2008.

8

1
1.1 The Engineering Profession
1.2Industry and Technology
1.3Modern Manufacturing 10
2
2.1 Agile Manufacturing
2.2 Lean Production
2.3 Virtual Manufacturing
2.4 Concurrent Engineering

4
6

14
16
17
19

3
3.1 General Considerations
20
3.2 The Simple Machine
26
3.3 Mechanisms 30
3.4 Gears 33
3.5 Cams 40
3.6 Linkages
42
3.7 Belt
47
3.8 CouplingsClutchesBreaks
3.9 Bearings
59

52

4
4.1 Design Engineer and Design Methodology
4.2 Creative Design
X
4.3 Mechanical Engineering Design
X

4.4 Introduction to Drawing

5
5.1 Metal Materials
X
5.2 Five Basic Machining Techniques
5.3 Laser Machining
X

6
6.1 Computer
X
6.2 Development History of Computer Use
X
6.3 Computer Integrated Manufacturing
X
6.4 Automation
X
6.5 Artificial Intelligence
X
7
7.1 Mechatronics
X
7.2 Development of Robot Systems
X
7.3 Mechanical Design of an Industrial Robot X
7.4 Automatic Teller Machine
X
7.5 Microscopic Machines
X
8
8.1 Engineering Index
8.2 Patent
8.3 The Internet

X
X
X

The Engineering Profession

()

1 Engineering is one of the oldest occupations in history. Without the skills included in the broad field of engineering, our present-day
civilization never could have evolved. The first toolmakers who chipped arrows and spears from rock were the forerunners of modern
mechanical engineers. The craftsmen who discovered metals in the earth and found ways to refine and use them were the ancestors of
mining and metallurgical engineers. And the skilled technicians who devised irrigation systems and erected the marvelous buildings of the
ancient world were the civil engineers of their time. One of the earliest names that has come down to us in history is that of Imhotep, the
designer of the stepped pyramid at Sakkara in Egypt about 3,000 B.C.
2Engineering is often defined as making practical application of theoretical sciences such as physics and mathematics. Many of the early
branches of engineering were based not on science but on empirical information that depended on observation and experience rather than on
theoretical knowledge. Those who devised methods for splitting the massive blocks that were needed to build Stone-hence in England or the
unique pyramids of Egypt discovered the principle of the wedge by trial for the pyramids were probably raised into place by means of ramps
of earth that surrounded the structures as they rose; it was a practical application of the inclined plane, even though the concept was not
understood in terms that could be quantified or expressed mathematically.
3 Quantification has been one of the principal reasons for the explosion of scientific knowledge since the beginning of the modern age in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Another important factor has been the development of the experimental method to verify theories.
Quantification involves putting the data or pieces of information resulting from experimentation into exact mathematical terms. It cannot be
stressed too strongly that mathematics is the language of modern engineering.
4 Since the nineteenth century both scientific and practical application of its results have escalated. The mechanical engineer now has the
mathematical ability to calculate the mechanical advantage that results from the complex interaction of many different mechanisms. He or
she has new and stronger materials to work with and enormous new source of power. The Industrial Revolution began by putting water and
steam to work; since then machines using electricity, gasoline, and other energy sources have become so widespread that they now do a very
large proportion of the work of the world.
5 One result of the rapid expansion of scientific knowledge was an increase in the number of scientific and engineering specialities. By
the end of the nineteenth century not only were mechanical, civil, and mining and metallurgical engineering established but the newer
specialties of chemical and electrical engineering emerged. This expansion has continued to the present day. We now have, for example,
nuclear, petroleum, aerospace, and electronic engineering. Within the field of each engineering there are subdivisions.
6 For example, within the field of civil engineering itself, there are subdivisions: structural engineering, which deals with permanent
structure; hydraulic engineering, which is concerned with systems involving the flow and control of water or other fluids; and sanitary or
environmental engineering, which involves the study of water supply, purification, and sewer systems. The major subdivision of mechanical
engineerings industrial engineering which is concerned with complete mechanical systems for industry rather than individual machines.
7 Another result of the increase in scientific knowledge is that engineering has grown into a profession. A profession is an occupation like
law, medicine, or engineering that requires specialized, advanced education; indeed, they are often called the learned professions. Until
the nineteenth century, engineers generally were craftsmen or project organizers who learned their skills through apprenticeship, on-the-job
training, or trial and error. Nowadays, many engineers spend years studying at universities for advanced degree. Yet even those engineers
who do not study for advanced degrees must be aware of changes in their field and those related to it.
8 Thus, the word engineer is used in two ways in English. One usage refers to the professional engineer who has a university degree and
education in mathematics, science, and one of the engineering specialties. Engineer, however, is also used to refer to a person who operates
or maintains an engine or machine. An excellent example is the railroad locomotive engineer who operates a train. Engineers in this sense
are essentially technicians rather than professional engineers.

Industry and Technology

()
1
Science is the study of the laws of nature. Technology is the application of science for some practical purpose. Industry, in turn, uses
technology to produce the products we use every day.
2
The methods used by people to make things are constantly changing. For example, in ancient times, if someone needed a chair, he
had to make it by himself. Later on,the people who were especially good at making chairs and other furniture became cabinetmakers. They
did nothing else but making wooden articles which they sold or traded to other people. These crafts people had to be very skilled. They
had to know about the different kinds of wood and how to season it. They had to design furniture and therefore know joinery methods.
They had to know how to use tools to work the wood and what kind of finishes to use and how to apply them. In other words, they had to
know about all aspects of their craft.
3
A cabinetmaker with a successful business could not do all the work alone. Other people were hired and trained to help, and a cottage
industry began. Cottage industries were small factories, with a few workers, located in or near a craft persons home. Here labor was
divided up according to skill. For example, an apprentice might cut logs into boards and smooth them into lumber. The craft person was
then free to use his special skills to design and make furniture or cabinets.
4
With the industrial revolution in the late 1700s, the factory system of production began. Now the cabinetmaker started a furniture
factory where large numbers of people worked at highly specialized jobs.
One person made only chair legs, another only the seat.
Machines were developed to aid the people in their work and to make them more productive. As more and better machines, newer methods
of joining and working woods, and better, more efficient mass-production techniques were developed, the modern factory emerged.
5
Product Design The next time you use a tool to do a job around the house, take the time to study it. Does the tool work as it
should ? Does the wrench hold the nut securely, or the chisel cut as it should ? Have the right materials been used to make the tool strong
enough ? Is the tool comfortable to hold and well balanced ? If you answer yes, the object is probably well designed.
6
Tools, like all other products of industry (sports equipment, automobiles, chairs, knives and forks, and dozens of items that you use
each day) were planned and made to do certain jobs and to make your life better. The people who plan these products are called designers.
They work in the research and development departments of industries. Their job is to design new and better products and to improve old
ones. If these products work as they should, if they are made of the right materials and interesting to look at, they are well designed. If
not, the products will be poor.
7
Homes and other building are also designed. The people who design these structures are called architects. The buildings they design
must meet the needs of the people who are to use them. The materials to be used, the size and arrangement of the rooms, the efficient use of
energy --- all these must be considered as the architect plans the building.
8
What is Design ? Very simply, designing is planning. To do it well you must think carefully about the product you wish to make. It
should be original work --- your work and not someone elses. In other words, you must be creative. Designing is creative planning to
meet some special human need.
9

In order to be good, the product that you are designing should meet three requirements:

--- It should work properly (functional requirement).

--- It must be made of the correct material (material requirement).
--- It should be pleasing to look at (visual requirement).
10
Take a hockey skate blade and support for example. This unit is attached to a hockey shoe and must move the player through sharp
turns and long glides. It has a functional shape that allows the player to move with ease. The blade is made of carbon steel, and the holder
is made of tough, high-impact plastic. These materials allow the skate to with stand hard use.
The unit also has a nice appearance, with a
clean and graceful shape. This skate blade and support illustrate an object which is functionally, materially, and visually correct (a welldesigned product of industry). Lets take a closer look at these three requirements as they apply to other kinds of products.
11 Function. A product is functional if it works as it is supposed to work. Tool handles must be functional in order to be held easily and
safely. The tools are used and held differently; so their handles must be different. The same is true of other things you hold. Knives and
forks, fishing poles, baseball bats, golf clubs, and steering wheels should all be easy to grip. While you are designing, you should be
thinking about the purpose or use for your product. You must design it to be functional.
12 Material. A product must be made from the proper kind and amount of material. If you design something to be used outdoors, it
must be made to withstand water, wind, and sun. Materials must be chosen according to the products use. Many kinds of materials are
used to make products. You must know something about the materials before you start designing with them. Find out about such things as
cost, durability, and strength. Every material has certain characteristics all its own. You should take full advantage of this fact as you
design.
13
Learn what to do and what not to do with a material. For example, plastic should not automatically be used as a substitute for wood.
It is expensive and will not be as good as wood for some projects. Instead, plastic should be used in ways that take advantage of its own
characteristic.

14
For instance, plastic laminates (the materials used to cover kitchen counters) are strong and heat-resistant. Other plastics can be
bent, lathe-turned, or blow-formed. Some plastic is tough and transparent, while other kinds scratch easily and are opaque (cant be seen
through). These are the kinds of things you should know about materials.
15
Also keep in mind that you should use only enough material to do the job and no more. Dont waste material.
only cost less but will also look better if material is used in proper amounts.

Your project will not

16 Appearance. A good product is pleasing to the eye. Everyone prefers things which are beautiful to those which are ugly, designers
must keep this in mind as they design products.
17 Elements and Principles of Design A designer must know certain design elements and principles. The building blocks of design
are called the design elements. These are the lines, the forms, the shapes (spatial forms, or solids), and the surface treatment (color, texture)
that make up any three-dimensional product. The lines can appear as graceful curves or straight and strong. These grow into forms and
solid shapes which display color and texture. The following principles of design should help you create products that will have a nice
appearance.

18

Unity, Variety and Proportion

1 The different parts of a product should look good together. This is called unity. A salt shaker has unity because the bowl and the cap
flow together in a clean, unbroken curve.
2The shaker also has variety since the cap is made of stainless steel and the bowl of teakwood.
the product a more interesting appearance.

The different colors and textures give

3 Products should be well proportioned. The legs of a table should be of a proper size compared with the top. The table would look
awkward if the top were very heavy and supported by thin, spindly legs.
4If all parts of the table are well proportioned, this product will have balance.
19 Unity, variety, proportion, and balance are called principles of design because they deal with ways of organizing the shapes and
materials of products.
20 Design-Analysis Method As stated earlier, designing is a kind of planning. You should plan a project as you would plan any other
kind of detailed work. The project that you are designing should be thought of as a problem to be solved as you would solve a problem in
mathematics or science. It is helpful to break the work into a series of steps to make it easier to solve.
21
A good way of doing this is to use the design-analysis method. In order to explain this method more clearly, lets take a certain
problem. Imagine that you will be designing a rack to hold a few books on your study desk. You must first state your problem so that you
know exactly what you are trying to solve.
Step 1.State the problem: to design a bookrack to be used on a desk.
Step 2.Analysis and research. You must ask some questions about function and materials for the bookrack. How many books must it hold ?
How large are the books ? Are there any special materials you should use? (Perhaps you would want to match a note pad holder or a pen
set.) List ideas pertaining to function and materials.
a. Should hold its books.
b. My books measure about 1 thick, 9 high, and 6 wide.
c. Make of material to match my desk set.
d. Should be easy to remove and replace books.
e. Books shouldnt topple over when one or two are removed.
f. Should not scratch desk top.
Step 3.Developing solutions. Sketch four or five ideas on paper.
What might this rack look like ? Improve your sketches and rework some of them. Think of visual requirements of the unit. Be inventive
and original.
Step 4.Experimentation. Make a paper or wooden model of the rack. Try out some of the ideas to see if they will work.
Step 5.Final solution. This should be a final working sketch or drawing. From this sketch you will proceed to make the rack. Feel free to
make changes in the drawing --- and in the rack --- as you are making the project, if you feel you can improve it. When you are finished, go
back and correct the drawing.

