University of Aberdeen - School of Engineering

EG1008 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONICS

3. DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Series/parallel circuits. Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws. Current sources. Current/voltage source
conversions. Circuits and theorems.
3.1 Series/parallel circuits
Many (but not all) circuits can be analysed, and designed, by considering them as combinations of series
circuits and parallel circuits. The technique is simply:
identify parallel and series combinations of resistors
replace such combinations by their equivalent resistors
identify any parallel and series combinations of these equivalent resistors
continue until the circuit is reduced to a straightforward parallel or series circuit
finally use Ohm's law, or the voltage and current divider rules, to find the individual resistor voltages
and currents if required.
EXAMPLES (i) Consider the circuit of Figure 4(a). What is the voltage
across R3 and what current is drawn from the source?
The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of R 2 and R3 is
R2||R3 = R2R3/(R2+R3) = 101/(10+1) = 0.909k . Hence, by the voltage
divider rule, the voltage across this combination (which is equal to
V3) is
VS

= 10

= 0.917V

and the equivalent resistance connected across the source is R 1+(R2||

R3) = 9.909k , so that the current drawn is 10/9.909 = 1.009mA.

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Figure 4. (a) to (c) Series/parallel circuits. (d) A circuit which cannot be reduced to a series/parallel
combination. Note the drawing convention in (c): T-junction means join, but X-junction actually means no
join. Alternatives are to show junctions with dots (as in the course text) or, less commonly, to show nonjunctions as explicit bridges.
(ii) Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance of the circuit
of Figure 4(b). If R2 = R4 = R5 = 1 and R1 = R3 = 2, what is the
value of this equivalent resistance?
R4 and R5 are in series, to give equivalent resistance R 4 + R5. This is
in parallel with R3 to give R3||(R4+R5) = R3(R4+R5)/(R3+R4+R5). This
equivalent resistance is in series with R 2 giving equivalent
resistance R2 + R3 (R4+R5)/(R3+R4+R5) which, finally, is in parallel
with R1 giving a final result for R:
=

Substituting in the values given, 1/R = 0.5 + 1/[1 + 22/4] = 1S.

Alternatively, and more directly, with these values, R 4 + R5 = 2, so
R3||(R4+R5) = 2||2 = 1, R2 + R3||(R4+R5) = 1 + 1 = 2, and finally R1||
[R2 + R3||(R4+R5)] = 2||2 = 1.

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This procedure can work with quite large circuits, such as Figure 4(c):
R = [R1 + (R6||R7)]||[R2 + R3||(R4+R5)]
(which can be re-expressed if required, but in most practical cases would be better evaluated directly as in
the alternative treatment for the Example given above). However, the procedure FAILS for Figure 4(d),
even though at first glance the circuit may look less complicated than that of Figure 4(c): no sequence of
parallel and series combinations can be found for Figure 4(d).
The methods so far described are important. They can be applied to give a complete analysis of a circuit in
many cases (that is, they determine all voltages and currents). In such cases, it may be unneccesary to use
any more advanced methods. However, there are important circumstances where they do not work - Figure
4(d) gives just one example. Other methods must therefore be explored.
3.2 Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws
These are just formal statements of rules which have already been used. They can, however, be used in turn
to derive more advanced analysis methods. In parallel circuits, when adding currents flowing in parallel
resistors and equating to the total current, we have already used:
Kirchoff's current law (KCL): at any node of a network, the sum of the currents flowing into the node is
equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of the node.
Alternative statement of KCL: at any node of a network, the algebraic sum of the currents flowing is zero.
Note that a node is a point, or junction, where two or more circuit components are connected together. As in
Figure 5, the point need not actually be drawn as a point, nor need it be a physical point in a circuit, as long
as the currents are correctly identified. A network is simply an alternative word for a circuit (it tends to be
used for more complicated patterns of interconnection). In the alternative statement of the law, currents
flowing into the node and currents flowing out of the node are considered as having opposite signs: in Figure
5, currents flowing into a node are considered positive (but this is by no means a universal convention either convention can be used as long is it is applied consistently).

