MS - 4장 Radar Detection-std

Chapter 4
Radar Detection
Korea Aerospace Univ.
Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Kwag
Lab
4.1 Detection in the Presence of Noise

Detection in the Presence of Noise
Fig 4.1. Simplified block diagram of an envelope detector and threshold receiver
input signal s (t ) n(t )

where s (t ) : radar echo signal
n(t ) : additive zero mean white Gaussian noise, with variance 2

Kwag
Lab
RADAR DETECTION
- Band pass IF filter output signal is
v(t ) vI (t ) cos 0t vQ (t ) sin 0t r (t ) cos(0t (t ))

vI (t ) r (t ) cos (t ) ,
vQ (t ) r (t ) sin (t )
where r (t ) envelope of v(t )
(4.1)
(t ) phase a tan( vQ / vI )
s (t ) n(t ) VT
Detection
n(t ) VT
False alarm
s (t ) n(t ) VT
Miss alarm
Radar designers seek to maximize the probability of detection for a given
probability of false alarm

Kwag
Lab
RADAR DETECTION
- If filter output is composed of
noise alone
vI (t ) nI (t ) ,
vQ (t ) nQ (t )
(4.2)
noise plus target return signal (sine wave of amplitude A)
vI (t ) A nI (t ) r (t ) cos (t ) nI (t ) cos (t ) A
vQ (t ) nQ (t ) r (t ) sin (t )
(4.3)
Where the noise quadrature components nI (t ) and nQ (t ) are uncorrelated zero mean
Low pass Gaussian noise with equal variance, 2 .

Kwag
Lab
Joint probability density function

- The joint probability density function (pdf) of the two random variables nI , nQ is
nI2 nQ2
(r cos A) 2 (r sin ) 2
1
f (nI , nQ )
exp
exp
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
(4.4)
- The pdf of the random variable r (t ) and (t ) , represent the modulus and phase
of v (t ). The joint pdf for the two random variables r (t ) , (t ) is
f (r , ) f ( nI , nQ ) J
where J : jacobian
(4.5)
nI
r
nI
nQ nQ
r
cos r sin
sin
in this case J r (t )
r 2 A2
rA cos
f (r , )
exp
exp
2
2
2
2
2

r cos
( 4 .6 )
( 4 .7 )
(4.8)
Kwag
Lab
Rice probability density function

- The pdf for r alone is obtained by integrating
f ( r , ) over
f (r )
f (r , )d
( 4 .9 )
r 2 A 2 1 2
rA cos
exp
exp
2
2
2
2 2 0

Where the integral inside Eq.(4.9) is known as the modified Bessel function
of zero order.
r
Thus,
1
I 0 ( )
2
cos
(4.10 )
r 2 A2
rA
f (r ) 2 I 0 2 exp
2
(4.11)
Rice probability density function.


Kwag
Lab
Rayleigh & Gaussian pdf

- Rice pdf
r 2 A2
rA
f (r ) 2 I 0 2 exp
2
(4.11)
- If A 2 0 (noise alone ), Rice pdf becames the Rayleigh pdf

r2
f (r ) 2 exp
2
2
r
(4.12 )
- If A 2 is very large ,
Rice pdf becames the a Gaussian pdf of mean A and variance 2 .
(r A) 2
f (r )
exp
2
2
2
2
(4.13)

Kwag
Lab
<Fig 4.2. Gaussian and Rayleigh probability density>

Kwag
Lab

- The density function for the random variable is
r
f ( ) f ( r , ) dr
(4.14 )
A2 A cos
( A sin ) 2 A cos
1
f ( )
exp
exp
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
where
F ( x)
1 2 2
e
d
2
(4.15)
(4.16 )
* Note that for the case of noise alone (A=0), Eq.(4.15) collapses to
a uniform pdf over the interval {0, 2}.

