Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

UNIT I Interference
1.1

Formation of Newtons rings in reflected light.

Formation of Newtons rings When a plano-convex lens of large radius of

curvature is placed with its convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate, an
air-film of gradually increasing thickness from the point of contact is formed
between the upper surface of the plate and the lower surface of the lens. If
monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on this film, then alternate bright
and dark concentric rings with their centre dark are formed. These rings are
known as Newtons rings. The fringes are circular because the air film is
symmetrical about the point of contact of the plano-convex lens with the plane
glass plate.
Newtons rings are formed because of the interference (by division of amplitude)
between the waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of an air-film
formed between the plano-convex lens and the plate.

1.2

Refractive index of a liquid with the help of Newtons rings

experiment with necessary formula.
Newtons rings in reflected light We know that when monochromatic light
falls normally on a plano-convex lens resting on a plane glass plate, alternate
bright and dark concentric rings with dark centre are formed due to waves
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of an air-film or any other medium of
refractive index between the plano-convex lens and plane glass plate.
For reflected system, the effective path difference is given by

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I
2t cos r

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

2t

(since light is falling normally, cos r 1)

At the point of contact t 0 , therefore, effective path difference

Unit I

2
This is the condition for minimum intensity. Hence, the centre of Newtons rings is
dark.

For constructive interference (bright fringes/maxima)

2t

n = 0, 1, 2, 3..

2t 2n 1

Or

For destructive interference (dark fringes/minima)

2t

Or

2n 1

n = 0, 1, 2, 3. .

2t n

Diameters of Bright Rings

From the above figure, OP R, PN rn and ON R tn

Therefore, ON 2 PN 2 OP2
Or

R tn

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rn2 R 2

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Or

R2 tn2 2Rtn rn2 R2

Or

2tn

rn2
R

neglecting tn2 , since tn is small

Unit I

Determination of refractive index of a liquid - Newtons ring experiment can

be used to determine the refractive index of a liquid. The liquid whose refractive
index is to be determined is placed between the plano-convex lens L and the
glass plate P of the Newtons ring set-up. In case liquid is rarer than glass, a
phase change of will occur at reflection from the lower surface of the liquid, but
if the liquid is denser than glass, phase change will occur at reflection from the
upper surface of the film. Hence, in both the cases, path difference will be equal
to /2.
therefore, effective path difference 2 t cos r

for normal incidence r 0,cos r 1

Or effective path difference 2t

2tn

and from eq4

2t

Or

rn2

Or

rn2

2n 1
2
2n 1
2
2n 1
2

2
n

r
R

for nth bright fringe, 2t

Or

If d n is diameter of the nth ring, then d n 2rn

therefore,

d n2

2 2n 1

If d n p is the diameter of n p ring,

th

then,

2 2 n p 1
d n2 p
R

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Physics I

Or

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

d n2

2
n p

liquid

4p R

Unit I

Since, 1 , for air

therefore, dn2 p dn2

air

4 p R

Or dividing eq9 by eq8

np

np

d 2n

10

air

n liquid

By measuring diameters of nth and n pth rings for medium as air and liquid and
substituting the values in the eq10, refractive index of the liquid can be
determined.
since, liquid > 1,

dn liquid

<

dn air

therefore, when liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate, the
diameters of the rings decrease, that is, rings are contracted.

diameter of a ring in liquid film

1

diameter of the same ring in air film

11

1.3
Construction and working of Michelsons interferometer and explain
how circular and localized (straight) fringes are produced with it.
Construction and working Michelsons interferometer is a device that can be used to measure lengths
or changes in length with great accuracy by means of interference fringes. The
basic principle of this instrument was given by A.A. Michelson in 1881 according
to which when a parallel beam of monochromatic light coming from an extended
source is incident on a half silvered glass plate (also called as beam splitter), it is
divided into two parts. One part is reflected wave and the other part is a refracted
wave and both are coherent. In this experiment, coherent waves are produced by
the method of division of amplitude. These waves proceed in the perpendicular
directions and are incident normally on the two mirrors. After reflections from
these mirrors, they superpose and produce interference fringes, which are
observed with the help of a telescope as shown in the figure.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

Form of fringes
In Michelsons interferometer, the form of fringes depends on the separation d
between M1 and M2 and the shape of hypothetical air film formed between M 1
and M2, which is virtual image of M2.
Circular fringes are produced when the mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular
to each other and thickness of air film between M1 and M2 is not equal to zero,
that is d 0 . If d 0 then, the whole pattern becomes dark.

