(Bell, Judith). 2008.

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Hayes, N.. (2000) Doing Psychological ResearchBuckingham: Open

University Press. Pages 209-12 consider reliability in discourse analysis;
pages 98-101 in psychometric tests and page 169 in qualitative
research. Validity is examined throughout the book, so consult the
index.
Oppenheim , AN. (1992) QuestionnaiTe Desig InteTviewing and Attitude
MeasuTement, new edition. London: CasselL Oppenheim discusses
the reliability of attitude questions, pages 147-8; of attitude scales,
pages 163-6; of coding, pages 268; of questions, pages 144-8; and of
scaled measures, pages 159-60, pages 162, 188 and 283. Validity is dealt
with in even more detail, from pages 14763.. However, there is more, so
once again, best to consult the index.
mch K. F. (1998) lntroduction to Sodal Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage. In four pages (99-102), Punch provides a
briefb\ery sound introduction to reliability and validity. Well woh
reading.
Sapsford, R. and .Jupp, (1996) Data Collection and Analysis. London:
Sage.
Scaife, .1. (24) 'Reliability, validity and credibility', Chapter 4 in
C. Opie (ed.) Doing Educational Research: A Guide to First-time Researchers.
Indon:Sage.

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Rae) m
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Bell, ]. (2 'Questionnaires' Chapter 10 in M. Coleman and A.R.].

Briggs (eds) Research Method in Educational Leadership and Management.
London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Bell, J. and Opie, C. (22) Learning from Research: Geng More from your
Data. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapters 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4
discuss the planning and preparation involved in the production of
1e questionnaire carried out by Chan (2000) in his doctoral study of
student evaluation of teaching etfectiveness. Part 2, incorporating
Chapters 2.1-2.6 consider the preparation carried out by Fan (1998)
as part of his Master's study of nursing students' perceptions of
nursing education. Both are well worth consulting as examples of the
way two very ditferent students approached the task of planning and
designing questionnaires.
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (2001) How Research; 2nd edn.
Buckingham: Open University Press. Pages 161 -6 give useful adce
about sampling.
Bowling, A. (2002) Research Methods in Health: Investigating Health and
Health Services, 2nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter 7
concenates on methods of sampling. Chapters 11 and 12 conider
aspects of questionnaire design such as planning, piloting, questionnaire layout, the covering letter, order of wording and checking the
accuracy of responses. Chapter 14 introduces issues relating to the
preparation of quantitative data for coding and analysis, all of which is
useful.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000) Research Me
Education , 5th edn. London and New York: Routledge Falmer. Chapter 4
(Sampling) and Chapter 5 (Validity and reliability) are well worth
consulting.
Laws, S. with Harper, C. and Marcus, R. (2003) Research for Development:
A Practical Guide. London: Sage. This book deals with sampling (pages
35 6-75) and quesonnaires (pages 30 10).
Moser, C.A. and Kalton, G. (1971) Survey Method in Social lnvestigation,
2nd e1. London: Heinemann.. In particul see Chapter 4 (Basic
ideas of sampling) , Chapter 11 (Mail questionnaires) and Chapter 13

137

(Questionnaires) , which deals with general principles of desi.

content, question wording, open and pre-coded questions and
question order. This book is now more than 30 years old, but it is sI
one of e best of its kind 1 have seen. If your library still has a copy,
make a point of consulng
Oppenheim, A.N.. (1992) Que.s tionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude
Measurement (new edition). London: Cassell. Chapters 1, 2 and 3 provide guidance about survey design and Chapters 7, 8 and 9 cover
questionnaire planning, queson wording, basic measurement theoryand much more. An excellent book to keep for reference.
Rose, D. and Sullivan, O. (1996) lntroducing Data Analysis for Social
Scientis 2nd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press Chapter 3
(Preparing the data) considers operationalization, data preparation,
coding for analysis, using 'open' and 'closed' questions and the
principles of entering numeric data into a computer. Another very
useful book to keep on hand for reference.
Youngman, M. B.. (1994) 'Designing and using questionnaires', in
N. Bennett, R. Glatter and R. LevaCi (eds) (1994) lmproving Educational
Management through Research and Consultancy. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, in association with The Open University. This is a revised
version of M.B. Youngman (1982) Analysing Questionnaires , Rediguide
12, Guides in Educational Research, University of Nottingham, Rediguides. The author covers the impOItance of planning, question specification, questionnaire design, distribution and return. This is an excellent
chapter and worth keeping as a permanent record and checklist. During
his career at the University of Nottingham, Michael Youngman gave
generous support to struggling research students, of which 1 was one. 1
believe few of us would have survived without him.
queson