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Figure 5. Example of Kirchhoff's current law. A node may be drawn either as a point or, often more
conveniently, as an extended connection region: (b) is identical to (a), but redrawn. The law can also be
applied to an arbitrary region of a network, as in (c). Note the alternative method of showing current, by
arrows on the conductors - this is more compact than separate arrows.
Similarly, in series circuits, when adding voltages across series resistors and equating to the driving e.m.f.
we have already used:
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL): the algebraic sum of all the voltages across individual components around
any loop of a circuit is zero.
As mentioned above, these laws have already been used in the treatment of series circuits (where it was
assumed that the sum of resistor voltages is equal to source voltage) and parallel circuits (total current equal
to sum of individual resistor currents). The laws can also be used directly to find currents and voltages in
some circuits which are not series/parallel circuits, or where not all source voltage and resistance values of
resistors are given.

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Figure 6. Example of Kirchhoff's voltage law.

Figure 7. Solving problems using KCL and KVL directly.

EXAMPLES (i) Find the unknown currents in the circuit of Figure 7(a).
Using KCL at node A: 2 - 5 - I1 = 0

or

I1 = -3A

(this means that I1 actually flows opposite to the direction shown by

the arrow)
Using KCL at node B: 1 + 3 + I1 - I2 = 0

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thus

4 + (-3) - I2 = 0

Using KCL at node C: I2 + I4 - 4 = 0

so
so

I2 = 1A

I4 = 3A

Check - using KCL for whole circuit: 2 - 5 + 1 + 3 - 4 + I 4 = 0

or

I2 = 3A, as required.

Note that the solution to the problem has been made simpler by the
choice of order of nodes - starting with node B or C would give an
equation with two unknowns.
(ii) Find the unknown voltages in the circuit of Figure 7(b).
KVL for loop JABKHJ:

12 + 9 - V2 = 0

so

V2 = 21V

KVL for loop KBCLK:

-9 - V1 + 6 = 0

so

V1 = -3V

(this means that the sense of V 1 is actually reversed - point L is

more positive than point C)
KVL for loop KLGHK:
thus

-6 - V3 + V2 = 0
-6 - V3 + 21 = 0

so

V3 = 15V

KVL for loop JABCDEFGHJ:

12 - 3 - V5 = 0

so

V5 = 9V

KVL for loop LCDEL:

V1 - 3 + V4 = 0

so

V4 = 6V

(loop LCDEL includes the "open circuit" EL, across which V 4 is

measured: KVL is still valid when sections of a loop are open
circuits)
Check - using KVL for loop HKBCLGH:
V2 - 9 - V1 - V3 = 0
or

21 - 9 - (-3) - 15 = 0, as required.

(this is just one of the checks that can be made). Note that labels in this example are not all nodes.
3.3 Current sources and current/voltage source conversions
So far, we have only considered circuits containing voltage sources (including batteries) and resistors. There
is an alternative form of electrical source, useful both in practical circuits and for formal analysis, known as
a current source. An ideal current source is defined as a source which supplies an unchanged current to a
load, independent of the value of the load. This behaviour is, in a sense, opposite to that of the ideal voltage
source, which supplies an unchanged voltage to a load, independent of the value of the load. Notice, in
particular, that the voltage across the current source must change as the load changes.
Figure 8 shows the symbol for such a source, together with two possible implementations. Neither
implementation is ideal: that of Figure 8(b) will, however, provide less than 1% current variation for loads
up to about 10kW, and the circuit of Figure 8(c) might be somewhat better, as well as more practical. More
advanced electronic circuits can give better performance.

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In a non-ideal current source, the current supplied by the source will generally fall as the load resistance
rises. This behaviour can be modelled by placing a suitable equivalent resistance in parallel with an ideal
source - the combination of ideal source and parallel resistor then constitute the model of the non-ideal
source. If a change of terminal voltage V leads to a change of current I supplied by the non-ideal source,
the value of parallel resistor is V/I.

Figure 8. The current source. (a) Basic symbol and circuit. (b) Simple implementation. (c) A more
practical implementation, using a bipolar transistor ( you will learn about transistors later ).
Now return to the voltage source. Recall that a non-ideal voltage source, or non-ideal battery, can be
modelled as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor (Figure 1(c)). This model, or equivalent circuit,
accounts for the way the voltage across the source varies as the load varies. However, as Figure 8(b) shows,
a voltage source in series with a resistor can also implement a (non-ideal) current source. Hence, while an
ideal voltage source is quite different in behaviour from an ideal current source, a non-ideal voltage source
and a non-ideal current source behave in an essentially similar fashion. In fact, any non-ideal source can be
modelled either as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor or as an ideal current source in parallel
with a resistor (Figure 9). These two circuits are called the Thvenin and Norton equivalent circuits of the
source respectively, and each can give an equally good description of the source as far as the load is
concerned.