Appearance of fringes in the Michelsons interferometer as the mirrors are moved away
from each other. Arrows on the far right figure indicate motion of the fringes.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

If thickness of air film is d , the light waves reflected from the mirror M1 and M2
and reaching towards the telescope will coming parallel from M1 and M2 and will
be equal to 2d . If these parallel waves make an angle with the normal, the path
difference between them will be 2d cos .
We know that when a wave is reflected from a denser medium and another wave

is created between them.

2

Hence, effective path difference between these waves will be 2d cos .

2

If
n = 1, 2, 3
2d cos n
2

Or
1
2d cos 2n 1
2
Then a bright fringe will form due to constructive interference. Same condition will
be at all points on the circle of inclination and bright fringe will appear circular.
are reflected from a rarer medium, path difference of

If the effective path difference 2d cos

Or

2d cos n

2n 1

n = 0, 1, 2
2

Then a dark fringe will form due to destructive interference. Same condition will
be at all points on the circle of inclination and dark fringe will appear circular.
Hence, alternate bright and dark circular fringes are observed.
Radii of circular fringes- It is clear that in the fringe system of Michelsons
interferometer, for given d , as n increases, cos increases and hence
decreases, that is, order of fringes increases towards center and decreases as
By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

we move away from it. For central fringe 0 and order is n , then order of the
successive fringes from the central fringe are n 1 , n 2 , n 3 ... and so on.
2d n

Then from eq2

If 1st, 2nd, 3rd mth circular fringes subtend semi-angles 1 ,2 ,3 ...m respectively
from the telescope, then
2d cos 1 n 1
2d cos 2 n 2

2d cos 3 n 3
2d cos m n m

Thus, if fringes are counted from the central fringe (assuming its order zero), then
subtracting eq4 from eq3, we get
2d 1 cos m m

Or

cos m 1

m = 1, 2, 3

m
2d

5
6

If radius of mth fringe is rm and final image of circular fringes is observed at a

distance D (least distance of distinct vision), then

cos m

Or

m
1

2d
r D
D

2
m

m 2
rm D 1
1
2d

If angle m is very small, or m 2d , then using binomial approximation we get

m
8
d
That is, near the central fringe, radius of fringes is directly proportional to square
root of natural numbers.
rm D

Localized fringes are formed when mirrors are not orthogonal, that is, M1 and
M2 are not exactly parallel. A wedge shaped air film is formed between them
giving rise to fringes of equal thickness. The path of the two waves reflected from
mirrors M1 and M2 and originating from a single wave, are no more parallel but
intersect near M1 as shown in the figure below and so fringes are localized near
By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

M1. The shapes of these fringes are curved with convex side towards thin edge
of the wedge. As mirror M2 is moved gradually the air film wedge varies
successively and fringes change the shape and when mirrors M1 and M2
intersect each other, fringes become straight as shown in the figure.

1.4 How

Michelsons interferometer can be used to determine

wavelength of light.
Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light For this,
monochromatic light from source is allowed to fall on half silvered plate A and
Michelsons interferometer is adjusted for circular fringes. Then, mirror M 1 is
moved such that AM1 = BM2. The mirror M1 and M2 are made perfectly
perpendicular to each other. Thus, concentric circular fringes are observed
through telescope.
Let the separation between real mirror M1 and virtual mirror M2 is such that bright
fringe of nth order is formed at the center of the field of view and let reading of
micrometer screw is say x1 .
Then, path difference,

2d cos 00 n
Or

2d n

Where d is separation between M1 and M2.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

Adding on both sides of the eq1, we get

2d n 1

Or

2 d n 1
2

From the above eq2, it is observed that when d becomes d , the nth
2

fringe at the center is replaced by n 1

th

moved by distance

fringe. We can also say that if M1 is

, one fringe is displaced in the telescope. Now the mirror M 1

2

is gradually moved and number of fringes displaced is counted and reading of

micrometer screw is say x2 . If M1 is moved through distance x x2 x1 and the
number of fringes displaced is N . That is, by moving the mirror by

, the number
2

of fringes displaced is one.