Kwag
Lab

- One excellent approximation for the function F(x) is
1 x2 2
1
F ( x) 1
2 e
2
0.661 x 0.339 x 5.51
x0
(4.17 )
and for negative values of x
F ( x) 1 F ( x)
(4.18)

Kwag
Lab
4.2. Probability of False Alarm

Probability of False Alarm
- Probability of false alarm Pfa is define as the probability that a sample
of the R signal r (t ) will exceed the threshold voltage VT when noise alone.
r2
VT2
dr exp
Pfa 2 exp
2
2
2
2
VT
r
VT 2 ln
P
fa
(4.19 a )
( 4.19 b)
Pfa is very sensitive to

small changes in the threshold level

Kwag
Lab
4.2. Probability of False Alarm
Fig 4.3. Normalized detection threshold versus probability of false alarm


Kwag
Lab
False Alarm Time

- The false alarm time T fa is
T fa
tint
Pfa
(4.20 )
where tint radar integratio n time or average time that

the ouput of the envelope detector will pass the threshol d voltage
- Since the radar operating bandwidth
is the inverse of tint
VT2
1
T fa exp 2
B
2
Maximizing T fa increasing VT
( 4.21)
decreased ( Rd ) max
Kwag
Lab
MATLAB function que_func.m

Compute
-function [PD] = marcumsq(a, b)
-This function uses Parls method to compute PD
Radar Lecture @ Prof Y Kwag
4.3. Probability of Detection

Probability of Detection
PD
- Probability of detection
is the probability that a sample
of
r (t )
will exceed
the threshold voltage in the case of noise plus signal
r 2 A2
rA
dr
PD 2 I 0 2 exp
2
VT
r
(4.22 )
- Assume that the radar signal is a sine waveform with amplitude A, then its power
is A2 2. By using SNR A2 2 2 (single-pulse SNR) and
( VT2 2 2 ) ln( 1 P
. fa )
A2
1
r 2 A2
rA
dr Q
PD
I 2 exp
, 2 ln
2 0
2
2
2
Pfa

2 2 ln(1 / Pfa )
Q , I 0 ( ) e (
2 ) / 2
(4.23)
(4.24 )

Kwag
Lab
Probability of Detection
- Q is called Marcums Q-function. When Pfa is small and PD is large so that the
Threshold is also large, Eq.(4.24) can be approximated by
A
1
PD F 2 ln
Pfa
(4.25)
- Many approximations for computing Eq.(4.23). Very accurate approximation

presented by North is given by
PD 0.5 erfc ln Pfa SNR 0.5
(4.26 )
where the complement ary error function is
erfc( z ) 1
v 2
dv
(4.27 )

Kwag
Lab
Table 4.1 Single Pulse SNR(dB)
PD 0.99 and Pfa 10 10 min. single pulse SNR 16 .12 dB


Kwag
Lab
Example 4.1
A pulsed radar has the following specification : time of false alarm T fa 16.67minute
probability of detection PD 0.9 and bandwidth B 1GHz. Find the radar integration
time t int , the probability of false alarm Pfa , and the SNR of a single pulse.
solution:
1
1
9 1 n sec
B 10
1
1
Pfa
9
10 12
T fa B 10 16 .67 60
t int
and from Table 4.1 and Fig . 4.4

( SNR )1 15 .75 dB

Kwag
Lab
Probability of Detection vs single pulse SNR

Compute
- This program us used to produce Fig. 4.3 with marcumsq.
<Example 4.1>
Assume
Tfa=16.67minutes, PD=0.9,
(SNR)1 ?
15.75dB
10-6
10-2
10-4
10-8
10-10
10-12

Kwag
Lab
4.4. Pulse Integration

Radar pulse integration
: adding radar echoes from many pulses

(1) Coherent (Pre-detection) integration
perform on the quadrature components prior to the envelop detection
(2) Non-coherent (Post-detection) integration

perform after the envelop detector

Kwag
Lab
Coherent Integration
Perfect integrator using Integrating np pulses improve the SNR
The case for non-coherent integration integration loss
- mth pulse
ym s(t ) nm (t )
(4.34)
s (t ) : radar return of interest

nm (t ): white uncorrelated additive noise signal
- Coherent integration of np
1
z (t )
np
np
np
p
1
1
y
[
s
(
t
)
n
(
t
)]
s
(
t
)
nm (t )
m
m
m 1
m 1 n p
m 1 n p
(4.35)

Kwag
Lab
- Total noise power in z(t) = variance
nz2
2
nz
1
2
np
*
n p 1
n p 1

E nm (t ) nl (t )
l 1 n

m 1 n p
p
np
1
*
E[nm (t )nl (t )] 2
np
m , l 1
np
m , l 1
2
ny ml
(4.36)
1 2
ny
np
(4.37)
ny2 : single pulse noise power

ml : 0 (ml) , unity (m=l)

Kwag
Lab
- The desired signal power after coherent integration : not change
noise power is reduced by 1/np
- SNR after coherent integration : Improve np
- Single pulse SNR : (SNR)1 ,
- Integrated (np) pulse SNR : (SNR)np
( SNR ) n p
( SNR )1
np
(4.38)
- SNR after coherent integration : improve np