Figure 9. Thvenin and Norton equivalent circuits for a source.

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Suppose a (non-ideal) voltage source is represented by its Thvenin equivalent. This is an ideal voltage
source VT in series with a resistor RT (Figure 9). The open circuit voltage VOC (i.e. the terminal potential
difference of the source when no load is connected) is just VT. The short circuit current ISC (i.e. the current
flowing in a load of resistance equal to zero) is VT/RT:
VOC = VT
ISC = VT/RT
To represent the same source by its Norton equivalent, it is necessary to ensure the same values for V OC and
ISC. From Figure 9, the Norton current source current value IN and the parallel Norton resistance value RN
are related to VOC and ISC by:
ISC = IN
VOC = INRN
Hence, for the Norton or current source representation to be equivalent to the Thvenin or voltage source
representation:
and

VT = VOC = INRN
IN = ISC = VT/RT

hence, given the Norton circuit, the equivalent Thvenin circuit values are:
RN = R T

and

IN = VT/RT

or, given the Norton circuit, the equivalent Thvenin circuit values are:
RT = R N

and

VT = INRN

As a check on this, the current into a load RL is:

(T)

(Thvenin equivalent)

(N)

(Norton equivalent)

IL
IL

(the current divider rule has been used here). But, using R N = RT and IN = VT/RT, the Norton equivalent
form gives
(N)

IL

(T)

= = IL

as required.

These relations thus allow a (non-ideal) current source to be converted to a voltage source, and vice-versa.
Notice that the behaviour is equivalent only as far as the load is concerned: the behaviour inside the source
is quite different. For instance, if there is no load connected, the Norton (current source) form apparently
dissipates heat inside the source, while the Thvenin equivalent does not. This discrepancy does not,
however, affect the behaviour as far as the load is concerned.
The value of RT (or RN - since for any given source R N = RT) is frequently referred to as the source
resistance, or the internal resistance or the output resistance of the source, or sometimes the resistance
"looking into the terminals" of the source. Note that the ideal current source can now be considered as a
source with infinite internal resistance (RN or RT), while the ideal voltage source has zero internal
resistance.
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Source conversions are sometimes of particular value in dealing with circuits containing multiple sources,
including both current and voltage types. An example is shown in the next section (1.3.4).
EXAMPLES (i) A voltage source has an e.m.f. of 12V and a source
resistance of 1. What is the current source which is equivalent to
this voltage source?
From the description of the source, its Thvenin equivalent has
VT = 12V and RT = 1. The equivalent current source is just the Norton
equivalent circuit shown inside the dashed line in Figure 9(a). Using
the relationships given above, the Norton equivalent values are
RN = RT = 1

and

IN = VT/RT = 12A

(ii) A source produces an open circuit voltage of 10V, and a load

current of 1mA when connected to a 1k load resistor. Derive the
Thvenin and Norton equivalents of this source.
Using the Thvenin equivalent circuit (Figure 9(b)) V T = VOC = 10V.
Also, when RL = 1k and IL = 1mA,
VL = ILRL = 1V
Hence the voltage drop across the equivalent source resistance R T is
VT - VL = 10 - 1 = 9V. Thus ILRT = 9V, and so RT = 9k. The Norton
equivalents are thus RN = 9k and IN = 10/9 = 1.11mA.
Note that the calculation of this source resistance is essentially the same as in Section 1.1.3 for a non-ideal
voltage source. It is equally possible, but in this case slightly less convenient, to use the Norton equivalent
circuit.
3.4 Thvenin theorems
It turns out that the results of the last section for voltage and current sources can be extended to more
complicated circuits in a way which is straightforward but very useful.
Thvenin's theorem. As far as any load is concerned, any network consisting of ideal voltage sources, ideal
current sources and resistors can be replaced by a single ideal voltage source VT in series with a resistance
RT. The value of VT is equal to the open circuit voltage of the network. The value of R T is the resistance
which would be measured between the terminals of the network if all ideal voltage sources were replaced by
short circuits, and all ideal current sources by open circuits (the load being removed).
Note that, although formulated in terms of ideal sources, the fact that non-ideal sources can be represented
by equivalent circuits involving ideal sources means this applies to all circuits we have met, or will meet.
Apart from its extension to circuits rather than sources, the only new idea here is the procedure for finding
RT .
Both the method of application and the value of Thvenin's theorem can be illustrated by examples.