Modern Manufacturing
()
1 You have been introduced to the world of industry and technology. Now, we shall look at the methods used by industry to manufacture
things. Very simply, an industry may be defined as all the work needed to produce a certain kind of goods or services and to make those
goods or services available to the people who need or want them. Goods are material things such as clothes and cars and computers.
Services are nonmaterial. For instances, the television and radio programs you enjoy are a service produced by the entertainment industry.
2 The Essentials of Industry
manufacturing (goods-producing) industry needs three basic types of resources:
--- Material resources.
Such as timber, petroleum, and iron ore, from which goods are made.
---Human resources.
The people, everyone from computer operators to managers, whose work helps produce the goods.
--- Capital resources.
The factories, equipment, and money need to turn raw materials into usable products.
3Without these resources, industry could not exist. That is why they are called the essential of industry. Yet it is not enough for an industry
to have the essentials for production. Industry must organize these essential resources in such a way that the mass-production of highquality goods can take place. The elements of industry can provide such an organization plan.
4

The Elements of Industry

The elements of industry are seven key steps for organizing production:

--- Research and Development (R&D)

Inventing and designing products, processes, and materials.
---Production Tooling (PT)
Designing and making special tools used to manufacture products.

--- Production Planning and Control (PPC)

Planning and controlling the flow of materials through the production and assembly lines.
--- Quality Control (QC)
Setting and maintaining standards of acceptability for products.
--- Personnel Management (PM)
Selecting and training workers.
--- Manufacturing (MF)
Changing raw materials into usable products by cutting, forming, fastening, and finishing.
--- Marketing (MK)
Creating a demand for and distributing finished products to the people who are to use them.
5 Not all industries use these same seven steps.
action remains the same.

Some give them different names or group them differently.

But the logical pattern of

6Research and Development

The new products, materials, and processes used in industry do not just happen accidentally. They are
invented and perfected by people who are trained in art, science, technology, and engineering. These are the people who work in research
and development. Research and development (or RD for short) is the planning of new products, processes, or materials and the improvement
of old ones to meet the needs of who use them. Research and development is sometimes called the industry of discovery because it is
such a large, important part of the industrial world and requires so many people with different talents.
7Production Tooling
You may have heard the term tooling up. These words are often used in the manufacturing industries. For
example, when a company comes out with a new model motorcycle, it must tool up for the product. This means that special tools must
be made to stamp out the newly designed bodies. Production tooling (PT) is the element of industry concerned with these tools. Those
responsible for production tooling obtain the tools, machines, and equipment needed to make a product. Usually engineers design the tooling
and tool, and die makers produce it.
8 Fast, efficient mass production often requires the use of special tooling devices. Some of these devices are described here. A jig is a
device which holds a workpiece firmly and guides a drill or other tool to an exact location.A fixture holds workpieces during machining or
assembly. By using a jig you do not have to locate the hole with a center punch and clamp the piece in a vise before drilling. A fixture holds
workpieces during machining or assembly. Fixtures are usually attached to a specific machine. For example, there are milling fixtures,
lathe fixtures, grinding fixtures, assembly fixtures, and so on. With fixtures, workpieces can be fastened quickly and easily.
9 While jigs and fixtures are two of the most important kinds of tooling used in industry, there are many others which are also necessary.
Pressing punches and dies, extrusion and drawing dies, and casting patterns are some further examples. The people who make these devices,
the tool and die makers, are highly skilled crafters and must work and study for many years before becoming qualified.
10 Production Planning and Control If you were building a table, you would not glue the legs and rails together until the dowel holes
had been drilled. Neither would you paint the top if it had not been cut to shape and sanded. The same kind of clear thinking is needed
when mass-producing products.
11 In order to make certain that a product will be made properly, the right materials must arrive at the right place, in the right amounts, and
at the right time. This kind of careful planning is called production planning and control, or PPC. Its most important parts are routing,
scheduling, dispatching, and plant layout.
12 Routing is preparing a plan of the steps required to make something. A route sheet (or plan of procedure ) is usually prepared for
every kind of part to be made. For example, if the product were a simple footstool with a top and four legs, one route sheet would be needed
for the top and one for the legs. A bill of materials must also be made as a part of routing. This bill lists all the items needed to make the
product.
13 Scheduling is fitting jobs into a timetable so materials and parts enter the production line at the right place and time. A schedule, then,
is a method of organizing facilities, orders, materials, and time.
14 Dispatching is issuing work orders to set the production line in motion. For example, the supervisors on the assembly line are told
when production should begin and how many pieces must be made each day. The supervisors make sure these work orders are followed.
These orders are important, for they tell when materials should be released from storage and when production should begin.
15
Another important part of production planning and control is plant layout. The machinery and equipment must be arranged so that
production can take place smoothly, without wasted time and effort. Usually this kind of layout is done by engineers and technicians who
understand the production process.
16 Quality Control Products made in a factory must meet certain standards. Otherwise they will not be useful, and people will not buy
them. The element of industry concerned with this part of production is quality control, or QC. Quality control can be defined as those
activities which prevent defective articles from being produced or, if they are produced, prevent them from reaching the market. In this way
management tries to insure that a product will be acceptable to the buyer.
17

There are three steps in a QC program: specifications, tooling and inspection.

18 Specifications are detailed descriptions of the standards for a product.

Some typical standards might include rules about size,
material, function, and shape. For example, a specification might state that a cutting board must be thick, 7 wide, and 12 long and be

made out of basswood. It might further state that boards 1/8 smaller or larger in any of these dimensions will be acceptable. This specifies
the amount of error that will be allowed in each piece. This allowance is called the tolerance. It is important to state a tolerance because
tool wear and operator error make it impossible for all the boards to be exactly the same size.
19 Tooling in QC refers to the special devices needed to measure the accuracy of parts. A go/no-go gauge is an example of such a tool.
By slipping a part into this device the inspector can tell at a glance whether or not it is the right size. It is the responsibility of the QC staff
to design and build, or purchase, such inspection devices.
20 Inspection is done to make sure products meet the specifications. Inspections are done on purchased materials or parts, on goods being
produced or assembled, and on finished products. In addition to special inspectors, machine operators are expected to examine their own
work. They are qualified to do this because they know what the part should look like, and they can detect errors early.
21Marketing Marketing (MK) is the process of getting products from those who make them to those who use them.Marketing helps to
deliver the right kinds of goods to us, in the right form and amount, at the right time and price. In order to do this, the people in marketing
must work at market research, advertising, packaging, distributing, selling, and servicing.
22 Market research gathers information about products and the people who use them. Have you ever answered a questionnaire about a
product or participated in a taste test ? These are examples of market research. The people doing the research want to find out what people
like or dislike so that their product can be made to appeal to the greatest number of people.
23 The usual purpose of advertising is to make the public aware of and interested in certain goods. Manufacturers advertise on television
and radio, in newspapers and magazines, and on billboards and other signs. Advertising is a valuable service. For instance, through
advertising we can learn about different brands of the same kind of product so that we may select the one which suits us best.
24
In industry, packaging refers to the containers used to hold products. You see and use many kinds of package each day. The gum
you chew comes in a wrapper; the shoes you buy come in a box; the soda you drink comes in a can or bottle. For some products, packaging
is mainly functional.
A cardboard and plastic bubble pack for nails, for example, serves to hold and display the product. For other
products, however, the packaging is part of products image.
25 Distributing refers to all the way of getting a product from the manufacturer to the place where it will be used. After the product
reaches the store, someone has to sell it to the consumer (user of the product). Salespeople serve an important function by selling products.
They also perform other valuable services such as keeping doctors up to date on new medicines, making manufacturers aware of new
equipment, and informing teachers about new books. Selling is the final step in the making-using cycle.
26
To service a product is to maintain and repair it when need. Servicing is becoming more and more important to the consumer. The
reason for this is that so many of the things we use are becoming more complicated, and we cannot always repair them ourselves.

Agile Manufacturing()
1Introduction: Manufacturing industry may well be on the verge of a major paradigm shift. This shift is likely to take us away from mass
production, way beyond lean manufacturing, into a world of Agile Manufacturing. Agile Manufacturing, however, is a relatively new term,
one which was first introduced with the publication of the Iacocca Institute report 21st Century Manufacturing Enterprise Strategy.
Furthermore, at this point in time, Agile Manufacturing is not well understood and the conceptual aspects are still being defined. However,
there is a tendency to view Agile Manufacturing as another programme of the month, and to use the term Agile Manufacturing as just another
way of describing lean production, flexible manufacturing or CIM.
2 Many of our corporations today are undergoing massive transformations - reengineering business processes, flattening hierarchies,
empowering people, implementing lean production concepts, etc. The list is almost endless. But none of these massive transformations, on
their own or taken collectively, constitutes the implementation of Agile Manufacturing. What Agile Manufacturing really represents is the
potential for a quantum leap forward in manufacturing. Instead of just chasing after the Japanese by copying their techniques in a
prescriptive fashion, or implementing our own prescriptions such as CIM, in Agile Manufacturing we should be trying to achieve a
competitive lead by doing something that our competitors are not doing.
3 Agile Manufacturing is something that many of our corporations have yet to fully comprehend, never mind implement. Agile
Manufacturing is likely to be the way business will be conducted in the next century. It is not yet a reality. Our challenge is to make it a
reality, first by more fully defining the conceptual aspects, and secondly by venturing into the frontier of implementation.
4 In this paper we will examine some of the key issues relevant to the development of Agile Manufacturing. Owing to space limitations we
will only provide a very brief overview of Agile Manufacturing. The reader is referred to 21st Century Manufacturing Enterprise Strategy
and Agile Manufacturing: Forging New Frontiers for more detailed information.
5Definition and Concepts: The problem with a new idea such as Agile Manufacturing is the lack of a good sound definition and a set of
concepts that most people would agree upon. References [1] and [2] have a reasonably common understanding of what constitutes Agile
Manufacturing.
6 Agile Manufacturing should primarily be seen as a business concept. Its aim is quite simple - to put our enterprises way out in front of our
primary competitors. In Agile Manufacturing our aim is to develop agile properties. We will then use this agility for competitive advantage,
by being able to rapidly respond to changes occurring in the market environment and through our ability to use and exploit a fundamental
resource -knowledge.
7 One fundamental idea in the exploitation of this resource is the idea of using technologies to lever the skills and knowledge of our people.
We need to bring our people together, in dynamic teams formed around clearly identified market opportunities, so that it becomes possible to
lever one another's knowledge. Through these processes we should seek to achieve the transformation of knowledge and ideas into new
products and services, as well as improvements to our existing products and services.
8 The concept of Agile Manufacturing is also built around the synthesis of a number of enterprises that each have some core skills or
competencies which they bring to a joint venturing operation, which is based on using each partners facilities and resources. For this reason,
these joint venture enterprises are called virtual corporations, because they do not own significant capital resources of their own. This, it is
believed, will help them to be agile, as they can be formed and changed very rapidly.
9 Central to the ability to form these joint ventures is the deployment of advanced information technologies and the development of highly
nimble organisational structures to support highly skilled, knowledgeable and empowered people.
10 Agile Manufacturing enterprises are expected to be capable of rapidly responding to changes in customer demand. They should be able to
take advantage of the windows of opportunities that, from time to time, appear in the market place. With Agile Manufacturing we should also
develop new ways of interacting with our customers and suppliers. Our customers will not only be able to gain access to our products and
services, but will also be able to easily assess and exploit our competencies, so enabling them to use these competencies to achieve the things
that they are seeking.
11 Agility is defined in dictionaries as quick moving, nimble and active. This is clearly not the same as flexibility which implies adaptability
and versatility. Agility and flexibility are therefore different things.
12 Leanness (as in lean manufacturing) is also a different concept to agility. Sometimes the terms lean and agile are used interchangeably,
but this is not appropriate. The term lean is used because lean manufacturing is concerned with doing everything with less. In other words,
the excess of wasteful activities, unnecessary inventory, long lead times, etc are cut away through the application of just-in-time
manufacturing, concurrent engineering, overhead cost reduction, improved supplier and customer relationships, total quality management,
etc.
13 We can also consider CIM in the same light. When we link computers across applications, across functions and across enterprises we do
not achieve agility. We might achieve a necessary condition for agility, that is, rapid communications and the exchange and reuse use of data,
but we do not achieve agility.

14 Thus agility is not the same as flexibility, leanness or CIM. Understanding this point is very important. But if agility is none of these
things, then what is it? This is a good question, and not one easily answered. Yet most of us would recognise agility if we saw it.