Kwag
Lab
Non-Coherence Integration
: Non-Coherence Integration : implemented after the envelope detector
Fig 4.5. Simplified block diagram of a square law detector and noncoherent integration

Kwag
Lab
- Square law detector used as an approximation to the optimum receiver
- Define a dimensionless variable (y)
yn rn /
Rp
A2
(4.39)
2 SNR
(4.40)
- The pdf for the new variable

( yn 2 R p )
drn
f ( yn ) f (rn )
yn I 0 ( yn R p ) exp
dyn
2
xn
1 2
yn
2
(4.41)
(4.42)

Kwag
Lab
- The pdf for the variable at the output of the square law detector

Rp
dyn
I 0
f ( xn ) f ( y n )
exp xn
dxn
2
2 xn R p
(4.43)
- Non-coherent integration of np pulses

np
z xn
(4.44)
n 1
- xn are independent, the pdf for variable z
f ( z ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) f ( xn p )
2z
f ( z)
n R
p p
( n p 1) / 2
exp z n p R p I n p 1 2n p zR p
2
I n p 1 : the modified Bessel function of order

(4.45)
(4.46)
np 1

Kwag
Lab
- Non-Coherent integration efficiency
E (n p )
( SNR)1
1
n p ( SNR) n p
(4.47)
- Integration improvement factor for a specific Pfa
I (n p )
-
( SNR )1
n p E (n p ) n p
( SNR ) n p
(4.48)
An empirically derived expressed for improvement factor

(accurate within 0.8dB)
I (n )
p
dB
log( 1 / Pfa )
log( n p )
6.79 (1 0.235 PD )1
46 .6
1 0.140 log( n
p ) 0.018310 log( n p )
(4.49)

Kwag
Lab
Fig 4.6. Improvement factor VS number of pulses (non-coherent integration).

These plots were generated using the empirical approximation in Eq.(4.49).

Kwag
Lab
4.5. Detection of Fluctuating Targets

Detection Probability Density Function
- probability density function for fluctuating targets
Swerling I & II
A
1
f ( A)
exp
Aav
Aav
A0
(4.50)
Swerling III & IV

2A
4A
f ( A)
exp
2
Aav
Aav
A0
(4.51)

Kwag
Lab
Detection of Fluctuating Targets

- Performing the analysis for the general case
2z
f ( z / A)
n ( A2 / 2 )
p
( n p 1) / 2
1
A2
A2
exp z n p 2 I n p 1 2n p z 2
(4.52)
- To obtain f(z) use the relations
f ( z , A) f ( z / A) f ( A)
f ( z ) f ( z, A)dA
(4.53)
(4.54)
- Finally,
f ( z ) f ( z / A) f ( A)dA
(4.55)

Kwag
Lab
Detection of Fluctuating Targets

Threshold Selection
- DiFranco and Rubin general form relating the threshold and Pfa for any
number of pulsed and non-coherent integration
V
Pfa 1 l
, n p 1
np
(4.56)
- Incomplete Gamma function

V
VT /
l T , n p 1
np
0
np
n 11
e p
d
(n p 1 1)!
(4.57)
- Approximated,
n 1
V
VT p e VT
T
l
, n 1 1
np p
(n p 1)!
n p 1 (n p 1)(n p 2)
1
2
V
V
T
(4.58)
(n p 1)!
n 1
VT p
Kwag
Lab
Threshold
Nfa = Marcums false
alarm number
VT
vs n p
nfa : pfa
30.05
19.11
10
Hankuk Aviation Univ.
100
RSP Lab
4.6. Probability of Detection Calculation

- Single pulse SNR is unity (0 dB) range R0 (reference range)
SNR R
Pt G 2 2
1
3
4
4 kT0 BFLR 0
(4.65)
- Single pulse SNR at any range R

Pt G 2 2
SNR
4 3 kT0 BFLR 0 4
(4.66)
- Dividing Eq.(4.66) by Eq.(4.65)

SNR
R
0
SNR R0 R
(4.67)
- SNR at any other range R
SNR dB 40 log R0
R
(4.68)
Kwag
Lab
Detection of Swerling I targets

Detection of Swerling I Targets
- detection probability for Swerling I type targets (derived by Swerling)
PD e VT
PD 1 I VT , n p 1 1
n SNR
p
n p 1
1 SNR
; np 1
(4.76)
V
V 1 n SNR
T
I
, n p 1 e T p
1
1
n
SNR
p
; np 1
(4.77)
Matlab Function pd_swerling1.m

