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Sediment
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Forsedimentinbeverages,seedregs.
Sedimentisanaturallyoccurringmaterialthatisbrokendownby
processesofweatheringanderosion,andissubsequentlytransported
bytheactionofwind,water,orice,and/orbytheforceofgravity
actingontheparticles.Forexample,siltfallsoutofsuspensionvia
sedimentationandformssoil(someofwhichmayeventuallybecome
sedimentaryrock).
Sedimentsaremostoftentransportedbywater(fluvialprocesses),wind
(aeolianprocesses)andglaciers.Beachsandsandriverchannel
depositsareexamplesoffluvialtransportanddeposition,though
sedimentalsooftensettlesoutofslowmovingorstandingwaterin
lakesandoceans.Desertsanddunesandloessareexamplesofaeolian
transportanddeposition.Glacialmorainedepositsandtillareice
transportedsediments.

Cobblesonabeach

Contents
1Classification
1.1Grainsize
1.2Composition
2Sedimenttransport
2.1Fluvialprocesses:rivers,streams,andoverlandflow
2.1.1Particlemotion
2.1.2Fluvialbedforms
2.1.3Surfacerunoff
2.1.4Keyfluvialdepositionalenvironments

RiverRhneflowingintoLake
Geneva

2.2Aeolianprocesses:wind
2.3Glacialprocesses
2.4Massbalance
3Shoresandshallowseas
3.1Keymarinedepositionalenvironments
4Environmentalissues
4.1Erosionandagriculturalsedimentdeliverytorivers
4.2CoastalDevelopmentandSedimentationnearCoral
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Reefs
5Seealso
6References

Classification
Sedimentcanbeclassifiedbasedonitsgrainsizeand/oritscomposition.

Grainsize
Sedimentsizeismeasuredonalogbase2scale,calledthe"Phi"scale,
whichclassifiesparticlesbysizefrom"colloid"to"boulder".

Sedimentbillowingoutfrom
Italy'sshoreintotheAdriaticSea

SedimentintheGulfofMexico

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scale
<8

Sizerange
(metric)
>256mm

Sizerange
(inches)

Aggregateclass
(Wentworth)

Othernames

>10.1in

Boulder

6to8 64256mm

2.510.1in

Cobble

5to6 3264mm

1.262.5in

Verycoarsegravel Pebble

4to5 1632mm

0.631.26in

Coarsegravel

Pebble

3to4 816mm

0.310.63in

Mediumgravel

Pebble

2to3 48mm

0.1570.31in

Finegravel

Pebble

1to2 24mm

0.0790.157in

Veryfinegravel

Granule

0to1

12mm

0.0390.079in

Verycoarsesand

1to0

0.51mm

0.0200.039in

Coarsesand

2to1

0.250.5mm 0.0100.020in

Mediumsand

3to2

125250m

Finesand

4to3

62.5125m 0.00250.0049in

8to4

3.962.5m

0.000150.0025in Silt

Mud

>8

<3.9m

<0.00015in

Clay

Mud

>10

<1m

<0.000039in

Colloid

Mud

0.00490.010in

Veryfinesand

Composition
Compositionofsedimentcanbemeasuredintermsof:

SedimentofftheYucatnPeninsula

parentrocklithology
mineralcomposition
chemicalmakeup.
Thisleadstoanambiguityinwhichclaycanbeusedasbothasizerangeandacomposition(seeclay
minerals).

Sedimenttransport
Sedimentistransportedbasedonthestrengthoftheflowthatcarriesitanditsownsize,volume,density,
andshape.Strongerflowswillincreasetheliftanddragontheparticle,causingittorise,whilelargeror
denserparticleswillbemorelikelytofallthroughtheflow.

Fluvialprocesses:rivers,streams,andoverlandflow
Particlemotion

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Riversandstreamscarrysedimentintheirflows.Thissedimentcan
beinavarietyoflocationswithintheflow,dependingonthe
balancebetweentheupwardsvelocityontheparticle(dragandlift
forces),andthesettlingvelocityoftheparticle.Theserelationships
areshowninthefollowingtablefortheRousenumber,whichisa
ratioofsedimentfallvelocitytoupwardsvelocity.

Sedimentbuildsuponhumanmade
breakwatersbecausetheyreducethe
speedofwaterflow,sothestream
cannotcarryasmuchsedimentload.