Lean Production

1 Lean production is an assembly-line manufacturing methodology developed originally for Toyota and the manufacture of automobiles. It is
also known as the Toyota Production System. The goal of lean production is described as " to get the right things to the right place at the right
time, the first time, while minimizing waste and being open to change". Engineer Ohno, who is credited with developing the principles of
lean production, discovered that in addition to eliminating waste, his methodology led to improved product flow and better quality.
2 Instead of devoting resources to planning what would be required for future manufacturing, Toyota focused on reducing system response
time so that the production system was capable of immediately changing and adapting to market demands. In effect, their automobiles
became made-to-order. The principles of lean production enabled the company to deliver on demand, minimize inventory, maximize the use
of multi-skilled employess, flatten the management structure, and focus resources where they were needed.
3 During the 1980s, the set of practices summarized in the ten rules of lean production were adopted by many manufacturing plants in the
U.S. and Europe. The management style was tried out with varying degrees of success by service organizations, logistics organizations and
supply chains. Since the demise of many dot.coms, there has been a renewed interest in the principles of lean production, particularly since
the philosophy encourages the reduction of inventory. Dell Computers and Boeing Aircraft have embraced the philosophy of lean production
with great success.
4The ten rules of lean production can be summarized:
1 Eliminate waste
2 Minimize inventory
3 Maximize flow
4 Pull production from customer demand
5 Meet customer requirements
6 Do it right the first time
7 Empower workers
8 Design for rapid changeover
9 Partner with suppliers
10Create a culture of continuous improvement

Virtual Manufacturing
()
1Virtual Manufacturing (VM) is the use of computer models and simulations of manufacturing processes to aid in the design and production
of manufactured products. Since virtual manufacturing allows engineers to view a computer-simulated version of how the finished machine
or processes should operate on the plant floor, they can eliminate process design flaws in the early stages of development to yield significant
savings.
2 The need to respond quickly to changing market conditions has manufacturers seeking new ways to design and implement production
facilities. One method manufacturers are quickly adopting is process modeling and simulation. Often referred to as virtual manufacturing,
process modeling and simulation enables engineers to develop, evaluate, refine, and simulate the use of a complex system entirely on a
computer before any time and money are spent on its actual creation.
3 This new technology helps reduce investment risk by allowing engineers to view the system in operation via the computer and make
adjustments during the design process rather than in the implementation stage, when changes are much more costly. Companies can benefit
from virtual manufacturing in three primary ways: faster market response times, lower production and equipment costs, and improved
quality.
4 Since virtual manufacturing allows engineers to view a computer simulated version of how the finished machine or processes should
operate on the plant floor, they can eliminate process design flaws in the early stages of development to yield significant savings. Engineers
can monitor and implement product changes while simultaneous development of the production machinery moves ahead. It also allows
engineers to implement technology enhancements prior to production, further reducing development costs. In addition, operator training can
occur in a virtual environment, minimizing risk to the operation.
5 Among the key technology drivers for virtual manufacturing has been the rise of common data models. These data models allow operators
to specify and use structure and behavior in multiple applications without recreating work. Once the virtual system is "built," it can become
electronically available to all members of the development team, including the plant floor, the designers, and the machine builders. Opening
the channels of communication fosters continuous product improvement and helps accelerate product development.
6To effectively exploit the benefits of virtual manufacturing, organizations are selecting software tools capable of capturing all the essential
aspects of critical business operations, such as product packaging. Virtual manufacturing models are built using graphical objects, called
modules, to define system logic and physical components such as machines and operators. To promote reuse of knowledge and techniques
obtained and validated in successful simulations, virtual manufacturing software tools create templates for modeling various types of
systems.
7 With these templates, you can complete studies much faster by leveraging earlier modeling efforts. You can also place virtual
manufacturing more safely in the hands of process experts, who need only an understanding of the nature of simulation analysis and rules for
composing models rather than training in general purpose simulation software.
8 High-speed processing lines are highly automated and capable of processing items at rates of hundreds, even thousands of units per
minute. They are a fundamental part of packaging and filling operations found in consumer goods industries such as food and beverage,
tobacco, and pharmaceuticals.
9 Designing and operating a high-speed line is tremendously complex. Precise engineering and diligent testing is required to avoid a host of
potential problems, which could include inadequate speeds, insufficient accumulator capacities, inconsistent flow, and time-consuming
product changeovers. Optimal line efficiency is critical to meeting production targets. To address these needs, companies have increasingly
turned to virtual manufacturing to analyze and accurately validate overall line performance.
10 Such was the case with Brach & Brock Confections, a candy manufacturer headquartered in Chattanooga, Tenn. Within the company's
manufacturing plants, automated, high-speed processing lines produce large volumes of candy such as jelly beans and chocolatecovered
peanuts. When it is designing new lines or making significant changes to existing ones, Brach & Brock uses simulation software.
11 The software allows engineers to model a wide range of system characteristics, including equipment speeds and reliability, product
changeover times, accumulator capacities, and dynamic control systems.
12 In the past few years, manufacturers have seen a dramatic push toward information sharing across the organization. The result has been
unprecedented gains in productivity and efficiency, specifically within the operational processes of manufacturing. With the rise of virtual
manufacturing technology, manufacturers are now able to achieve similar gains on the design and development side as well.
13 In the future, Web-based collaboration tools will emerge across the organization, enabling a common, companywide simulation
environment. Manufacturers establishing consistent data models and sharing can forge a sustainable competitive advantage.

Concurrent Engineering
()
1 Concurrent Engineering (CE) is a systematic approach to integrated product development that emphasises the response to customer
expectations. It embodies team values of co-operation, trust and sharing in such a manner that decision making is by consensus, involving all
perspectives in parallel, from the beginning of the product life cycle.
2 In traditional engineering a relatively short time is spent defining the product. A relatively long time is spent designing the product and a
surprisingly long time is often spent redesigning the product. The key to shortening the overall design time is to better define the product and
better document the design process.
3 Traditionally, the development of a product had been seen as a cycle of plan-do-check-act-(adjust). Concurrent engineering is a process in
which appropriate disciplines are committed to work interactively to conceive, approve, develop, and implement product programs that meet
pre-determined objectives.
4 This is the relatively recent term which is applied to the engineering design philosophy of cross-functional cooperation in order to create
products which are better, cheaper, and more quickly brought to market. This new trend reunites technical and non technical disciplines such
as engineering, marketing and accounting. Always focusing on satisfying the customer, these representatives work together in defining the
product to be manufactured.

FIGURE 1.1 Example of design changes as a function of time for an American and Japanese automobile.
5 The goal of Concurrent Engineering is to improve the interactive work of different disciplines affecting a product. The following are some
of the benefits:
a

Minimize the product life cycle - Eliminate the redesign procedure

Decrease production cost - results from the minimization of the product life cycle

Maximize product quality - By spending more time and money initially in the design cycle and ensuring that the concept
selection is optimized, the company can increase the prospect of delivering a quality product to the customer.

Teamwork - Human Resources are working together for a common product.

6 For example, the Aeronautical Systems Group at Lockheed Corporation recently developed and integrated metal-bending facility called
Calfab. This mini-factory uses computer-aided layout and fabrication and has shortened the time it takes for design and manufacture of sheet
metal parts from 52 days to 2 days - a 96 percent reduction. Metal used to travel 2500 ft. between various machines and now it travels only
150 ft.
7 There are few manufacturing firms left that have not targeted at least a 50 percent reduction in the time it takes to launch a new product
from idea to production. Companies like Xerox have already accomplished this goal. Few organizations have pushed this concept to the point
of having a corporate design strategy or a way of projecting the design and full-range planning of all their products five years into the future,
but this is coming. It is the rare company that has an innovation strategy that includes decisions about the business and new products, risk,
and production.
8 Good ideas that are novel have a unique motivating quality. People get excited about them and eventually there will be competition and
disagreement about their origin. Nonetheless, most ideas - good or bad - are never acted upon either by individuals, groups, and, especially,
enterprises.

General Considerations of Machine

()
1 Machines can be divided into four broad groups: mechanical,electrical, fluid power, and prime movers. Prime movers convert natural
forms of energy, such as those found in streams, wind, and potentially in fuels, into mechanical energy. Common examples of prime movers
include the waterwheel, windmill, internal-combustion engine, and nuclear reactor. Fluid-power machines convert mechanical energy to
flow energy, as in hydraulic pumps; or convert flow to mechanical energy, as in fluid motors, hydraulic cylinders, and turbines. Similarly,
electric machines convert mechanical to electrical energy in such devices as generators and alternators, or convert electrical to mechanical
energy in electric motors and loudspeakers. Mechanical machines, the focus of this article, modify mechanical energy to convert limited
input forces and motions into those required to perform specific work. The manner in which a machine modifies and transmits motion is
called a mechanism. Although the variety of mechanisms is unlimited, motion is mechanically transmitted in only three basic ways: by a
linkage; by direct contact between surfaces such as gear teeth or a cam and follower; or by a wrapping connector such as a belt, rope, or
chain.
2 The word machine has been given a wide variety of definitions, but for the purpose of this article it is a device, having a unique purpose,
that arguments or replaces human or animal effort for the accomplishment of physical tasks. Tools may be regard as the simplest class of
machines. The operation of a machine may involve the transformation of chemical, thermal, electrical, or nuclear energy into mechanical
energy, or vice versa, or its function may simply be to modify and transmit forces and motions. All machines have an input, an output, and
transforming or modifying and transmitting device.
3 Machines that receive their input energy from a natural source, such as air currents, moving water, coal, petroleum, or uranium, and
transform it into mechanical energy are known as prime movers. Windmills, waterwheels, turbines, steam engines, and internal- combustion
engines are prime movers. In these machines the inputs vary; the outputs are usually rotating shafts capable of being used as input to other
machines, such as electric generators, hydraulic pumps, or air compressors. All three of the latter devices may be classified as generators;
their outputs of electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic energy can be used as inputs to electric, hydraulic or air motors, These motors can be
used to drive machines with a variety of outputs, such as materials processing, packaging, or conveying machinery. All machines that are
neither prime movers, generators, nor motors may be classified as operators. This category also includes manually operated instruments of all
kinds, such as calculating machines and typewriters.

4 If the operator is a pump driven by an electric motor, the flow of energy from the prime mover at the power plant through the generator and
the motor to the operator is shown in Figure 1. The operator can also be driven directly by a small, direct-connected prime mover, such as a
gasoline engine, as shown by the dotted line in Figure1; for most power-driven operators, however, the flow of energy from the prime mover
follows the solid lines.
5In some cases, machines in all categories are combined in one unit. In a diesel-electric locomotive, for example, the diesel engine is the
prime mover, which drives the electric generator, which, in turn, supplies electric current to the motors that drives the wheels. The following
are some examples supplied by an automobile.
6In an automobile, the base problem is harnessing the explosive effect of gasoline to provide power to rotate the rear wheels .The explosion
of gasoline in the cylinders pushes the pistons down, and the transmission and modification of this translatory (linear) motion to rotary
motion of the crankshaft is affected by the connecting rods that join each piston to cranks (Figure 21) that are part of the crankshaft. The
piston, cylinder, crank and connecting rod combination is known as a slider-crank mechanism; it is a commonly used method of converting
translation to rotation(as in an engine) or rotation to transmission(as in a pump).
7To admit the gasoline-air mixture to the cylinders and exhaust the burned gases, valves are used; these are open and closed by the wedging
action of cams (projections) on a rotating camshaft that is driven from the crankshaft by gears or a chain.
8In a four-stroke-cycle engine with eight cylinders, the crankshaft receives an impulse at some point along its length every quarter
revolution. To smooth out the effect of these intermittent impulses on the speed of the crankshaft, a flywheel is used. This is a heavy wheel,
attached to the crankshaft, that by its inertia opposes and moderates any speed fluctuations.
9 Since the torque (turning force) that it delivers depends on its speed, an internal-combustion engine cannot be started under load. To enable
an automobile engine to be started in an unloaded state and then connected to the wheels without stalling, a clutch and a transmission are
necessary. The former makes and breaks the connection between the crankshaft and transmission, while the latter changes, in finite steps, the
ratio between the input and output speeds and torques of the transmission. In lower gear, the output speed is low and the output torque higher
than the engine torque, so that the car can be started moving; in high gear, the car is moving at a substantial speed and the torques and speeds
are equal.
10 The axles to which the wheels are attached are contained in the rear axle housing, which is clamped to the rear springs, and are driven
from the transmission by the drive shaft. As the car moves and the springs flex in response to bumps in the road, the housing moves relative