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Bowling, A. (22) Research Methods in Health: lnvestigating Health and

Health Services , 2nd edn.. Maidenhead: Open University Press.. Chapters
11 and 13 in Section IV discuss interviews and their response rates in
quantitative research, including techniques of survey interviewing.
Chapter 16 in Section V deals with unstructured interviews and focus
groups in qualitative research.
Darlington, Y. and Scott, D.. (2002) Qualitative Research in Practice: Stories
from the Field. Buckingham: Open University Press (originally published
by Allen and Unwin Australia, 2002). Chapter 3 considers the various
stages of in-depth interviewing.. It is perhaps unlikely you will have the
time to become involved in such interviews but time is not the only
pre-condition. As Darlington and Scott make clear, considerable skil1,
experience and training are required. If you have these attributes and
feel you would be interested in considering this approach, it would be
advisable to consu1t your supervisor and to read this chapter before
making up your mind..
Denscombe , M. (1998) le Good Research Guide (01 Small-scale Social
Research Projects.. Buckingham: Open University Press. Chapter 7 'Interviews' is an excellent chapter, including when it is appropriate to use
interviews for researchrpes of research interview, group and focus
interviews, interviewer effect, planning and recording the interview and much more. Helpful checklists are provided. If you have very
limited time, this is the chapter 1 would suggest you might wish to
consult.
Hayes, N. (2000) Doing Psychological Research: Gathering and Analysing
Data.. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter 7 deals with interviewer effects, conducting interviews, stages of interview research and
ethical issues in interview research.

152

Keats, D.M. (20) Interviewing: A Practical Guide for Students and Pr

sonals. Buckingham: Open University Press. Keats considers the use of
interviews in research, and in partilar issues involved in interviewing
young children, the elderly and people from ethnic communities.
Kitzinger, .1. and Barbour, R.S. (1999) 'Introduction to the challenge
and promise of focus groups', in R.S" Barbour and J. Kitzinger )
Developing Focus Group Research: Politics, Th eory and Practice. London:
Sage.
May, T. (2001) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, 3rd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press.ls book is Pticularly useful in a
number of ways, pailarly Chapter 6 'Interviewing: methods and
process' which provides a review of different types of interview in
social research, issues in interviewing and the analysis of intervie\vs.
The section on group and focus interviews is also helpful.
Oliver (2003) le Student~s Guide to Research Ethics. Maidenhead: Open
University Press. Pages 12-16 discuss informed consent and situations
where engaging in research may be ethically undesirable. Chapter 3
'Research and the respondent: ethical issues during e research' considers the ethics of tape-recording interviews and the right of respondents to end involvement in the research. These few exacts (and much
more) are well worth consulting.
Wellington, .J,J. (1996) Methods and Issues in Educational Research. University of Sheffield Division of Education: USDE papers in Education.
Pages 59-63 deal with focus groups, consider what makes them rather
different from group interviews and gives three short examples of
various uses of focus groups.