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Figure 10. (a) Example for use of Thvenin's theorem.

EXAMPLES (i) Consider the circuit of Figure 10(a). Find the Thvenin
equivalent for the network connected to load resistor R.
First, mark the terminals to distinguish the network for which the
equivalent is to be calculated.
Second, find RT. Remove the load, replace the (ideal) voltage source
by a short circuit and the (ideal) current source by an open circuit
(Figure
10(a.ii)).
In
this
case
RT
is
a
straightforward
series/parallel combination, as given in the diagram.
Third, find VT. Restore both the sources. Leave the load disconnected,
since VT is found as the open circuit output voltage V OC. In this case
VOC is most easily found by converting the voltage source (15V in
series with 5k) into the equivalent current source (15/5 = 3mA in
parallel with 5k). The two current sources can then be combined as a
single current source with strength equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual strengths, in parallel with the parallel combination of the
individual resistors, as in Figure 10(a.iii). Note that there is no
current through, and hence no voltage drop across, the 2k resistor
when the network is open circuited.

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Figure 10. (b) Thvenin equivalent of potential divider.

(ii) In the potential divider circuit of Figure 10(b), the output
voltage is reduced from its intended open circuit value if a load is
connected. What value of load resistance R L will reduce the output
voltage by 50%?
Replace the potential divider circuit, to the right of the marked
terminals in Figure 10(b.i), by its Thvenin equivalent (strictly,
only RT is needed for this question). It is now obvious that a value
of RL equal to RT = 0.8k will reduce the output voltage to 50% of its
intended value (which is the open circuit voltage 0.2V in).
(iii) Figure 10(c) shows a transistor amplifier. If the base current
IB is 10mA, what is the base voltage V B?
Separate the base network from the load, which consists of the
transistor, and resistors R E and RC. The base network is shown in
Figure 10(c.ii). The base network can now be replaced by its Thvenin
equivalent. (The load is non-linear, but this does not affect the
validity of the theorem, since the base network is linear.) The
calculation of VT and RT is carried out as usual. In this case, it is
convenient to replace both voltage sources by current source
equivalents (20mA in parallel with 50k, and 30mA in parallel with
500k, respectively) so that RT = 50||100||500 = 31.25k and VT
= (0.03+0.02)31.25 = 1.5625V. The base current now flows through R T
so that the base voltage
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VB = VT - IBRT = 1.5625 - 0.0131.25 = 1.25V

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4. SYSTEMATIC SOLUTION OF DC NETWORKS NODAL ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
So far, all circuits encountered with the exception of Figure 4(d) have been possible to analyse using Ohm's
law and the rules for combining resistors in series and parallel. Other rules, such as the voltage divider rule
and Thvenin's theorem, provide considerable simplification, but the basis of solution is the same. Solutions
have, in fact, consisted of identifying suitable rules to use, and choosing suitable series/parallel
combinations of resistors.
The aim of this section is to introduce systematic methods of solution which will allow the analysis of any
arbitrary arrangement of sources and resistors, and will provide a general way of doing so which does
not rely on identifying special rules or choosing particular approaches. This means that, given a circuit with
specified source and resistor values, the method should allow all currents and voltages to be found with
as straightforward a procedure as possible.
Two common methods are nodal analysis and mesh analysis. Both rely on systematic application of
Kirchhoff's laws. Both are well suited to manual analysis and, because of their systematic nature, also to
computer analysis. Nodal analysis provides the basis of all electronic CAD systems such as SPICE.
4.2 Nodal analysis
Recall that a node is a junction, that is a point or extended connection region where two or more
components are connected together - see Figure 5. A branch is simply a section of the network between two
nodes - it will generally comprise a source or a resistor. Having identified all nodes of the circuit, the
procedure for nodal analysis is as follows:
choose one node as a reference node, which will be considered to have zero voltage. The choice should
not affect the final results, but there is often a fairly obvious convenient choice e.g. a junction of
several resistors, or of two or more voltage sources.
assign node voltages V1, V2, V3, etc. to all the nodes other than the reference node (the labelling is
arbitrary).
at any known node whose voltage is fixed by an ideal voltage source, the corresponding node voltage
may be written down at once.
at all nodes other than the reference node or known nodes, write down Kirchhoff's current law in terms
of the branch currents flowing into and out of the node. These currents are found from Ohm's law in
the form (Vi - Vj)/Rij where i, j are the numbers labelling the nodes and R ij the resistance of the
branch between them - unless a current is fixed by a current source.
solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations (the nodal equations) for the unknown node voltages
in terms of the known voltage and current sources (and the known resistance values).
complete the analysis (if required) by working out the branch voltages and branch currents.
EXAMPLES (i) Carry out a nodal analysis of the potential divider
circuit (of Figure 10(b) and 11) and hence obtain the output voltage
Vout.
The circuit has just three nodes, as shown shaded in Figure 12, which
also shows a convenient choice of reference node.
For the purposes of the nodal analysis, all resistors including R L are
treated as known, as is the one source V in.
Clearly, V1 = Vin (i.e. node 1 is a known node).
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Figure 12. Nodal analysis for potential divider circuit. Note the symbol for the reference node.
We therefore need to write KCL for node 2. The relevant branch
currents are labelled in Figure 12 (note the subscripts for the branch
currents have no direct relation to the node subscripts). In terms of
the node voltages:
I1 = (Vin - V2)/R1
I2 = (V2 - 0)/R2
I3 = (V2 - 0)/RL
and so KCL for node 2:
or