to the transmission; to permit this movement without interfering with the transmission of the torque, a universal joint is attached to each end
of the drive shaft.
11 The drive shaft is perpendicular to the rear axles. The right- angled connection is usually made with bevel gears having a ratio such that
the axles rotate at from one-third to one-fourth the speed of the drive shaft. The rear axle housing also holds the differential gears that permit
both rear wheels to be driven from the same source and to rotate at different speeds when turning a corner.
12 Like all moving mechanical devices, automobiles cannot escape from the effects of the friction. In the engine, transmission, rear axle
housing, and all bearing, friction is undesirable, since it increase the power required from the engine; lubrication reduces but does not
eliminate this friction. On the other hand, friction between the tires and the road and in the brake shoes makes traction and braking possible.
The belts that drive the fan, generator and other accessories are friction-dependent devices. Friction, is also useful in the operation of the
clutch. Some of the devices cited above, and others that are described below, are found in machines of all categories, assembled in a
multitude of ways to perform all kinds of physical tasks. Because of this diversity of function and the lack of common characteristics, this
article will not be concerned with specific operators. Neither will it deal with the overall performance of the prime movers, nor with the
operation of hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric devices. It will consider only the operation and structure of the basic mechanical devices that
are the constituent parts of machines. The function of most of these devices is to transmit and modify force and motion. Other devices, such
as springs, flywheels, shafts and fasteners, perform supplementary functions.
13 For the purpose of this article a machine may be further defined as a device consisting of two or more resistant, relatively constrained
parts that may serve to transmit and modify force and motion in order to do work. The requirement that the parts of a machine be resistant
implies that they may be capable of carrying imposed loads without failure or loss of function. Although most machine parts are solid
metallic bodies of suitable proportions, nonmetallic materials, springs, fluid pressure organs, and tension organs such as belts are also
employed.
14 The most distinctive characteristic of a machine is that the parts are interconnected and guided in such a way that their motion relative to
one another are constrained. Relative to the block, for example, the piston of a reciprocating engine is constrained by the cylinder to move
on a straight path; point on the crankshaft are constrained by the main bearings to move on circular paths; no other forms of relative motion
are possible.
15 On some machines the parts are only partially constrained. If the parts are interconnected by springs or friction members, the paths of the
parts relative to one another may be fixed, but the motions of the parts may be affected by the stiffness of the springs, friction and the masses
of the parts.
16 If all the parts of a machine are comparatively rigid members whose deflections under load are negligible, then the constrainment may be
considered complete and the relative motions of the parts can be studied without considering the forces that produce them. For a specified
rotational speed of the crankshaft of a reciprocating engine, for example, the corresponding speeds of points on the connecting rod and the
piston can be calculated. The determination of the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of the parts of a machine for a prescribed input
motion is the subject matter of kinematics of machines. Such calculations can be made without considering the forces involved, because the
motions are constrained.
17 According to the definition, both forces and motions are transmitted and modified in a machine. The way in which the parts of a machine
are interconnected and guided to produce a required output motion from a given input motion is known as the mechanism of the machine.
The piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft in a reciprocating engine constitute a mechanism for changing the rectilinear motion of the piston
into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
18 Although both forces and motions are involved in the operation of machines, the primary function of a machine may be either the
amplification of force or the modification of motion. A lever is essentially a force increaser, while a gearbox is most often used as a speed
reducer. The motions and forces in a machine are inseparable, however, and are always in an inverse ratio. The output force on a lever is
greater than the input force. Similarly, the output speed of a gear reducer is less than the input speed, but the output torque is greater than the
input torque. In the first case a gain in force is accompanied by a loss in motion, while in the second case a loss in motion is accompanied by
a gain in torque.
19 Although the primary function of some machines can be identified, it would be difficult to classify all machines as either force or motion
modifiers; some machines belong in both categories. All machines, however, must perform a motion-modifying function, since if the parts of
a mechanical device do not move, it is a structure, not a machine. It is customary for a machinery designers, when studying the motions of
the parts, to speak of the mechanism of a machine.
20 While all machines have a mechanism, and consequently perform a motion-modifying function, some machines do not have a planned
force-modifying purpose; the forces that exist are caused by friction and the inertia of the moving masses and do not appear as a useful
output effort. This group would include measuring instruments and clocks.
21 The work referred to in the definition will be interpreted in its scientific sense. In the science of mechanics, work is something that
forces do when they move in the direction in which they are acting, and it is equal to the product of the average force and the distance
moved. If a man carries a weight along a horizontal path, he does no work according to this definition, since the force and the motion are at
right angles to one another; that is, the force is vertical and the motion horizontal. If he carries the weight up a flight of stairs or a ladder, he
does work, since he is moving in the same direction in which he is applying a force. Mathematically, if F equals force(in pounds or
kilograms), and S equals distance (in feet or meters), work is then equal to the applied force F multiplied by the distance this force moves S;
or WORK = FS.
22When a force causes a body to rotate about a fixed axis, or pivot, the work done is obtained by multiplying the torque (T) by the angle of
rotation. These concepts of work are fundamental in defining the mechanical work function of machines in terms of forces or motions, and

they bring out the inseparability of forces and motions in machines. Because of friction, the work output from a machine is always less then
the work input, and the efficiency, which is the ratio of two, is always less than 100 percent.
23The ratio of the output to input forces is the mechanical advantage (MA), and it defines the force-modifying function, while the ratio of
input to output motions is the velocity ratio (VR), and it defines the motion-modifying function. When the efficiency is high, these ratios are
approximately equal; if the output force is ten times the input force, the input motion must be ten times the output motion; i.e., what is gained
in force is lost in motion. Friction affects the mechanical advantage but not the velocity ratio.
24 To calculate the efficiency from the ratio of the output to input work, it would be necessary to know the work done by the output and
input forces over a specified distance. Since this would entail the determination of average force over the interval; it would be inconvenient.
The efficiency of a machine is more easily determined from instantaneous values of load and the rate at which the load is moving. For this
purpose, power formulas are most useful.
25Power is the rate at which work is done. If a man carries a ten-pound weight a vertical height of 12 feet (i.e., up a ladder or stairs) in half a
minute, his power expenditure is 1012 or 120 foot-pounds in half a minute; his rate of doing work is then 240 foot-pounds per minute. The
unit of power or rate of doing work in English-speaking countries is horsepower (hp), which is equal to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, so
that 240 foot-pounds per minute equals 240/33,000 = 0.00727 hp.
26 In dealing with simple force-amplifying machines such as the lever and the wheel and axle, it is convenient to call the input force the
effort and the output force the load. The mechanical advantage is then the ratio of the load to the effort, and the velocity ratio is the
motion (displacement or velocity) of the effort divided by the corresponding motion of the load.

The Simple Machine

1 Figure 2 shows three arrangements of a straight lever, in each case f is the fulcrum; P the effort, applied at b; and W the load, applied at c.
When the lever is balanced or in equilibrium, the tendency of P to turn the lever about f in one direction must be balanced by the tendency of
W to rotate the lever in the opposite direction. Neglecting friction at the fulcrum, this relation can be expressed mathematically as:
1

Pbf = Wcf,

2 which states that the applied effort multiplied by the distance to the fulcrum on one side is equal to the same product on the other side.
From this can be derived a quantity known as the mechanical advantage, which is equal to the load divided by the effort:

W
P

bf
cf

Mechanical Advantage =
=
2
3 In Figure 2A, if bf/cf = 3, it means that a load W of 30 pounds, for example, can be balanced by an effort P of 10 pounds. If P exceeds this
value slightly, the bar will rotate about f with P moving farther and faster than W by the ratio of bf to cf, the velocity ratio, which again is the
mechanical advantage, neglecting friction. Obviously, the shorter the distance between f and c the greater the force-amplifying ability of the
lever, and the shorter the distance c will move for a given movement of b.
4 The arrangement of Figure 2A is found on pliers and scissors, while that in Figure 2B is found on wheelbarrows; f represents the wheel, W
the load , and P the effort exerted on the handles by the operator. In Figure 2C the lever functions as a motion-multiplying device. It is used
on food treadles for driving some small machines. A small movement of the foot at b produces a larger movement at c.
5 The wheel and axle shown in Figure 2D operates basically on a leverage principle. The wheel A, of radius R, and the axle B, of radius r,
are fastened to the shaft, which can rotate. The effort P is applied by means of a cord lying in a groove on the periphery of the wheel, and the
load W is raised by a cord wrapped around the axle. When the axle is stationary, the tendencies of P and W to cause rotation are equal and
opposite. Neglecting bearing friction, the product of effort P and the wheel radius R is equal to the product of the load W and the axle radius
r:
PR = Wr
6 The mechanical advantage is again equal to W/P, which is equal to the ratio of the radius of wheel R to the radius of the axle r. The
situation is similar to that for the lever. A lever, however, can move a load for only short distances, while the wheel and axle can move the
load for a distance limited only by the available lengths of the cords.
7 With the wheel A and cord replaced by a spoked wheel, the wheel and axle is well suited for raising buckets of water from a well. More
importantly, however, the wheel-and-axle principle is perceptible in many tools and machines. On a screwdriver, for example, the force
applied by the hand on a large radius is converted to a larger force on the screw at a smaller radius.

8The pulley is one of the most useful of the basic simple machines. It consists essentially of a wheel with a grooved rim carrying a flexible
cord and supported in either a fixed or a movable bearing block. when used a singly with a fixed bearing block, like pulley A in Figure 2E, a
downward pull creates an upward force of the same magnitude. In Figure 2E this pulley and one with a movable block B are combined. If
friction is neglected, the tension P in the cord is the same at all points, and consequently a given downward pull on the loose end of the cord
will lift twice as much weight at W, and the weight W will move half as far as the cord. The mechanical advantage is therefore two.
Mechanical advantages greater than two can be obtained by using a variety of combination of the pulleys having both fixed and moving
blocks. Such an arrangement, known as block and tackle, is basically a force-amplifying device.
9 Considering now the action of the wedge in Figure 3, which is being driven to the left by the force P. The small the angle and the
smaller the friction force F, the greater the splitting force N in terms of P. For any surface smoothness of the wedge, and corresponding
frictional resistance, if is greater than a given value the wedge will fall out of its own accord when P is removed; if is less than a given
value, the wedge will stay in place or stick when P is removed.
10 Sticking tapers are used for holding cutting tools such as drills and reamers in machine tool spindles. Other mechanical devices that
operate on the wedge principle are wood planes, chisels, knives, metal-cutting tools, and cams.

11 The screw may be thought of as a wedge wrapped around a cylinder. A screw is formed by cutting continuous groove in a solid circular
cylinder, successive turns of the groove being separated by the remaining solid material, called the thread. Both the thread and groove are
helical in form.
12 If the sheet of paper ACCA at the right in Figure 4, with the lines AB and BD drawn on it, were wrapped around the cylinder of
diameter d at the left, the lines would form one and one-half turns of a helix. The distance l, which is the axial distance corresponding to one
turn of the helix, is called the lead. The lead angle is a measure of the slope of the helix.
13 Some early screws were cut by a method that resembles the method used to develop the helix at the left in Figure 4. A thin sheet of
pliable material in the form of a right triangle was wrapped around the cylindrical blank so that one arm of the right angle was parallel to
the axis. The hypotenuse would then form a helix on the cylinder and serve as a guide for the tool when cutting the helical groove.

14 If a sliding member such as F in

Figure 4 were constrained to move
parallel to the axis of the cylinder, such
as along the axis OO, it could be
actuated either by a rotation of the
cylinder and helix or a translation of the
straightened-out helix. In either case the
wedging action is apparent. If the
member F were part of a nut constrained against rotation but free to move axially, the screw-nut combination would constitute a mechanism
for converting rotary to rectilinear motion.
15 As a force amplifier, the screw has few equals. In the form of a screw jack its capacity for lifting weights is limited only by the strength of
the material from which it is made. On a screw jack the nut is fixed, the load is carried on the end of the screw, and the effort is applied as a
turning moment or torque on the screw.
16 In Figure 4 (left), let P be the effort, applied to the screw at a radius R, and W the load, moving with F. In one revolution the effort moves
a distance equal to the circumference of the circle of the radius R, or 2R, while the load is raised a distance l. Thus the velocity ( and the
distance) ratio is 2R/l and, if friction is neglected, this is also the mechanical advantage. Since the screw acts like a wedge, however, the
force relationships are heavily dependent on friction. If a screw-nut combination is used for motion conversion, a high efficiency is desirable;
if the efficiency is high enough (that is, if friction is reduced sufficiently) and is large enough, the nut can drive the screw. such a high
efficiency is undesirable on a screw jack since the load would descend by itself if the force P were removed; that is, a screw jack should be
self-locking. Stated in other words, the screw taper must be less than the sticking taper. High efficiency and self-locking are incompatible.