Glacialtransportofboulders.These
boulderswillbedepositedasthe
glacierretreats.

where
isthefallvelocity
isthevonKrmnconstant
istheshearvelocity
ModeofTransport

RouseNumber

Bedload

>2.5

Suspendedload:50%Suspended

>1.2,<2.5

Suspendedload:100%Suspended >0.8,<1.2
Washload

<0.8

Iftheupwardsvelocityapproximatelyequaltothesettlingvelocity,sedimentwillbetransported
downstreamentirelyassuspendedload.Iftheupwardsvelocityismuchlessthanthesettlingvelocity,but
stillhighenoughforthesedimenttomove(seeInitiationofmotion),itwillmovealongthebedasbedload
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byrolling,sliding,andsaltating(jumpingupintotheflow,being
transportedashortdistancethensettlingagain).Iftheupwardsvelocity
ishigherthanthesettlingvelocity,thesedimentwillbetransported
highintheflowaswashload.
Astherearegenerallyarangeofdifferentparticlesizesintheflow,itis
commonformaterialofdifferentsizestomovethroughallareasofthe
flowforgivenstreamconditions.
Fluvialbedforms
Sedimentmotioncancreateselforganizedstructuressuchasripples,
dunes,antidunesontheriverorstreambed.Thesebedformsareoften
preservedinsedimentaryrocksandcanbeusedtoestimatethe
directionandmagnitudeoftheflowthatdepositedthesediment.

Hjulstrmcurve:Thevelocitiesof
currentsrequiredforerosion,
transportation,anddeposition
(sedimentation)ofsediment
particlesofdifferentsizes.

Surfacerunoff
Overlandflowcanerodesoilparticlesandtransportthem
downslope.Theerosionassociatedwithoverlandflowmayoccur
throughdifferentmethodsdependingonmeteorologicalandflow
conditions.
Iftheinitialimpactofraindropletsdislodgessoil,the
phenomenoniscalledrainsplasherosion.
Ifoverlandflowisdirectlyresponsibleforsediment
entrainmentbutdoesnotformgullies,itiscalled"sheet

Modernasymmetricripples
developedinsandonthefloorofthe
HunterRiver,NewSouthWales,
Australia.Flowdirectionisfrom
righttoleft.

erosion".
Iftheflowandthesubstratepermitchannelization,gullies
mayformthisistermed"gullyerosion".
Keyfluvialdepositionalenvironments
Themajorfluvial(riverandstream)environmentsfordepositionof
sedimentsinclude:
Deltas(arguablyanintermediateenvironmentbetweenfluvial
andmarine)

Sinuouscresteddunesexposedatlow
tideintheCornwallisRivernear
Wolfville,NovaScotia

Pointbars
Alluvialfans
Braidedrivers
Oxbowlakes
Levees
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Waterfalls

Aeolianprocesses:wind
Windresultsinthetransportationoffinesedimentandtheformationofsanddunefieldsandsoilsfrom
airbornedust.

Glacialprocesses
Glacierscarryawiderangeofsedimentsizes,anddeposititin
moraines.

Massbalance
Theoverallbalancebetweensedimentintransportandsediment
beingdepositedonthebedisgivenbytheExnerequation.This
expressionstatesthattherateofincreaseinbedelevationdueto
depositionisproportionaltotheamountofsedimentthatfallsoutof
theflow.Thisequationisimportantinthatchangesinthepowerof
theflowchangestheabilityoftheflowtocarrysediment,andthisis
reflectedinpatternsoferosionanddepositionobservedthroughouta
stream.Thiscanbelocalized,andsimplyduetosmallobstacles:
examplesarescourholesbehindboulders,whereflowaccelerates,
anddepositionontheinsideofmeanderbends.Erosionand
depositioncanalsoberegional:erosioncanoccurduetodam
removalandbaselevelfall.Depositioncanoccurduetodam
emplacementthatcausestherivertopool,anddeposititsentireload
orduetobaselevelrise.

Shoresandshallowseas

Ancientchanneldepositinthe
StellartonFormation
(Pennsylvanian),CoalburnPit,near
Thorburn,NovaScotia.

GlacialsedimentsfromMontana

Seas,oceansandlakesaccumulatesedimentovertime.Thesedimentcouldconsistofterrigenousmaterial,
whichoriginatesonland,butmaybedepositedineitherterrestrial,marine,orlacustrine(lake)
environmentsorofsediments(oftenbiological)originatinginthebodyofwater.Terrigenousmaterialis
oftensuppliedbynearbyriversandstreamsorreworkedmarinesediment(e.g.sand).Inthemidocean,the
exoskeletonsofdeadorganismsareprimarilyresponsibleforsedimentaccumulation.
Depositedsedimentsarethesourceofsedimentaryrocks,whichcancontainfossilsoftheinhabitantsofthe
bodyofwaterthatwere,upondeath,coveredbyaccumulatingsediment.Lakebedsedimentsthathavenot
solidifiedintorockcanbeusedtodeterminepastclimaticconditions.