Probability of detection versus SNR,
1
single pulse.
Pfa= 10 9
Swerling V
Swerling I
0.9
Probability of detection
0.8
Swerling I and V
type fluctuating
np=1
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
12
14
SNR - dB
16
18
20
22

Probability of detection versus SNR,
6
1
10
Swerling I.
Pfa=
np
np
np
np
0.9
0.8
=
=
=
=
1
10
50
100
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-10
-5
10
SNR - dB
15
20
25
30

Probability 1of detection versus SNR,
Swerling I.
Pfa=10 12
np
np
np
np
0.9
0.8
=
=
=
=
1
10
50
100
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-10
-5
10
SNR - dB
15
20
25
30
Detection of Swerling II targets

Detection of Swerling II Targets
- detection probability for Swerling II type targets
VT
PD 1 I
, n p
1 SNR
; np 50
(4.78)
- When np>50, Eq.(4.70) is used to compute detection probability

C3
1
3 np
C 6 C3 / 2
2
C4
1
4nP
n p 1 SNR
(4.79)
(4.80)
(4.81)

1
np =
np =
np =
np =
0.9
0.8
1
10
50
100
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-10
-5
10
SNR - dB
15
20
25
30
Detection of Swerling III targets

Detection of Swerling III Targets
- detection probability for Swerling III type targets (derived by Marcum)
- when np=1, 2
VT
1 2
PD exp
1 n SNR / 2 n SNR
p
p
n p 2
VT
2
n p 2 K o
1 n SNR / 2 n SNR
p
p
(4.82)
- for np>2
n 1
VT p e VT
VT
PD
1 I VT , n p 1 K 0 I
, n p 1
1 n p SNR / 2n p 2!
1 2 / n p SNR
(4.83)

1
np =
np =
np =
np =
0.9
0.8
1
10
50
100
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-10
-5
10
SNR - dB
15
20
25
30

Kwag
Lab
Detection of Swerling IV targets

Detection of Swerling IV Targets
- detection probability for Swerling IV type targets (derived by Marcum)
- for np<50
2
np
SNR n p
SNR
SNR n p n p 1
SNR
PD 1 0
2 ...
n p 1
n p 1
2
2
2
!
2
2
where
VT
, n p i
1 SNR / 2
i I
(4.84)
(4.85)
- Using the recursive formula

xi
I x, i 1 I x, i
i!exp x
(4.86)

np =
np =
np =
np =
1
10
50
100
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-10
-5
10
SNR - dB
15
20
25
30
4.7. Cumulative Probability of Detection
<Detecting a target in many frames>


Kwag
Lab
4.7. Cumulative Probability of Detection

- The cumulative probability of detection refers to detecting the target at least
once (range R)
- The target gets closer to the radar, probability of detection increases
- The probability of detection during the n th frame is PDn ,
Then, cumulative probability of detecting during n th frame is
n
PCn 1 (1 PDi )
(4.95)
i 1

Kwag
Lab
Example 4.3
Prob 4.3. A radar detects a closing at R, PD= 0.5 , Pfa=10-7. Compute and
sketch the single look probability of detection as a function of range

(interval 2~20 Km) If successive frame is 1Km, cumulative
probability of detection at 8Km ?
Sol) From table 4.1 the SNR corresponding to PD= 0.5 , Pfa=10-7 is 12dB.
From eq. (4.68) , the SNR at any range R as
10
( SNR ) R ( SNR )10 40 log
52 40 log R
R
-The cumulative probability of detection at 8Km is
PC9 1 (1 0.999 )(1 0.9)(1 0.5)(1 0.25 )(1 0.07 )(1 0.01)(1 ) 3 0.9998

Kwag
Lab
Example 4.3
< PD versus normalized range>
frame
Range in Km
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
< range listing for frames 1 through 9 (frame 9 corresponds to R = 8Km) >

Kwag
Lab
4.8 Solving the Radar Equation

Ptf rTi Gt Gr
R
3
(4 ) kTe FL ( SNR ) 0
2
1
4
(4.96)
where,
Pt peak transmitte d power

pulse width
f r PRF
Ti dwell in terval
G t transmitti ng antenna gain
G r receiving antenna gain
wavelength
target cross section
L total system loss
k Boltzmnn' s constant
Te receiver t emperature
F receiver noise figure
(SNR) 0 minimum SNR required for detection