17 In addition to its usefulness as a fastening device, a force amplifier, and a motion converter, the helix appears in many mechanical
devices. Among these are a helical gear, a propeller, a carpenters drill bit, a screw conveyor, and a twist drill for metal. In the latter, the
helical groove provides the proper angle for the cutting point and a channel for the escape of chips.
18 Most of the simple machines have been shown to be essentially hand-operated devices for lifting heavy weight or creating large forces
with smaller ones. Some writers claim that all machines, no matter how complicated, are combinations of these simple machines. This may
have been true when human or animal muscle was the only source of power, it is certainly not true today.
19 The effectiveness of any of the simple machines is based on either the leverage principle or a wedging action. Insofar as these effects are
built into many of mechanical devices found in machinery, the simple machines do exert an influence on machine operation. The devices that
have the greatest influence on machine performance, however, are the basic mechanisms. It is from combinations of these that most machines
are created.

Mechanisms

1Basic types.The purpose of a mechanism is to transmit motion, either with or without modification, and although mechanisms are made in a
wide variety of forms, there are only three general classes or types, as shown in Figure 5.

2In each of the mechanisms in the figure, links 2 and 4 are pivotally connected at O and Q to the fixed link 1. The three ways of transmitting
motion shown in Figure 5 are: (A) by a flexible wrapping connector such as a belt, rope, cable, or chain ; (B) by direct contact, as in cams,
gears, or friction wheels; and (C) by a rigid connecting link, or coupler. In each case, link 2 is the driver, rotating at n 2 revolutions per minute,
while link 4 is the follower, rotating at n 4 revolutions per minute. For all three cases, the ratio of the rotary speed of link 4 to the rotary speed
of link 2 is given by the ratio of the length Of to the length Qf. In Figure 5A, since point f remains fixed on the line of centers OQ, the speed
ratio is constant; in Figure 5B and 5C, since f will move as the bodies rotate, the speed ratio will vary. Direct-contact bodies can be designed
only to oscillate, like those in Figure 5B, or to rotate continuously. In all cases, point f lies at the intersection of the common normal and the
line of the centers.
3Direct-contact mechanisms. In the most general case, the surfaces of bodies in direct contact slide on one another, and the more sliding
that occurs, the greater will be the deterioration of the surface. Under certain conditions, pure rolling contact, which results in lower surface
wear, can be effected; if other conditions are satisfied, the bodies will transmit motion with a uniform (constant) velocity ratio. These special
cases are of interest in connection with gears and cams. The condition for pure rolling is that the point of contact lies on the line of centers.
4There are three types of pure rolling contact. When the two bodies are circular cylinders, the common normal will lie on the line of centers,
and the load that can be transmitted will depend on the friction between the surfaces. This is known as friction-dependent rolling. For a
positive drive (one independent of friction) the common normal must not pass through the center of either the driver or the follower. Since,
neglecting friction, the force between two bodies in direct contact acts along the normal, the follower will be positively driven when the line
of action of the force does not pass through the pivotal axis of the follower. The bodies in Figure 5B, making contact at point P, provide a
positive drive.
5For any pair of direct-contact bodies the only variable in the formula for velocity ratio is the position of f in Figure 5B.Consequently, the
condition for a uniform or a constant velocity ratio is that the common normal cuts the line of centers at a fixed point. The normal may rotate,
but as long as it cuts the line of centers at the same point the velocity ratio will remain constant.
6For almost any given body shape or profile, another profile can be constructed that will transmit motion with a uniform velocity ratio. This
is called a conjugate profile. There are also mathematically described curves inherently capable of conjugate action; two of them, the cycloid
and the involute, are used for gear teeth. A cycloid is the path traced in place by a point on the rim of a rolling wheel. The profile of a gear
tooth is obtained from the path traced by a point on the rim of a small circle rolling on the inside and the outside of a larger circle. An
involute is the path traced by a point on a string as it unwound from a circular cylinder. The way in which the contacting surfaces of involute
gear teeth co-act with one another can be best understood by studying a pair of involutes in contact. In Figure 6, two involutes generated
from base circles 1 and 2 are shown in contact at three points, m, f, and n. Note that since base circle 2 is larger than base circle 1, the
involutes have different shapes.
7Since two contacting curves must have a common tangent and a common normal at the point of the contact, the common normal for the
involutes in all of the three positions shown in Figure 6 must be xy, the common tangent to the base circles. The intersection of this normal
and the line of the centers OQ is at f, which remains fixed, and, consequently, the bodies are conjugate. All involutes are conjugate to one
another.

8If the involutes in Figure 6 were generated on metal plates mounted on pivots at O and Q, and if 1 were the driver, rotating
counterclockwise, then contact between the involutes would begin at r and end at s. During this partial rotation the point of contact between
the involutes would move along the line xy from r to f to s. At f, since the condition for pure rolling is satisfied, the involutes would roll on
one another; at all other points there would be sliding contact.
9The two circles of radii Of and Qf in Figure 6 are known as the pitch circles, and f is the pitch point. The circles are useful for reference
purposes in analyzing gears, and when the shafts are parallel they represent the pair of friction disks that, by pure rolling contact, would
transmit the motion at the same rate as the gears. The outside circles are the circles represented by the outer periphery of the gear teeth.
10The two involutes in Figure 6 would remain in contact for only part of a revolution. To obtain continuous rotation, as in gears, a number of
equally spaced involutes would be required on each base circle.
11The possibility of obtaining pure rolling, a positive drive, and a uniform velocity ratio simultaneously and continuously has long
challenged inventors. It is easy to demonstrate that any two of the states can coexist continuously, but not all three. The rolling ellipses in
Figure 9B provide a positive drive, except in the end positions, but the velocity ratio is not uniform. Rolling circular disks or truncated cones
provide a uniform velocity ratio, but the drive is not positive. A positive drive is always a requirement of gear teeth and so also, in most
cases, is a uniform velocity ratio. When the teeth touch on the line of centers they also have pure rolling contact, but only for an instant.

Gears
()
1Gears are direct-contact bodies, operating in pairs, that transmit motion and force from one rotating shaft to another, or from a shaft to a
slide (rack), by means of successively engaging projections called teeth.
2Tooth profiles. The contacting surfaces of gear teeth must be aligned in such a way that the drive is positive; i.e., the load transmitted must
not depend on frictional contact. As shown in the treatment of direct-contact bodies, this requires that the common normal to the surfaces
must not pass through the pivotal axis of either the driver or the follower.
3Most gears are also required to have tooth profiles of such a shape that the velocity ratio of the gears remains constant (unless otherwise
noted, this article will deal with such gears only). This requires that the common normal must cut the line between the pivots at a fixed point.
4As shown in the section on direct-contact bodies, cycloidal and involute profiles provide both a positive drive and a uniform velocity ratio;
i.e., conjugate action.
5Some of the advantages of the involute as a gear-tooth profile have already been enumerated. The factors to be considered in evaluating a
gear-tooth profile include ease of manufacture, sensitivity to maladjustment, and load-carrying capacity. On all of these counts the involute is
superior or equal to the cycloid. Involutes, however, are unsuitable for the teeth of driven gears having as few as six or seven teeth and
capable of action through 60 degrees of rotation. This is a requirement for watch and clock gears, and since they can supply it, cycloidal teeth
or ogival (circular arc) approximations thereto are used on watches, clocks, and small instruments. Another type of pinion (small gear) used
in clockwork is the lantern pinion, or pin gear. The teeth are short lengths of hard, polished, steel wire held between two end plates, and the
teeth on the mating gear are conjugate epicycloids. By using rollers in place of fixed pins, the friction is reduced.
6Circular profiles have been proposed for gears, most recently in some countries. Since contacting involutes are both convex, the contact
stresses are higher than in a convex-concave pair such as can be obtained with circular profiles. In spite of their higher surface load-carrying
capacity, however, circular-profile gears are seldom used, because they lack the profile interchangeability of involute gears, are difficult to
manufacture, and are sensitive to center-distance variations.
7In spite of some deficiencies, the involute is still the most commonly used gear-tooth profile. As far as the transmission of motion is
concerned, it does not matter what shape the teeth on a gear pair have as long as they are conjugate to one another; i.e., transmit the motion
with a uniform velocity ratio. The dominating considerations are manufacturing convenience and interchangeability.
8A worm and its mating gear are inseparable, and the gear is cut with a tool (hob) that is basically a replica of the worm. Some British
manufacturers prefer the involute profile for worms; in the United States, involutes are seldom used for this type of gear.
9Basic relations.The smaller of a gear pair is called the pinion and the larger is the gear. When the pinion is on the driving shaft the pair acts
as a speed reducer; when the gear drives, the pair is a speed increaser. Gears are more frequently used to reduce speed than to increase it.
10If a gear having N teeth rotates at n revolutions per minute, the product Nn has the dimension teeth per minute. This product must be the
same for both members of a mating pair if each tooth is to acquire a partner from the mating gear as it passes through the region of tooth
engagement.
11For conjugate gears of all types, the gear ratio and the speed ratio are both given by the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to the
number of teeth on the pinion. If a gear has 100 teeth and a mating pinion 20, the ratio is 100/20 = 5. Thus the pinion rotates five times as fast
as the gear, regardless of the speed of the gear.
12If the shafts are parallel, the gear and pinion could be replaced by a pair of cylinders that would transmit the motion by pure rolling contact
at the same speed ratio as the gears. On the gears, the circles that represent these imaginary cylinders are called the pitch circles; these are
useful for reference purposes in the analysis of gears. Their point of tangency is called the pitch point, and since it lies on the line of centers,
it is the only point at which the tooth profiles have pure rolling contact. Gears on nonparallel, non-intersecting shafts also have pitch circles,
but the rolling-pitch-circle concept is not valid.
13Gear types are determined largely by the disposition of the shafts; in addition, certain types are better suited than others for large speed
changes. This means that if a specific disposition of the shafts is required, the type of gear is more or less fixed. On the other hand, if a
required speed change demands a certain type, the shaft positions are fixed.
14Spur and helical gears. A gear having tooth elements that are straight and parallel to its axis is known as a spur gear. A spur pair can be
used to connect parallel shafts only. Parallel shafts, however, can also be connected by gears of another type, and a spur gear can be mated
with a gear of a different type.
15In Figure 6, if the involutes are on a single pair of teeth on mating involute spur gears, then, since contact begins at r and ends at s, to
obtain continuous transmission of motion, a pair must come into contact at r before the preceding pair goes out of contact at s. Whether this
does or does not occur depends on the tooth spacing and the length of the line rs, which depends on the amounts that the teeth project above
and below the pitch circles. Satisfactory values of those dimensions have been standardized.
16Since the pitch circles roll on one another, the spacing of the teeth on these circles on a mating pair must be equal. This spacing, which is
known as the circular pitch p and is a measure of tooth size, is the distance between corresponding points on adjacent teeth, measured on the
pitch circle.