Keymarinedepositionalenvironments
Themajorareasfordepositionofsedimentsinthemarineenvironmentinclude:
Littoralsands(e.g.beachsands,runoffriversands,coastalbarsandspits,largelyclasticwithlittle
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faunalcontent)
Thecontinentalshelf(siltyclays,increasingmarinefaunalcontent).
Theshelfmargin(lowterrigenoussupply,mostlycalcareous
faunalskeletons)
Theshelfslope(muchmorefinegrainedsiltsandclays)
Bedsofestuarieswiththeresultantdepositscalled"baymud".
Oneotherdepositionalenvironmentwhichisamixtureoffluvial
andmarineistheturbiditesystem,whichisamajorsourceof
sedimenttothedeepsedimentaryandabyssalbasinsaswellasthe
deepoceanictrenches.
Anydepressioninamarineenvironmentwheresediments
accumulateovertimeisknownasasedimenttrap.

Holoceneeolianiteandacarbonate
beachonLongIsland,Bahamas.

Thenullpointtheoryexplainshowsedimentdeposition(geology)undergoesahydrodynamicsorting
processwithinthemarineenvironmentleadingtoaseawardfiningofsedimentgrainsize.

Environmentalissues
Erosionandagriculturalsedimentdeliverytorivers
Onecauseofhighsedimentloadsfromslashandburnandshiftingcultivationoftropicalforests.Whenthe
groundsurfaceisstrippedofvegetationandthensearedofalllivingorganisms,theuppersoilsare
vulnerabletobothwindandwatererosion.Inanumberofregionsoftheearth,entiresectorsofacountry
havebecomeerodible.Forexample,ontheMadagascarhighcentralplateau,whichconstitutes
approximatelytenpercentofthatcountry'slandarea,mostofthelandareaisdevegetated,andgullieshave
erodedintotheunderlyingsoilinfurrowstypicallyinexcessof50metersdeepandonekilometerwide.
Thissiltationresultsindiscolorationofriverstoadarkredbrowncolorandleadstofishkills.
Erosionisalsoanissueinareasofmodernfarming,wheretheremovalofnativevegetationforthe
cultivationandharvestingofasingletypeofcrophasleftthesoilunsupported.Manyoftheseregionsare
nearriversanddrainages.Lossofsoilduetoerosionremovesusefulfarmland,addstosedimentloads,and
canhelptransportanthropogenicfertilizersintotheriversystem,whichleadstoeutrophication.

CoastalDevelopmentandSedimentationnearCoralReefs
Watersheddevelopmentnearcoralreefsisaprimarycauseofsedimentrelatedcoralstress.Thestrippingof
naturalvegetationinthewatershedfordevelopmentexposessoiltoincreasedwindandrainfall,andasa
result,couldcauseexposedsedimenttobecomemoresusceptibletoerosionanddeliverytothemarine
environmentduringrainfallevents.Sedimentcannegativelyaffectcoralsinmanyways,suchasby
physicallysmotheringthem,abradingtheirsurfaces,causingcoralstoexpendenergyduringsediment
removal,andcausingalgalbloomsthatcanultimatelyleadtolessspaceontheseafloorwherebabycorals
(polyps)cansettle.
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Whensedimentsareintroducedintothecoastalregionsoftheocean,theproportionofland,marineand
organicderivedsedimentthatcharacterizestheseafloornearsourcesofsedimentoutputisaltered.In
addition,becausethesourceofsediment(i.e.land,ocean,ororganically)isoftencorrelatedwithhow
coarseorfinesedimentgrainsizesthatcharacterizeanareaareonaverage,grainsizedistributionof
sedimentwillshiftaccordingtorelativeinputofland(typicallyfine),marine(typicallycoarse),and
organicallyderived(variablewithage)sediment.Thesealterationsinmarinesedimentcharacterizethe
amountofsedimentthatissuspendedinthewatercolumnatanygiventimeandsedimentrelatedcoral
stress.

Seealso
Bar(rivermorphology)
Beachcusps
Biorhexistasy
Bioswale
Decantation
Deposition(geology)
Erosion
Exnerequation
Particlesize(grainsize)
Regolith
Sand
Sedimentprecipitation
Sedimenttrap
Sedimentarydepositionalenvironment
Settling
Surfacerunoff

References
Prothero,DonaldR.Schwab,Fred(1996),SedimentaryGeology:AnIntroductiontoSedimentary
RocksandStratigraphy,W.H.Freeman,ISBN0716727269
Siever,Raymond(1988),Sand,NewYork:ScientificAmericanLibrary,ISBN071675021X
Nichols,Gary(1999),Sedimentology&Stratigraphy,Malden,MA:WileyBlackwell,ISBN0632
035781
Reading,H.G.(1978),SedimentaryEnvironments:Processes,FaciesandStratigraphy,Cambridge,
MA:BlackwellScience,ISBN0632036273
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