Kwag
Lab
4.8 Solving the Radar Equation

Kwag
Lab
4.9 Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR)

- Relationship between threshold value VT and Pfa
1
VT 2 ln
P
fa
2
(4.97)
where, 2 noise power

- The process of continuously changing the threshold to maintain a constant
=> Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR)
Three different types of CFAR
Adaptive threshold CFAR ( assume that interference distribution is
known)
Nonparametric CFAR ( unknown interference distribution )
Nonlinear receiver techniques ( normalize root mean square of
interference )

Kwag
Lab
4.9.1 Cell-Averaging CFAR (single pulse)
< Conventional CA-CAFR >


Kwag
Lab

- The echo return for each pulse is detected by a square law detector
- The Cell Under Test (CUT) is the central cell
- The neighbors of the CUT are excluded from average process due to
spillover
- The output of M reference cells is averaged
- The threshold value is obtained by averaged estimate all reference cell by K0
Y1 K 0 Z
(4.98)
- Cell-averaging CFAR assumes all reference cells contain zero mean

independent Gaussian noise of variance
- In this case, the gamma pdf is,
z ( M / 2)1e ( z / 2 )
f ( z) M / 2 M
2 ( M / 2)
2
;z 0
(4.99)

Kwag
Lab

- The conditional probability of false alarm when y= VT can be written as
Pfa (VT y) e y / 2
(4.100)
- The unconditional probability of false alarm is
(4.101)
Pfa Pfa (VT y ) f ( y )dy

0
where, f(y) is the pdf of threshold,
- Except for the constant K0 is the same as (4.99). Therefore,

y M 1e ( y / 2 K 0 )
f ( y)
(2 K 0 2 ) M ( M )
2
;y0
(4.102)
- Substituting (4.102) and (4.100) into (4.101) yields
1
Pfa
(1 K 0 ) M
(4.103)

Kwag
Lab
4.9.2 Cell-Averaging CFAR

with Non-Coherent Integration
< Conventional CA-CFAR with non-coherent integration>


Kwag
Lab
4.9.2 Cell-Averaging CFAR

with Non-Coherent Integration
- The output of each reference cell is the sum of nP squared envelopes
- Total number of summed reference samples is MnP
- The output Y1 is also the sum of nP squared envelopes
- Noise alone is present CUT, Y1 random variable (pdf with 2 nP degrees of
freedom)
- The probability of false alarm is equal to the probability Y1 /Z exceeds threshold
Pfa Pr obY1 / Z K1
(4.104)
- Let conditional probability of false when y= VT be Pfa (VT = y),

unconditional false alarm probability is,
Pfa Pfa (VT y ) f ( y )dy
(4.105)
where, f(y) is the pdf of the threshold


Kwag
Lab

MS - 4장 Radar Detection-std

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Chapter 4

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

4.1 Detection in the Presence of Noise

input signal s (t ) n(t )

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

v(t ) vI (t ) cos 0t vQ (t ) sin 0t r (t ) cos(0t (t ))

where r (t ) envelope of v(t )

Radar designers seek to maximize the probability of detection for a given

probability of false alarm

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

noise plus target return signal (sine wave of amplitude A)

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Joint probability density function

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Rice probability density function

Rice probability density function.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Rayleigh & Gaussian pdf

- If A 2 0 (noise alone ), Rice pdf becames the Rayleigh pdf

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Rayleigh & Gaussian pdf

<Fig 4.2. Gaussian and Rayleigh probability density>

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Rayleigh & Gaussian pdf

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Rayleigh & Gaussian pdf

and for negative values of x

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

4.2. Probability of False Alarm

Pfa is very sensitive to

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

4.2. Probability of False Alarm

Fig 4.3. Normalized detection threshold versus probability of false alarm

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

False Alarm Time

where tint radar integratio n time or average time that

- Since the radar operating bandwidth

is the inverse of tint

MATLAB function que_func.m

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof Y Kwag

4.3. Probability of Detection

is the probability that a sample

the threshold voltage in the case of noise plus signal

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

- Many approximations for computing Eq.(4.23). Very accurate approximation

PD 0.5 erfc ln Pfa SNR 0.5

where the complement ary error function is

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

Table 4.1 Single Pulse SNR(dB)

PD 0.99 and Pfa 10 10 min. single pulse SNR 16 .12 dB

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP

and from Table 4.1 and Fig . 4.4

Korea Aerospace Univ.

Radar Lecture @ Prof YRSP