17To prevent jamming as a result of thermal expansion, to aid lubrication, and to compensate for unavoidable inaccuracies in manufacture,
all power-transmitting gears must have backlash. This means that on the pitch circles of a mating pair, the space width on the pinion must be
slightly greater than the tooth thickness on the gear, and vice versa. On instrument gears, backlash can be eliminated by using a gear split
down its middle, one half being rotatable relative to the other. A spring forces the split gear teeth to occupy the full width of the pinion space.
18If an involute spur pinion were made of rubber and twisted uniformly so that the ends rotated about the axis relative to one another, the
elements of the teeth, initially straight and parallel to the axis, would become helices. The pinion then in effect would become a helical gear.
19Helical gears have certain advantages; for example, when connecting parallel shafts they have a higher load-carrying capacity than spur
gears with the same tooth numbers and cut with the same cutter. Because of the overlapping action of the teeth, they are smoother in action
and can operate at higher pitch-line velocities than spur gears. The pitch-line velocity is the velocity of the pitch circle. Since the teeth are
inclined to the axis of rotation, helical gears create an axial thrust. If used singly, this thrust must be absorbed in the shaft bearings. The thrust
problem can be overcome by cutting two sets of opposed helical teeth on the same blank. Depending on the method of manufacture, the gear
may be of the continuous-tooth herringbone variety or a double-helical gear with a space between the two halves to permit the cutting tool to
run out. Double-helical gears are well suited for the efficient transmission of power at high speeds.
20Helical gears can also be used to connect nonparallel, non-intersecting shafts at any angle to one another. Ninety degrees is the commonest
angle at which such gears are used. When the shafts are parallel, the contact between the teeth on mating gears is line contact regardless of
whether the teeth are straight or helical. When the shafts are inclined, the contact becomes point contact. For this reason, crossed-axis
helical gears do not have as much load-carrying capacity as parallel-shaft helicals. They are frequently employed in instruments and
positioning mechanisms where friction is the only force opposing their motion.
21As stated above, the rolling-pitch-circle concept, which applies to gears on parallel shafts, does not apply to gears on nonparallel, nonintersecting shafts. This means that a large speed ratio on one pair of gears, 100 for example, is more easily obtained when the axes are
crossed than when they are parallel. With parallel shafts, the pinion pitch diameter would have to be 1/100 of the gear pitch diameter, an
impractical proportion. With crossed axes, the pinion could have only one helical tooth or thread and be as large as necessary for
adequate strength. The pinion would look like a screw, and the gear would have 100 teeth.
22Worm and bevel gears. In order to achieve line contact and improve the load-carrying capacity of the crossed-axis helical gears, the gear
can be made to curve partially around the pinion, in somewhat the same way that a nut envelops a screw. The result would be a cylindrical
worm and gear. Worms are also made in the shape of an hourglass, instead of cylindrical, so that they partially envelop the gear. This results
in a further increase in load-carrying capacity.
23Worm gears provide the simplest means of obtaining large ratios in a single pair. They are usually less efficient than parallel-shaft gears,
however, because of an additional sliding movement along the teeth. Because of their similarity, the efficiency of a worm and gear depends
on the same factors as the efficiency of a screw. Single-thread worms of large diameter have small lead angles and low efficiencies. Multiplethread worms have larger lead angles and higher efficiencies. For lead angles of about 15 degrees and a coefficient of friction less than 0.15,
the efficiency ranges from about 55 percent to 95 percent, and the gear can drive the worm. Such units make compact speed increases; they
have been used for driving superchargers on aircraft engines. In self-locking worms, the gear cannot drive the worm, and the efficiency is
less than 50 percent.
24For transmitting rotary motion and torque around corners, bevel gears are commonly used. The connected shafts, whose axes would
intersect if extended, are usually but not necessarily at right angles to one another. The pitch surfaces of bevel gears are rolling, truncated
cones, and the teeth, which must be tapered in both thickness and height, are either straight or curved. Although curved-tooth bevel gears are
called spiral bevel gears, the curve of the teeth is usually a circular arc. The curvature of the teeth results in overlapping tooth action and a
smoother transmission of power than with straight teeth. For high speeds and torques, spiral bevel gears are superior to straight bevel gears in
much the same way that helical gears are superior to spur gears for connecting parallel shafts.
25When adapted for shafts that do not intersect, spiral bevel gears are called hypoid gears. The pitch surfaces of these gears are not rolling
cones, and the ratio of their mean diameters is not equal to the speed ratio. Consequently, the pinion may have few teeth and be made as large
as necessary to carry the load. This permits higher speed ratios than with intersecting axes, just as crossed-axis helicals and worm gears can
provide higher ratios than parallel helicals. The absence of the proportional rolling-pitch surface requirement is a benefit.
26Hypoid gears are used on automobiles to connect the drive shaft to the rear axles. The axis of the pinion on the drive shaft is below the
gear axis, which permits lowering of the engine and the center of gravity of the vehicle. Since the shafts do not intersect, several gear shafts
may be driven from pinions mounted on a single pinion shaft, as in tandem axles for trucks.
27The profiles of the teeth on bevel gears are not involutes; they are of such a shape that the tools for cutting the teeth are easier to make and
maintain than involute cutting tools. Since bevel gears come in pairs, as long as they are conjugate to one another they need not be conjugate
to other gears with different tooth numbers.
28Planetary and differential gears. The external spur gears in Figure 7 rotate in opposite directions, and the center distance is the sum of
their pitch radii. A pinion and an internal or ring gear rotate in the same direction, and the center distance is the difference of their pitch radii.
The teeth on an internal gear, which may be straight or helical, are cut on the inside of a cup-shaped member.
29A useful arrangement of external gears and an internal gear is shown in Figure 8 (left). The sun gear S on shaft 1 meshes with three planet
gears P that are carried on bearings on a carrier A attached to shaft 2. The planet gears also mesh with the internal ring gear 3, whose
supporting hub, not shown, is coaxial with shafts 1 and 2.

30 Since there are

three
rotatable
coaxial shafts, any
two of them must
be inputs if the
arrangement is to
have constrained
motion and serve a
useful
purpose.
Usually, one of the
shafts is fixed, which corresponds to a zero input, and the other two shafts serve as either inputs or outputs. The three different speed ratios
that can be obtained depend on which of the three shafts is fixed, and the ratio of the number of teeth on the ring gear to the number of teeth
on the sun gear. If this ratio is three, for example, the following different speed ratios can be obtained. If the arm (shaft 2) is fixed, the sun
gear and shaft 1 rotate three times as fast as the internal gear and shaft 3, and in the opposite direction. Since all gears rotate about fixed axes,
this is an ordinary gear train.
31If the internal ring gear 3 is locked, a planetary or epicyclic system results; shaft 1 rotates at four times the speed of shaft 2 and in the same
direction. The planet gears have a planetary motion, moving around the sun gear in a circular orbit while rotating relative to the arms. When
the sun gear (shaft 1) is fixed, for every three revolutions of shaft 2, shaft 3 makes four revolutions in the same direction. This is also a
planetary system.
32Planetary arrangements of the type described are used in the automatic transmissions of automobiles; in these, the fixing and
interconnecting are done automatically with brakes and clutches.
33Gears can be arranged to form planetary systems in a variety of ways. The planet gears may be compounded ( i.e., have more than one gear
on the same shaft) and mesh with other sun and internal gears. None of the gears may be fixed; in this case any two (including the arm) may
be attached to input shafts and the remainder to output shafts. Speed ratios of 10,000 and higher can be obtained.
34Planetary arrangements with bevel gears are also available. The bevel gear differential in Figure 8 (right) is such an arrangement; it can
perform many useful functions in the operation of machines. The strictly planetary action is confined to the two pairs of equal bevel gears
(SS and EF), which are free to rotate on the arm and shaft of the cross-shaped spider A, which in turn can rotate about the fixed axis XX;
the axis YY of the spider arm sweeps out a plane perpendicular to the spider shaft and carries the gears S with it. If gear E is fixed and gear F
rotated about the spider shaft, the gears S will act like levers, with fulcrums at gear E, efforts at gear F, and loads perpendicular to the axis
YY. Since YY is halfway between E and F, it (and shaft A) will rotate only half as much as gear F. Mathematically, with E fixed, A=F/2 in
which A and F are either the angular displacements or angular velocities of the spider arm and the gear F, respectively. With F fixed, A=E/2,

and, combining the two effects, the fundamental equation for the bevel gear differential is A=
spider shaft is half the sum of the rotation of the side gears.

EF
2

. This means that the rotation of the

35Since there are three variables in this equation, any two must be known before the third can be calculated. This means that the bevel gear
differential must have two inputs. Usually the inputs come from outside sources to the spur gears C and D, which are fixed to the side gears E
and F, respectively; the output is delivered to another outside source through the spur gear B, which is fixed to the spider shaft A. If E makes
100 revolutions while F makes 80 revolutions in the same direction, then A=180/2=90 revolutions. If E and F rotate in opposite directions at
the same speed, then E F=0 and the spider shaft will stand still. This effect can be used to synchronize the speeds of two engines or to
detect errors in automatic-control mechanisms. Differentials of the type shown in Figure 8 (right) are widely used in analogue computers and
instrument systems.
36In an automobile, the differential permits the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds (as when turning) while both are being driven
from the same source. The spider shaft is the input or driving member, while the side gears are connected to the wheel axles. The road acts as
a gear train that controls the ratio of the wheel speeds.
37Since the tooth loads between gears S and E and between S and F in Figure 8 (right) are always equal, the torques on both rear axles in an
automobile are always equal. If one wheel slips on the ice, it can develop little torque and neither can the other wheel. To correct this basic
weakness of the automobile differential, limited slip differentials have been developed.
38Gear trains and reducers. The maximum gear ratio obtainable with a single pair of gears varies with the type of gear and the application.
The following are approximate maxim for the various types for average load conditions: spur, 8; parallel-shaft helical, 10; straight bevel, 6;
spiral bevel, 8; hypoid, 12; and worm, 80. For lightly loaded, instrument, and positioning gears, these ratios can be exceeded. Ratios as high
as 400 or higher can be obtained with gears that resemble tapered worms meshing with hypoid gears. For heavily loaded gears, the given
ratios may be so high that a reasonable gear size precludes a satisfactory pinion.
39Since the ratio in a single pair of gears is the quotient of the tooth numbers, and since there usually are limitations on both the minimum
and maximum numbers of teeth on the available gears, it follows that the number of ratios obtainable in a single pair is limited. To enlarge
the coverage it is necessary to use multiple pairs, or trains (Figure 9A). The overall speed ratio in a train is the product of the ratios in each
pair. In certain cases an exact ratio cannot be obtained with gears, but by using two or more pairs, the desired ratio can be approximated to
any degree of precision.

40As a convenience for machine builders and users, packaged speed reducers, following an industry-accepted pattern, are manufactured in a
wide variety of types, configurations, speed ratios, and capacities; these consist of a box or housing containing bearings, shafts, gears,
lubricant, and shaft oil seals. Speed increases are usually custom built.

41All speed reducers when operating continuously become hot because of friction in the teeth, in the lubricant, in the bearings, and in the oil
seals. If the heat is generated at a faster rate than it can be dissipated to the atmosphere, the lubricant may deteriorate and the gears or
bearings fail.

CAMS

1A cam is the driving or input member of a pair of bodies in direct contact, so shaped that its reciprocation, oscillation, or rotation, combined
with a wedging action, imparts a prescribed motion of reciprocation or oscillation to a follower or output member. The shape of the cam is
determined by the prescribed motion and the profile of the follower, which is usually flat or circular.
2Cam-follower mechanisms can be designed to satisfy almost any input-output relationship within their scope. For some applications the
capabilities of cams and linkage mechanisms overlap. Cams are easier to design than linkage mechanisms for mutually appropriate
applications, and they can do many things that a linkage cannot do. Linkages, on the other hand, are easier to make than cams.
3Cam-follower mechanisms are particularly useful when a simple motion of one part of a machine is to be converted to a more complicated
prescribed motion of another part that is accurately timed with respect to the simple motion and combined with periods of rest. The motion of
the camshaft on an automobile engine, for example, is a simple rotation that is a fixed ratio of the crankshaft speed, while the valve motion
produced by the cams is accurately timed relative to the crankshaft rotation and includes rest periods, or dwells, when the valves remain
closed. Cams are essential elements in automatic machine tools, textile machinery, wire-drawing machines and printing machines.
4 On some machines the cam is a fixed disk with a suitably shaped periphery around which the follower, in its support, is rotated. In other
cases, the roles of the cam and follower can be reversed; i.e., the follower can drive the cam. These are known as inverse cam mechanisms
and are not common. Because of their wedging action, cams make effective locking devices or force and torque amplifiers when rotatably
mounted on fixed pivots.

5The translation cam, Figure 10A, produces a vertical motion of the follower when the cam is moved horizontally. The disk cam, Figure
10B, is a flat, rotating plate with a curved contour. The disk cam can be conceived as having been formed by bending the translation cam
around a disk of radius OG; the seven equal angular increments, such as , in Figure 10B, correspond with the seven equal linear increments,
such as h, in Figure 10A. The cylindrical cam (Figure 10C) can be envisioned as having been formed by bending a rectangular plate such as
0077 of Figure 10A and a groove like the curved line into a circular cylinder. The groove would resemble the thread on a screw, but it would
be endless and a follower fitting in the groove could be guided to move on the straight path DE parallel to the axis by a rotation of the drum
about the yy axis, Oscillating arms with rollers fitting the groove in the drum are also used on these cams.
6If the relation between the motion of the cam and the motion of the follower can be expressed by a mathematical equation, then the velocity
and acceleration equations can be obtained by differentiation, and the displacement, velocity, and acceleration curves can be drawn. On highspeed cams the acceleration of the follower and the resulting inertial forces are important considerations. For this reason, certain types of
follower motions that can be expressed in simple formulas are commonly employed by cam designers; among these are uniformly
accelerated and retarded motion and harmonic motion (the motion of a simple pendulum).
7On the end that contacts the cam, reciprocating followers usually have either a roller or a flat face (Figure 10B). Oscillating followers are
also made with flat faces. In all cases, the follower must be constrained to follow the cam either by a spring or by gravity.

