is to construct circular retaining walls embedded with
turbines that can capture the potential energy of tides. The created reservoirs are similar to

those of tidal barrages, except that the location is artificial and does not contain a preexisting
ecosystem.
Environmental Impacts
Unlike fossil-fueled power plants, wave and tidal energy facilities generate electricity without
producing any pollutant emissions or greenhouse gases. Since the first wave and tidal energy
facilities are currently being deployed, the full environmental impacts of wave and tidal power
remain uncertain but are projected to be small. Concerns include impacts on marine
ecosystems and fisheries. Environmental impact studies are currently underway and several
pilot and commercial projects are undergoing environmental monitoring.

(ii). Environmental aspects of solar and wind power

All energy sources have some impact on our environment. Fossil fuels coal, oil, and natural
gas do substantially more harm than renewable energy sources by most measures, including
air and water pollution, damage to public health, wildlife and habitat loss, water use, land use,
and global warming emissions.
It is still important, however, to understand the environmental aspects associated with
producing power from renewable sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and
hydropower.
The exact type and intensity of environmental impacts varies depending on the specific
technology used, the geographic location, and a number of other factors. By understanding the
current and potential environmental issues associated with each renewable energy source, we
can takes steps to effectively avoid or minimize these impacts as they become a larger portion
of our electric supply.
Wind and solar renewable energies provides substantial benefits for our climate, our health,
and our economy:
Each source of renewable energy has unique benefits and costs; this page explores the many
benefits associated with these energy technologies. For more information on their potential
impacts including effective solutions to mitigate or avoid them entirely
Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable ways to generate
electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global warming emissions. Wind is also abundant,
inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels.
Despite its vast potential, there are a variety of environmental impacts associated with wind
power generation that should be recognized and mitigated.

Like wind power, the sun provides a tremendous resource for generating clean and sustainable
electricity.
The environmental impacts associated with solar power can include land use and habitat loss,
water use, and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing, though the types of impacts
vary greatly depending on the scale of the system and the technology used photovoltaic (PV)
solar cells or concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP).
Few aspects of solar and wind power can be summarized as:
Little to No Global Warming Emissions
Improved Public Health and Environmental Quality
A Vast and Inexhaustible Energy Supply
Jobs and Other Economic Benefits
Stable Energy Prices
A More Reliable and Resilient Energy System
(iii). Geothermal energy sources and conversion systems
"Geothermal Engineering" redirects here. For the British company specializing in the

development of
Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the
energy that determines thetemperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the
Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive
decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature
between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal
energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates
from the Greek roots (ge), meaning earth, and (thermos), meaning hot.
Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat
loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the coremantle boundary may reach over
4000 C (7,200 F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to
melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward
since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes
up to 370 C (700 F).
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has
historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances
have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications
such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells
release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower
per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to
help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuel

Geothermal energy resources

The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs,
but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very
expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy
prices, subsidies, and interest rates.
The Earth's internal thermal energy flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 terawatts (TW), and is
replenished by radioactive decay of minerals at a rate of 30 TW.[42] These power rates are more than double
humanitys current energy consumption from all primary sources, but most of this energy flow is not
recoverable. In addition to the internal heat flows, the top layer of the surface to a depth of 10 meters (33 ft)
is heated by solar energy during the summer, and releases that energy and cools during the winter.
Outside of the seasonal variations, the geothermal gradient of temperatures through the crust is 2530 C
(7786 F) per kilometer of depth in most of the world. The conductive heat flux averages 0.1 MW/km2.
These values are much higher near tectonic plate boundaries where the crust is thinner. They may be further
augmented by fluid circulation, either through magma conduits, hot springs, hydrothermal circulation or a
combination of these.
A geothermal heat pump can extract enough heat from shallow ground anywhere in the world to provide
home heating, but industrial applications need the higher temperatures of deep resources. The thermal
efficiency and profitability of electricity generation is particularly sensitive to temperature. The more
demanding applications receive the greatest benefit from a high natural heat flux, ideally from using a hot
spring. The next best option is to drill a well into a hot aquifer. If no adequate aquifer is available, an artificial
one may be built by injecting water to hydraulically fracture the bedrock. This last approach is called hot dry
rock geothermal energy in Europe, or enhanced in North America. Much greater potential may be available
from this approach than from conventional tapping of natural aquifers.
Estimates of the potential for electricity generation from geothermal energy vary six fold,
from .035to2TW depending on the scale of investments. Upper estimates of geothermal resources assume
enhanced geothermal wells as deep as 10 kilometres (6 mi), whereas existing geothermal wells are rarely
more than 3 kilometres (2 mi) deep. Wells of this depth are now common in the petroleum industry.