Therefore, on moving the mirror by distance x x2 x1 , the number of fringes
displaced will be

2x

Or wavelength

2x
N

Hence, by knowing the values of x and N experimentally, wavelength of

monochromatic light used can be calculated.

1.5.

How Michelsons interferometer can be used to determine

separation between two close wavelengths.
Determination of separation between two close wavelengths - For this,
light is allowed to fall on half silvered plate A and Michelsons interferometer is
adjusted for circular fringes. Let two wavelengths 1 and 2 are very close to each
other. The two wavelengths form their separate fringe patterns, but because of
very small difference in wavelengths, the two patterns overlap. As the mirror M 1
is moved slowly, the two patterns separate out slowly and when the path
difference is such that the dark fringe due to 1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 ,
the result is maximum indistinctness. When the path difference is such that,
By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

bright fringe due to 1 falls on the bright fringe due to 2 , or vice-versa, the result
is maximum distinctness.
Let the mirror M1 is moved through a distance x x2 x1 between two positions

x1 and x2 of successive distinctness. In this position nth fringe due to 1 must

coincide with n 1 fringe due to 2 . Therefore,
th

Or

And

n1 n 1 2

2
2
n

2x

n 1

2x

Subtracting eq...1 from eq2, we get

1 1
1 2x
2 1

Or

Or

Or

1 2x 1 2
12

1 2

12
2x

1 2

2
2x

12 is geometric mean of the two wavelengths. Thus, by

Where
measuring the distance x moved by the mirror M1, the difference between two
close wavelengths can be determined.

06.

Compare the rings formed by Michelsons interferometer and

Newtons rings.
1. The fundamental difference between the two is that in Michelsons
interferometer rings originate as locus of equal inclination (also called as
Haidingers fringes) whereas the Newtons rings are locus of the air film of
equal thickness (also called as Fizeau fringes).
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Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

2. In Michelsons interferometer rings are located at infinity and are therefore

viewed by a telescope whereas Newtons rings are located in the plane of the
film and hence viewed by traveling microscope.
3. The air film in Michelsons interferometer is imaginary (hypothetical) whereas
in Newtons rings experiment it is real.
4. Center of circular rings in Michelsons interferometer can be dark or bright
whereas in Newtons rings, in case of reflected light it is dark and in case of
transmitted light it is bright.
5. In Michelsons interferometer, order of the rings decrease when one moves
outwards from the center whereas in Newtons rings order of the rings
increase when one moves away from the center.
6. In both, Michelsons interferometer and Newtons rings, the thickness of the
rings decreases as radius of the rings increases, which is a common feature.

07. Write short note on anti-reflection coating.

Anti-reflection coating - Whenever a ray of light moves from one medium to
another, for example, when light enters a sheet of a glass after traveling through
air, some portion of the light is reflected from the surface (known as interface)
between the two media. The strength of the reflection depends on the refractive
indices of the two media as well as the angle of the surface to the beam of light.
When the light meets the interface at normal incidence (perpendicularly to the
surface), the intensity of light reflected is given by the reflection coefficient or
reflectance R .
If 1 and 2 are refractive indices of the two media, then reflectance, R is given
by
2

1
R 2

2 1
It is clear from the above eq1 that reflection will not occur if 1 2

One of the practical applications of the interference phenomenon is the antireflection coating on the glass. The reflection from a lens or a prism can be
decreased to a minimum by coating a thin transparent film of proper refractive
index and proper thickness.