Linkages
()
1 A linkage may be defined as an assemblage of solid bodies, or links, in which each link is connected to at least two others by pin
connections (hinges) or sliding joints. To satisfy this definition, a linkage must form an endless, or closed, chain or a series of closed chains.
It is obvious that a chain with many links will behave differently from one with few. This raises the vitally important question regarding the
suitability of a given linkage for the transmission of motion in a machine. This suitability depends on the number of links and the number of
joints.
2 Degrees of freedom. A three-bar linkage (containing three bars linked together) is obviously a rigid frame; no relative motion between the
links is possible. To describe the relative positions of the links in a four-bar linkage it is necessary only to know the angle between any two of
the links. (Including the fixed link OQ, the mechanism in Figure 5C has four links and is thus a four-bar linkage.) This linkage is said to have
one degree of freedom. Two angles are required to specify the relative positions of the links in a five-bar linkage; it has two degrees of
freedom.
3 Linkages with one degree of freedom have constrained motion; i.e., all points on all of the links have paths on the other links that are fixed
and determinate. The paths are most easily obtained or visualized by assuming that the link on which the paths are required is fixed, and then
moving the other links in a manner compatible with the constraints.
4 Four-bar mechanisms. When one of the members of a constrained linkage is fixed, the linkage becomes a mechanism capable of
performing a useful mechanical function in a machine. On pin-connected linkages the input (driver) and output (follower) links are usually
pivotally connected to the fixed link; the connecting links (couplers) are usually neither inputs nor outputs. Since any of the links can be
fixed, if the links are of different lengths, four mechanisms, each with a different input-output relationship, can be obtained with a four-bar

linkage. These four mechanisms are said to be inversions of the basic linkage.

5When the shortest link a in Figure 11 (top) is fixed, links b and d can make complete revolutions. This is known as a drag-link mechanism.
If crank b rotates at a constant speed, the crank d will rotate in the same direction at a varying speed. By itself, or in series with other
mechanisms, the drag link can provide useful kinematic effects. In the figure, crank b is the driver, rotating counterclockwise at a uniform
rate; crank d is the follower. Both cranks make a complete revolution in the same time, but while b sweeps out the angle , which is 150
degrees the follower d sweeps out the angle , which is only 50 degrees. This means that crank d will move more slowly than crank b when
moving from B to B and more quickly than b when moving from B to B. If crank d were attached to a shaft in a packaging machine, for
example, the slow part of its motion, which with some link proportions is almost a pause or a dwell, could be utilized for performing
operations that must be done at a slow speed.
6The second inversion of the four-bar mechanism is obtained by using the shortest link a as the driver. As shown in Figure (bottom), link a
can make complete revolutions while the opposite link, which may be either b, c, or d, can only oscillate through the angle . This is called
the crank-rocker mechanism; it is a useful device for producing oscillatory motion combined with a quick-return action that results from the
fact that for counter-clockwise rotation of a, the oscillation of c from B to B corresponds with angle 1 , while oscillation from Bto B
corresponds with angle2 . Since crank a rotates at a constant speed and 1 is greater than2 , the rocker will take longer to swing from right to
left than the other way. On machines that do useful work only when the active members are moving in one direction, quick-return devices
return the members quickly to their initial position.
7In the extreme positions, shown dotted in Figure (bottom), the crank a and the coupler link b are lined up (collinear), and if the rocker c
were the driver, means would have to be provided to carry the follower link a past these dead positions. On foot-operated grindstones the foot
pedal is attached to link c and the grindstone shaft to link a. The angular momentum of the grindstone is utilized to carry the links past the
dead positions.
8On the third inversion of the four-bar mechanism, the shortest link a is the coupler; and the other moving links can only oscillate. This is
called the double-rocker mechanism.
9Linkage synthesis. Graphical and analytical methods can be readily employed for determining the displacement, velocity, and acceleration
of the links in a linkage mechanism. The design, or synthesis, of linkages to satisfy specific requirements is much more difficult. There is no

known method for designing a drag-link mechanism to satisfy a given spectrum of input-output relationships. The best that can be done is to
survey the performance characteristics of a selected number of specific configurations and pick the optimum.
10On the crank-rocker mechanism the designer can control the angle of oscillation of the rocker and, to a degree, the quick-return ratio. The
crank and rocker displacements, velocities, and accelerations cannot be correlated.
11If the cranks in a four-bar mechanism always rotate in the same or in opposite directions, and if their rotations are limited to considerably
less than 180 degrees, it may be possible to correlate the crank rotations in three, four, five, or even a larger number of positions. Both
analytic and graphic methods are available for making the correlations.

12Figure 12 (left) shows a function generator that correlates the rotation of crank b over a 60-degree range with the rotation of crank d over a
70-degree range. The correlation is such as to satisfy the relationship Y=X 2, with X varying from 1 to 6 and Y from 1 to 36. The rotation of
crank b is the mechanical analogue of X, while the rotation of crank d is the analogue of Y. The relation between X and Y is accurate at
X=1.19, 2.54, 4.46, and 5.81; at other positions it is in error, but the error has been minimized by the odd spacing of the above precision
points.
13A function generator is not ordinarily used to indicate corresponding values of two functionally related variables such as X and Y. The
scales shown in Figure 12 (left) are not usually provided; they have been added to bring out the most important feature of a function
generator, namely, that the scales are uniform; i.e., graduated in equal divisions. This means that, since is 70 degrees and the range of Y is
35, each two-degree rotation of crank d corresponds with one unit of Y, and if d is used to operate a valve in response to a signal from b, the
rotation of d corresponding to a given change in Y is the same at all points in the range.
14Slider-crank inversions. When one of the pin connections in a four-bar linkage is replaced by a sliding joint, a number of useful
mechanisms can be obtained from the resulting linkage. In Figure 13 (top) the connection between links 1 and 4 is a sliding joint that permits
block 4 to slide in the slot in link 1. It would make no difference, kinematically, if link 4 were sliding in a hole or slot in link 1.
15If link 1 in Figure 13 (top) is fixed, the resulting slider-crank mechanism is shown in Figure 13 (center). This is the mechanism of a
reciprocating engine. The block 4 represents the piston; link 1, shown shaded, is the block that contains the crankshaft bearing at A and the
cylinder; link 2 is the crankshaft and link 3 the connecting rod. The crankpin bearing is at B, the wrist pin bearing at C. The stroke of the
piston is twice AB, the throw of the crank.
16The slider-crank mechanism provides means for
translatory motion of the pistons in a reciprocating
rotary motion of the crankshaft, or the rotary motion
in a pump into a translatory motion of the pistons. In
(center), when B is in position B, the connecting rod
with the crank if both were in the same plane. This
solved in engines and pumps by offsetting the
from the crankshaft bearing. By using an eccentricmechanism in place of a crank, no offsetting is
very small throws can be obtained.

converting
the
engine
into
of the crankshaft
Figure
13
would interfere
problem
is
crankpin bearing
and-rod
necessary
and

17In Figure 13 (bottom) the crankpin bearing at B has

circular disk pivoted at A with an eccentricity or throw
connecting rod has become the eccentric rod with a
encircles and slides on the eccentric. The mechanisms
bottom drawings of Figure 13 are kinematically
fixing links 2, 3, and 4 instead of link 1, there other
linkage in Figure 13 (top) are obtained.

become a large
AB.
The
strap
that
in the center and
equivalent.
By
inversions of the

18Space linkages. All of the linkages considered so

far have been
planar; i.e., their motions have been confined to a
single plane or to
parallel planes, and the shafts they connect have been parallel. Space linkages operate in three dimensions and are used to transmit motion
between nonparallel shafts. Although some well-known linkage mechanisms in use for many years are special forms of space linkages, it was
not until about the 1950s that kinematicians became seriously interested in developing procedures for describing, analyzing, and synthesizing
these linkages. Though some advances in this field have been made, many problems remain unsolved.
19Whereas a plane linkage can be described with a two-dimensional drawing and analyzed and synthesized with plane geometrical
constructions, this is not possible with a space linkage. At least two views are required to define a link in three-dimensional space, and the
additional dimension complicates the analysis of velocity and acceleration. Thus, analysis of space linkages involves the use of higher
mathematics.
20In plane linkages there are only two types of connectors or joints, namely, pin or hinge joints and sliding joints (crossheads). Since it takes
two elements to make a joint, kinematicians call them kinematic pairs. Thus a pin joint is a revolute, or turning pair and a sliding joint is a
prismatic pair. In space linkages there are additional pairs, namely, the cylindric pair, which permits both relative translation and rotation, the
screw pair (screw and nut), and the spheric pair (ball and socket joint).

Belt Drive
()
1Belt drives. Bands and flat belts. Band, or tape, drives are useful substitutes for gears when the connected shafts do not make complete
revolutions. The band drive in Figure 15 (left) provides a positive drive and the equivalent of pure rolling contact between the drums A and B
that are pivoted on fixed axes. The ends of the thin, flexible, metallic bands 12 and 34 are clamped to the drums. If drum A and B drives
counterclockwise, band 12 will be in tension, while for clockwise rotation of the drums, band 34 will be in tension. The bands lie side by side
on the surface of the drums; there is no backlash as there would be in a gear drive; for the arrangement shown in Figure 15 (left), drum A can
rotate about 145 degrees, while drum B can rotate about 240 degrees. Band drives can also operate with non-circular drums; they are used on
the dial indicator mechanism of weighing machines.

2When used to connect shafts that rotate continuously in one direction, the ends of ropes and belts cannot be clamped to the drums; they
must be wrapped around them so that the forces are transmitted by the frictional grip of the rope or belt on the drum. The force that can be
carried without slip by a rope wrapped around a drum, such as a capstan, increases rapidly as the number of wraps is increased.
3Flat belts can be used to connect any pair of shafts in space, but when the shafts are not parallel it is necessary to exercise greater care in
locating the pulleys than when the shafts are parallel. The pulleys must be so arranged that the center line of a belt as it approaches a pulley
lies in the plane that bisects the pulley and is perpendicular to its axis; otherwise, the belt will run off. To satisfy this requirement it may be
necessary to use additional (idler) pulleys to guide the belt.
4Flat belts are most often used to connect parallel shafts. Figure 16 shows a pair of parallel shafts connected by an open flat on pulleys A and
B and by a crossed flat belt on pulleys C and D. To prevent the belts from running off the pulleys, the surfaces of the pulleys are crowned
(that is, the pulley diameter is greater at the midsection than at the edges) or the pulleys are provided with low flanges.
5If there are no slip losses and belt thickness is neglected, the surface (peripheral) speeds of pulleys must be equal; their angular velocities
will be inversely proportional to their diameters. For pulleys A and B,

Speed of A
Speed of B

Diameter of B
Diameter of A

An equation of similar kind can be written for pulleys C and D.