10

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Burgess , 1993 ; Burgess and Morrison , 1993)

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Bowling, A. (2 0.0. 2) Research Methods in Health: Investigating Health and

Health Servi5 2nd edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press.. Ann
Bowling, writing about the use of diaries with patients, refers to two
major diary exercises relating to a trial of asthma treatments. See
Hyland, M..E and Crocker, GR. (1995) 'Validation of an asthma q).l ality
of ife diary in a clinical tria l'.. Thorax , 50.: 724-3 0.. AIso , Hyland , M..E
(1996) 'Diary assessments of quality of life' , Quality of Li fe New51etter,
16:8-9
Burgess , R. G.. (1994) Chapter 21 , 'On diaries and diary keeping' , in
N.. Bennett, R Glatter and R LevaCi (eds) Improving Edu tional
Management through Research and CO n5 ultanc y.. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, in association with The Open University ln this chapter,
Burgess discusses the use of logs , diaries and journals, and includes
examples of the supply teacher project considered in this chapter and
also of an interactive video use diary.. He includes ethical questions
relating to intrusion into the lives of respondents

162

HaIt, E" and Bond, M., (1995) Action Research for Health and Social Care: A
Guide to Practice.. Buckingham: Open University Press Pages 201-4 give
two extracts from diary studies , one relating to outpatients' clinic
experiences; the second an extract from a log
Hayes , N (2000) Doir Psychological Research: Gathering and Analysing
Data.. Buckingham: Open University Press. Chapter 9 , 'Analysing
documents' (pp" 147-55), gives useful guidance about the advantages,
disadvantages, design and analysis of diary studies. Worth consulting.
Morrison, M., (2002) Chapter 13, 'Using diaries in research' , in M Coleman
and AR .J Briggs (eds) Research Methods in Educational Leadership and
Managemen t. London: Paul Chapman Pub1ishing. This chapter provides
examples of extracts from several diaries and includes sections on
researchers' and research informants' diaries, the design and analysis of
diaries and combining diaries with interviews.
Sutherland and Cooper~ C. L (2003) De-stressing Doctors: A Sel
management Guide. London: Butterworth Heinemann .
,

11

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bet , 1977: 1

CNisbet and Watt , 1980: 13)

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Bowling, A,. (2002) Research Methods in Health: lnvestigating Health and

Health Servi5 2nd edu.. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Chapter
25 , 'Unstructured and structured observational studies' , provides useful
information about paicipant obseIvation; gaining access; establishing
validity and reliability (reducing observer bias); structured and
unstructured observations; and analysis and categorization of data.


174

Page 375 gives a useful summary of e main points covered in the

chapter.
Darlington, Y. and Scott, D. (2002) Qualitative Research n actce: Stories
from the Feld. Maidenhead: Open University Press. First published in
2002 by Allen and Unwin in Australia. Chapter 4, 'Observation', is
helpful and well worth consulting. The authors provide guidance about
the observation process, including useful reminders about the ethics of
observation. This chapter also includes discussions with two researchers
who used observation in conjunction with various other methods of
data collection.
Denscombe, M. (2003) le Good Research Guide, 2nd edn. Maidenhead:
Open University Press. Chapter 11 , 'Observation', of the second
edition of this excellent book is well worth consulting. Denscombe
covers the advantages and disadvantages of systematic observationi
observation schedulesi rpes of events and behaviour to be recordedi
suitability for observationi samplingi the advantages and disadvantages
of participant observationi making field notes (and the dangers of field
work) and ethics. Two useful checklists are provided, one concerned
with observation schedules and the other a general checklist dealing
withpaicipant observation.
May, T.. (2001) Sodal Research: Issues, Methods and Process, 3rd edn. Buckingham: Open University Press.. Chapter 7, 'Pacipant obseon:
perspectives and practice', pages 146-74, deals with the practice of
social research (the researcher's IOle, access, field notes)i the analysis of
observationsi and issues in participant observation.
Moyles, .J. (2'2) 'Observation as a research tool', in M. Coleman and
R. E Briggs (eds) Research Methods in Educatonal Leadershp and Managemen t. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Pu nch, K.F. (1998) Introducton to Sodal Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage Publishing. Pages 184-90 consider structured and unstructured observation, recording observational data,
ethnographic observation and participant observation.
Williams, G. L. (1994) 'ObseIring and recording meetings', in N. Bennett,
R. Glaer and R. Levaci (eds) lmproving Educational Management through
Research and Consultancy. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Chapter
22 is thorough and helpful. Williams discusses content and process
observations, decision-making processes and problem solving. He also
includes several obselvation forms whic