Geothermal energy conversion systems

The type of energy conversion system used to produce electrical power from a geothermal resource depends on
the type and quality (temperature) of the resource.
Few systems are:

(a) Direct steam systems/Vapor dominated resources

(b) Flash steam systems/Liquid dominated resources
(c) Binary systems/Liquid dominated resources

(a). Direct steam systems/Vapor dominated resources

When the geothermal resource produces a saturated or superheated vapor, the steam is
collected from the production wells and sent to a conventional steam turbine (see Fig. 1).
Before the steam enters the turbine, appropriate measures are taken to remove any solid
debris from the steam flow, as well as corrosive substances contained in the process stream
(typically removed with water washing). If the steam at the wellhead is saturated, steps are
taken to remove any liquid that is present or forms prior to the steam entering the turbine.
Normally, a condensing turbine is used; however, in some instances, a backpressure turbine is
used that exhausts steam directly to the ambient.[1]

Fig. 1Schematic diagram of a dry-steam power plant.

(b). Flash steam systems/Liquid dominated resources

With few exceptions, the fluid in hydrothermal resources is predominantly liquid. Frequently,
the reservoir pressure is insufficient to overcome the hydrostatic head in the wellbore and
bring the fluid to the surface as a liquid, at flow rates sufficient for commercial production.
Depending on the power cycle used, it may be necessary to use downhole pumps to provide
the necessary flow. In instances when the reservoir temperature is sufficiently high, the fluid is
allowed to flash in the wellbore. This reduces the hydrostatic head in the wellbore and allows
more production flow. When flashing occurs in the well, a two-phase fluid is produced from the
well. The conversion systems used with this flow condition are typically flash-steam power
cycles. In a single-flash cycle, a separator is used to separate the fluid phases, with the steam
phase being sent to a turbine.
Typically, in this cycle, the fluid pressure immediately upstream of the separator is reduced,
which results in additional flashing of the liquid phase and produces additional steam flow. This
single-flash steam power cycle is depicted in Fig. 2. Once the steam leaves the separator, the
cycle is very similar to that for a vapor-dominated resource (Fig. 1). The saturated liquid brine
leaving the separator is reinjected along with cooling tower blowdown and excess condensate.

Fig. 2Schematic diagram of a single flash-steam power plant.

(c). Binary systems/Liquid dominated resources

A binary conversion system refers to a power cycle where the geothermal fluid provides the source of energy to a
closed-loop Rankine cycle that uses a secondary working fluid. In this closed loop, the working fluid is vaporized at
pressure using the energy in the geothermal fluid, expanded through a turbine, condensed, and pumped back to
the heat exchangers, thus completing the closed loop. This type of conversion system is used commercially with
liquid-dominated resources where the fluid temperatures are below ~200C. Typically, this conversion system
requires the use of pumped production wells to provide necessary well flow and to keep the fluid in a liquid phase
to prevent minerals from scaling of heat exchanger surfaces. The system is depicted schematically in Fig. 3 with an
evaporative heat-rejection system.

Fig. 3Schematic diagram of a binary power plant.

(iv). Pumped hydro-electric system

Pumped Hydro-electric system or pump storage hydroelectricity (PSH) is a type
of hydroelectric energy storage used by electric power systems for load balancing. The method
stores energy in the form of gravitational potential energy of water, pumped from a lower