I1 - I2 - I3 = 0
-

= 0

or
V2

= Vin

This is the required result, since V out = V2. Individual branch

currents I1, I2, I3 can be written down explicitly in terms of V in if
required.
Note that it would be almost as convenient to choose node 1 as reference, but then the calculation of V out
requires two node voltages. Choice of node 2 as reference would be much less convenient, since it would
then be impossible to write down any known node voltages directly. In this case, nodal analysis, although
giving a complete result, gives it in a less helpful form than the analysis using the Thvenin equivalent.
Nodal analysis works (always) because the assignment of node voltages automatically satisfies KVL.
Writing KCL at each of N (unknown) nodes then gives N equations in the N unknown node voltages.
(ii) Find the current drawn from the source in the circuit of Figure
13.

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This looks at first sight a familiar problem, similar to those already
solved using series/parallel resistor combinations. However, the
circuit is the network first encountered in Figure 4(d), which cannot
be considered as a series/parallel combination. Therefore, even though
only one current is to be evaluated, a full nodal analysis is
required. This is not particularly hard, but there is no obvious short
cut.

Figure 13. (a) Example for nodal analysis. (b) Circuit labelled to show reference node, nodal voltages
V1 = VS, V2 and V3, and branch currents IS, I1, I2, I3, I4, I5.
Figure 13 shows the (four) nodes, a convenient choice of reference
node, the nodal voltages, and the branch currents. Node 1 is a known
node V1 = Vs = 10V, so we need to write down KCL for nodes 2 and 3:
KCL for node 2:
I2 - I3 - I4 = 0

or

= 0

or
V2

- V3

= VS

(i)

KCL for node 3:

I1 + I4 - I5 = 0

or

= 0

or
- V2

+ V3

= VS

(ii)

Substituting values for V S and R1 to R5 as given, we have

V2
- V2

or

and
or

- V3

= 10

+ V3

from (i)

= 10

from (ii)

V2 - 0.25 V3 = 10 0.5
- 0.25 V2 + V3 = 10
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and

0.85 V2 - 0.25 V3 = 5

(i)

- 0.25 V2 + 1.45 V3 = 10

(ii)

This pair of simultaneous equations can be solved by elimination (or

any other convenient means). Multiplying (i) by (-0.25/0.85) and
subtracting the result from (ii):
[1.45 - (-0.25)(-0.25/0.85)] V3 = 10 - 5(-0.25/0.85)
or (working to 5 significant figures)
1.3765 V3 = 11.471

or

V3 = 8.3332V

and, back-substituting into (i):

0.85 V2 - 0.258.3332 = 5

or

V2 = 8.3333V

This completes the nodal analysis. Finally, we need

IS = I1 + I2
=

(KCL at node 1)

= 2.5002mA

In this case, because of the particular resistor values, it turns out there was a short cut: R 1 and R5 form a
potential divider having the same division ratio as R2 and R3. Hence no current flows in R 4, and V2 = V3
= (5/6)10 = 8.3333V. The circuit is, in fact, a "balanced bridge". In general, however, non-zero current
will flow in R4, and this trick will not work.
To summarise: nodal analysis is slow but sure.

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