By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

The idea behind anti-reflection coatings is that the creation of a double interface
by means of a thin transparent film gives two reflected waves. If these waves are
of nearly equal amplitude and out of phase, they partially or totally cancel. If the
coating is of quarter wavelength thickness and has refractive index less than that
of the glass then the two reflections are 180 degrees out of phase and complete
destructive interference occurs and no reflected waves will emerge from the film.
The thickness of coating and refractive index is chosen in such a way that light
waves reflected from the two layers have the same amplitude and out of phase
so as to cancel one another.
If refractive index of coating be c , that of glass be g and that of air be 0 , then
the amplitude of reflected wave from the first surface (air to coating) is given by

0
R1 c

c 0

and the amplitude of reflected wave from the second surface (coating to glass) is
given by
2

g c
3
R2
g c

The condition of equality of amplitude, that is, R1 R2 , at two reflections yield,

c 0 g c

c 0 g c
2

Or

c 0 g c

c 0 g c

Or

c g c2 0 g 0 c c g c2 0 g 0 c

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Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Or

2c2 20 g

Or

c 0 g

Or

c g

Unit I

5
since, 0 1

(for air)

That is, refractive index of coating should be equal approximately to the

geometric mean of refractive indices of media on either side.
The -phase condition gives the thickness of the coating film to be
2c t 2n 1

For minimum thickness, n 1

Or

2 c t

Or

4 c

That is, optical thickness of the coating must be equal to one-quarter of a

wavelength. Thus transparent coating satisfying eq6 and eq8 eliminates
reflection completely. The best material known for this is MgF 2 for which
refractive index 1.38 . To have suitability at multi-wavelengths, for example,
white light, multi-layer coating is used. Each layer is optically quarter wave thick.

08. Write short note on interference filters.

Interference filters - are multilayer thin-film devices. They can be designed to
function as an edge filter or band pass filter. In either case, wavelength selection
is based on the property of destructive light interference. This is the same
principle underlying the operation of a Fabry-Perot interferometer.
Incident light is passed through two coated reflecting surfaces. The distance
between the reflective coatings determines which wavelengths destructively
interfere and which wavelengths are in phase and will ultimately pass through the
coatings. If the reflected beams are in phase, the light is passed through two
reflective surfaces. If, on the other hand, the multiple reflections are not in phase,
destructive interference reduces the transmission of these wavelengths through
the device to near zero. This principle strongly attenuates the transmitted
intensity of light at wavelengths that are higher or lower than the wavelength of
interest.
By:- Manvendra Singh

Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

Unit I

In many spectroscopic studies, it is required to have a narrow frequency band of

light of width about 100 or less, centered on a chosen wavelength of visible
light. It can be obtained by an interference filter. In an interference filter, a thin
transparent dielectric spacer like magnesium fluoride (MgF 2) or cryolite is
sandwiched between glass plates. Reflecting surfaces are coated by extremely
thin semi-transparent layers of a good reflecting material like silver, deposited by
vacuum evaporation method or a dielectric of desired characteristics. When a
beam of light is incident normally on the filter, multiple reflections take place
within the film.

Path difference between successive pair of emergent parallel rays is 2t , for

normal incidence. With white light, the transmitted beam will be maximum for
only those wavelengths which satisfies the condition

Or

2t n
n
t
2

n = 1, 2, 3

Where, is refractive index of the dielectric and t is its thickness.

If the effective thickness of the spacer is integral multiple of half of the desired
wavelength, then other wavelengths will be attenuated by destructive
interference and wavelength , 2... will be transmitted through the filter. If for a
particular thickness there are two maxima in the visible region, one of them can
be eliminated by using colored glass filter. However, if the angle of incidence is
and angle of refraction in the spacer is , then, the wavelength of light passing
through the filter can be obtained from

2t cos n
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Physics I

Keystone Institute of Technology & Management, Surajgarh

2t 1

sin 2

sin 2

For n 1 ,

2 t 1

Or

0 1

By:- Manvendra Singh

sin
and sin 2 cos2 1
sin

sin 2

using

Unit I

where 0 2 t