elevation reservoir to a higher elevation. Low-cost off-peak electric power is used to run the
pumps. During periods of high electrical demand, the stored water is released
through turbines to produce electric power. Although the losses of the pumping process makes
the plant a net consumer of energy overall, the system increases revenue by selling more
electricity during periods of peak demand, when electricity prices are highest.
At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the
higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator assemblies act as pump
and turbine (usually a turbine design). Nearly all facilities use the height difference between
two natural bodies of water or artificial reservoirs. Pure pumped-storage plants just shift the
water between reservoirs, while the "pump-back" approach is a combination of pumped
storage and conventional hydroelectric that use natural stream-flow. Plants that do not use
pumped-storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional
hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a similar role in
the electrical grid as pumped storage, by deferring output until needed.
Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and conversion losses,
energy recovery of 80% or more can be regained. The technique is currently the most costeffective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy on an operating basis, but capital
costs and the presence of appropriate geography are critical decision factors.
The relatively low energy density of pumped storage systems requires either a very large body
of water or a large variation in height. For example, 1000 kilograms of water (1 cubic meter) at
the top of a 100 meter tower has a potential energy of about 0.272 kWh (capable of raising the
temperature of the same amount of water by only 0.23 Celsius = 0.42 Fahrenheit). The only way
to store a significant amount of energy is by having a large body of water located on a hill
relatively near, but as high as possible above, a second body of water. In some places this
occurs naturally, in others one or both bodies of water have been man-made. Projects in which
both reservoirs are artificial and in which no natural waterways are involved are commonly
referred to as "closed loop".
This system may be economical because it flattens out load variations on the power grid,
permitting thermal power stations such as coal-fired plants and nuclear power plants that
provide base-load electricity to continue operating at peak efficiency (Base load power plants),
while reducing the need for "peaking" power plants that use the same fuels as many baseload
thermal plants, gas and oil, but have been designed for flexibility rather than maximal thermal
efficiency. However, capital costs for purpose-built hydrostorage are relatively high.
Along with energy management, pumped storage systems help control electrical
network frequency and provide reserve generation. Thermal plants are much less able to
respond to sudden changes in electrical demand, potentially causing frequency

and voltage instability. Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to
load changes within seconds.

(vi). Hybrid energy systems

The word hybrid is used to refer to something made by combining different elements. Modern
science has seen dramatic advances in hybrid technology, giving birth to hybrid cars such as the
Toyota Prius and incorporating information and communications technology (ICT) systems that
automate smart-houses and eco homes.
Similarly, hybrid energy systems have been designed to generate electricity from different
sources, such solar panels and wind turbines.
Hybrid energy systems often consist of a combination between fossil fuels and renewable
energy sources, and are used in conjunction with energy storage equipment (batteries).
This is often done either to reduce the cost of generating electricity from fossil fuels or to
provide back up for a renewable energy system, ensuring continuity of power supply when the
renewable energy source fluctuates.
One of the biggest downfalls of renewable energy is that energy supply is not constant; sources
like solar and wind power fluctuate in intensity due to the weather and seasonal changes.
Therefore, a reliable backup system is necessary for renewable energy generating stations that
are not connected to a national power grid.
These systems consist of a variety of power control methods and storage equipment which
include battery banks and diesel generators among others.
The power systems that are connected to the national grid dont have this problem because, in
most cases, there are many different sources of power contributing to the national electricity
supply.
Different Hybrid Power Technologies
There are several types of hybrid energy systems such as wind-solar hybrid, solar-diesel, windhydro and wind-diesel.
The design of a system or the choice of energy sources depends on several considerations.
The factors affecting the choice of hybrid power technology can also tell us why people use
hybrids and some of the advantages. The main factors are cost and resources available. The
cost hybrid power technology greatly affects the choices people make, particularly in
developing countries.
This also depends on the aim of the project. People who are planning to set up a hybrid energy
project for their own use often focus on lowering the total investment and operational
costs while those planning to generate electricity for sale focus on the long-term project
revenue.

As such, systems that incorporate hydrogen storage and fuel cells are not very common with
small scale projects. The viability of one hybrid energy system over another is usually pegged on
the cost of generating each kilowatt.
The availability of the natural resources plays an enormous part when selecting the
components of a hybrid energy system the right power generation location and method must
be chosen.
Often, a hybrid system is opted for because the existing power resource is not enough to
generate the amount of power needed which is often the case when using micro-hydro
plants.
Hybrid systems are most suitable for small grids and isolated or stand-alone systems as hybrid
power generation is, by definition, a solution for getting around problems where one energy
source isnt sufficient.
Mostly combined renewable and conventional hybrid energy systems are:

Wind + Pumped Hydro + Solar PV

Biodiesel + Wind
Natural Gas + Solar
Coal + Solar