6A phenomenon known as creep causes the driven pulley to rotate at slower speed than that given by the formula. Creep is unavoidable on
belts made of any material that stretches elastically under load and contracts when the load is reduced. The amount of creep in a given drive
depends on the belt material and the magnitude of the load; it seldom results in the surface speed of the driven pulley being more than 2
percent less than that of the driving pulley.
7If the initial tension in a belt is inadequate, the frictional grip of the belt may be insufficient to carry the load without some forward slip of
the driving pulley relative to the belt and some forward slip of the belt relative to the driven pulley. On a well-designed flat-belt drive the
combined creep and slip seldom exceed 4 percent.
8Although successful friction drives with steel belts have been reported, most flat belts are made of more flexible materials such as leather,
rubber, fabric, rubberized fabric, or reinforced plastic. Leather belts develop an excellent frictional grip on pulleys, and if periodically
lubricated with a suitable belt dressing and not overloaded they will last as long as or longer than any other belt material. Because of
variations in humidity, however, leather belts stretch and shrink, and with time they always get longer. If the pulleys are a fixed distance apart
and means are not provided for keeping the belts tight, they must be taken up (shortened) periodically by cutting the belt and joining the
cut ends.
9The strongest leather-belt joint is made by gluing together the scarfed (chamfered) and overlapped ends of the belt. This is known as a
cemented lap joint, and belts joined in this way are classified as endless. As an everyday procedure for joining belts, cemented lap joints are
impractical. There are several commercially available metallic belt-lacing devices. One of these involves the insertion of a row of steel loops
in the ends of the belt by means of a special press, and hinging them together with a rawhide pin. This joint is easily made and separated.
10Speed rations as high as 16 to 1 have been obtained with flat leather belts. If the shaft center distance is short, high ratios with an open belt
will result in the angle of wrap on the smaller pulley being considerably less than 180 degrees. To increase the angle and keep the belt tight,
an idler pulley can be used. The one shown at E in Figure 16 could be mounted on a weighted arm pivoted at the right and would normally
occupy a position closer to pulley B.
11Short-center electric motor drives can be improved by using a pivoted mount for the motor. In Figure 16 the base of the motor is pivoted at
J, and the clockwise turning moment about J of the motor weight W is balanced by the counterclockwise turning moment of the belt tensions
T1 and T2. Belt tensions are controlled by the position of the motor on the base.
12Flat-belt pulleys usually are made either of cast iron or of pressed steel, although some are wood, and others have cast-iron centers and
paper rims. At all speeds the grip of a belt on a pulley is lessened by centrifugal action, and at approximately 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) per
minute the power that a leather belt can transmit starts to drop off on account of this effect. When possible, pulley diameters for leather belts
should be chosen so that the belt speed is between 4,500 and 6,000 feet (1,400 and 1,800 meters) per minute.
13The driven pulley of an open-belt drive may be connected to the load shaft by a clutch, so that the load may be started and stopped while
the belt pulleys rotate continuously. In place of a clutch, a loose (freely rotating) pulley may be installed next to the driven pulley. A belts
shifter, consisting of two fingers that guide the belt between them, moves the belt from one pulley to another when actuated by a lever. A
double-width driving pulley is required.
14V belts. The frictional grip of a wrapping connector on a pulley can be greatly increased by using a belt with a V-shaped cross section
fitting in a V-shaped groove in the pulley. In Figure 15 (right) the effect of tension in the V belt (called P) is to wedge the belt in the groove
and create the normal forces N. The two normal forces and P must be in equilibrium as shown by the force triangle (lower right). On a flat
pulley the angle 2 is 180 degrees, and from the force triangle the sum of the normal forces N would be equal to P. Consequently, the V
groove increases the normal forces created by a given belt tension. For standard commercial V belts the average angle 2 is 35 degrees and
the sum of the normal forces is 3.3P, which, since the frictional grip equals the normal force times the coefficient of friction, represents a
substantial gain in capacity over a flat belt. In actual practice, gains of this magnitude are seldom realized, since satisfactory results can be
obtained without the high tensions necessary on flat belts.
15For a V-belt drive a thick belt is strained more than a thin belt on the same pulley, and a small-diameter pulley creates more bending in a
belt than a large-diameter pulley. The amount of strain that a material can tolerate without permanent damage is given by its strength:
stiffness ratio. For mild steel the ratio is approximately 1:1,000, which means that a fiber of steel can be stretched or compressed one onethousandth of its original length without permanently changing shape. For some types of rubber the corresponding value is one.
16Although the cross-sectional shapes of available V belts are more or less standardized, the composition of the structural elements and their
distribution throughout the cross-section are not. Nevertheless, most V belts are constructed in such a way that the bending strains are carried
by a flexible material, while the transmitted load is carried by a stronger and stiffer material located near the neutral plane, where there is no
bending strain.
17V belts are available in a variety of sizes, types, and lengths for transmitting almost any amount of power. They operate best at belt speeds
between 1,600 and 6,000 feet (500 and 1,800 meters) per minute, with an optimum speed of about 4,200 feet (1,300 meters) per minute. The
narrow, high-capacity belts used on automobile engines for driving the fan, water pump, and generator can operate at higher speeds. As with
flat belts, the speed-limiting factor is centrifugal action. Though maximum speed ratio for satisfactory performance is approximately 7:1,
higher ratios can be used.

18V belts may be used singly or in multiples. For some belt sizes sheaves with from 1 to 14 grooves are available as standard manufactured
parts. Because of the wedging action in the grooves, less initial tension is necessary than with a flat belt. This reduces the load on the shafts
and bearings.
19V belts are well suited for short-center drives. When the speed ratio is greater than about 3:1, the advantages of a V-belt drive can be
obtained without using a large and expensive grooved pulley on the low-speed shaft. This is known as a V-flat drive and consists of a small
grooved sheave, a large flat-belt pulley, and a set of V belts. Because of the comparatively large speed ratio, the angle of wrap on the large
pulley is so great that, even without grooves, its frictional grip on the belt may equal or exceed that of the small grooved sheave. V-flat drives
are frequently used on punch presses, the grooved sheave being on the driving motor and the flywheel with an uncrowned cylindrical
periphery serving as the driven pulley.
20Grooved and timing belts. Two other types of flexible belts, both of comparatively recent origin, are used for the transmission of power:
the V-ribbed, or grooved, belt and the toothed, or timing, belt. The grooved belt is basically a flat belt with sharp-pointed, V-shaped
longitudinal ribs on the side next to the grooved pulley. Although it resembles a set of V belts glued together, there is no wedging action. The
overall width is less than for a multiple V-belt drive, and the belt-length matching problem, which always exists when a number of V belts
are running on the same pulleys, is eliminated.
21The toothed, or timing, belt (also called a synchronous belt) is basically a flat belt with a series of evenly spaced transverse teeth that fit in
a series of matching grooves on the periphery of the pulley. These belts provide a positive no-slip drive and can be used at speeds as high as
16,000 feet (5,000 meters) per minute. They are used on automobile camshaft drives, machine tools, pumps, textile machinery, and on such
business machines as electric typewriters, card sorters, and electric calculating machines. Although the positive drive provided by these belts
has many advantages, it lacks the overload and sudden-start protection provided by belts that slip.

Couplings, Clutches, Breaks

()
1A coupling is a device for connecting the ends of adjacent shafts. In machine construction, couplings are used to effect a semi-permanent
connection between adjacent rotating shafts. The connection is permanent in the sense that it is not meant to be broken during the useful life
of the machine, but it can be broken and restored in an emergency or when worn parts are replaced.
2There are several types of shaft couplings; their characteristics depend on the purpose for which they are used. If an exceptionally long shaft
is required for a line shaft in a manufacturing plant or a propeller shaft on a ship, it is made in sections that are coupled together with rigid
couplings. A common type of rigid coupling consists of two mating radial flanges (disks) that are attached by key-driven hubs to the ends of
adjacent shaft sections and bolted together through the flanges to form a rigid connection. Alignment of the connected shafts is usually
effected by means of a rabbet joint on the face of the flanges; i.e., a short cylindrical projection on the face of one flange fits snugly in a
circular recess on the face of the other flange.
3In connecting shafts belonging to separate devices (such as an electric motor and a gearbox), precise aligning of the shafts is difficult and a
flexible coupling is used. This coupling connects the shafts in such a way as to minimize the harmful effects of shaft misalignment. Flexible
couplings also permit the shafts to deflect under their separate systems of loads and to move freely (float) in the axial direction without
interfering with one another. Flexible couplings can also serve to reduce the intensity of shock loads and vibrations transmitted from one
shaft to another.
4Universal joints. For connecting shafts whose axes intersect at angles up to about 40 degrees, the Hooke, or Cardan, joint can be used.
Many commercial forms of the joint are available, but they all consist of two forked members that are connected to the shaft ends and a
central connecting cross-shaped piece, or a block, on which the forks can turn (Figure 17A). This coupling is not resilient, and if the driving
(input) shaft rotates at a constant speed the driven (output) shaft will rotate at a varying speed if the shafts are not collinear. A constant
velocity ratio can be obtained by using two Hooke joints and an intermediate shaft. The intermediate shaft forks must lie in the same plane,
and the output and input shafts must make the same angle with the intermediate shaft.

5Flexible couplings. For connecting shafts that are parallel but are not lined up with each other (non-collinear) the Oldham coupling, shown
in Figure 17B, is useful. The center piece d has two projecting rectangular bars at right angles to one another that fit into grooves on the faces
of the flanges on the hubs e and f, which are attached to the ends of the coupled shafts. When the shafts are out of line (offset) the center
piece slides in the grooves in the flanges as the shafts rotate, but it cannot rotate relative to either of the flanges. Consequently, this coupling
transmits motion with a uniform velocity ratio. The Oldham coupling can operate with considerable amounts of parallel misalignment.
6Magnetic and hydraulic couplings. The transmission of rotary motion through the wall of a hermetically sealed chamber without
mechanical contact can be accomplished by means of a magnetic coupling. If the wall is nonmagnetic and nonconductive, magnetic lines of
force emanating from permanent magnets attached to the ends of the shafts will couple the shafts together. These couplings are particularly
valuable for connecting pumps for corrosive fluids to their driving motors.
7An overload release coupling is a torque-limiting device, and, as the name implies, it limits the torque that can be transmitted from one
rotating member to another by either slipping or breaking the connection when the torque reaches a predetermined value. When the
maximum torque of a magnetic coupling is exceeded, the driven member stops and cannot be restarted until the torque is removed and the
driving member stopped and restarted. Other types of overload devices resemble mechanical friction clutches with spring-loaded friction
members adjusted for prescribed torques. On some outboard motors the propeller is fixed to the shaft by means of a metal pin driven radially
through the hub and the shaft. If the propeller is overloaded by striking an obstacle, the pin shears off and prevents further damage. This is
probably the cheapest method of obtaining overload protection, but since a sheared pin must be replaced it is not the most convenient.

8Hydraulic couplings have been used in passenger cars and buses since the 1920s. Functionally, they resemble automatic clutches and in
many respects are unlike the other types of couplings that have been described. The driving and driven elements are housed in a circular
container partially filled with a liquid (usually oil) and having coaxial input and output shafts. A fluid coupling provides a rotationally
yielding connection and prevents the transmission of shock loads and torsional vibration; it does not provide for shaft misalignment.
9The two active elements of a hydraulic coupling resemble a pair of half-grapefruit sections with the pulp removed (the membranes
remaining intact) and facing each other so that the dividing membranes become radial partitions. One of the elements acts like a pump and is
known as the impeller, while the other element acts like a turbine and is known as the runner. In the impeller, which is attached to the input
shaft, kinetic energy is imparted to the fluid; while in the runner, which is attached to the output shaft, the kinetic energy of the fluid is
converted to mechanical torque. If no torque is applied to the output shaft, the impeller and the runner will rotate at the same speed, the fluid
will not circulate from the impeller to the runner, and there will be no transfer of kinetic energy. When a torque is applied to the output shaft
the runner will slow down, the fluid will circulate, and there will be a transfer of energy. The maximum torque is developed when the output
shaft is stalled.
10CLUTCHESA clutch is a device for quickly and easily connecting or disconnecting a rotatable shaft and a rotating coaxial shaft. Clutches
are usually placed between the input shaft to a machine and the output shaft from the driving motor, and provide a convenient means for
starting and stopping the machine and permitting the driver motor or engine to be started in an unloaded state.
11The rotor (rotating member) in an electric motor has rotational inertia, and a torque is required to bring it up to speed when the motor is
started. If the motor shaft is rigidly connected to a load with a large rotational inertia, and the motor is started suddenly by closing a switch,
the motor may not have sufficient torque capacity to bring the motor shaft up to speed before the windings in the motor are burned out by the
excessive current demands. A clutch between the motor and the load shafts will restrict the starting torque on the motor to that required to
accelerate the rotor and parts of the clutch only.
12On some machine tools it is convenient to let the driving motor run continuously and to start and stop the machine by operating a clutch.
Other machine tools receive their power from belts driven by pulleys on intermediate shafts that are themselves driven by belts from long
lineshafts that serve a group of machines. Two pulleys that can be connected to the intermediate shaft by clutches, and driven in opposite
directions by open and crossed belts from the line shaft, can provide forward and reverse rotations for the machine.
13Positive and friction clutches. A mechanical clutch may provide either a positive drive with no slip, or the torque transmitted may
depend on friction. In the latter case, the rate at which a stationary shaft is brought up to the speed of the driving shaft can be controlled; for
this reason friction clutches are more common than positive clutches.
14Positive clutches are collars with square jaws that interlock. One member is rigidly attached to its shaft while the other member slides on
its shaft and on a key fixed to its shaft. Positive clutches must be engaged at low relative speeds if high shock loads are to be avoided. They
are used on hoisting, conveying, and farm machinery and on punch presses and shears.
15Friction clutches have pairs of mating conical, disk, or ring-shaped surfaces and means for pressing the surfaces together. The pressure
may be created by a spring or by a series of levers locked in position by the wedging action of a conical spool. On a spring-loaded clutch the
operator, by controlling the rate at which the spring pressure is applied to the clutch, can regulate the speed of clutch engagement and the
torque applied to the driven shaft. There is always some slippage, however, and the efficiency of a friction clutch can never exceed 50
percent; i.e., during a clutching operation at least one-half of the input energy is lost by friction in the clutch and produces heat.
16The friction surfaces on clutches should have a high coefficient of friction and be able to conduct the heat away rapidly. These properties
are difficult to obtain in a single material and for this reason, one of each pair of mating surfaces is usually metallic, while the other is either
leather, cork, or an asbestos-based facing riveted to a metal plate. Some friction clutches are run dry, while others operate in oil. Dry clutches
have a higher coefficient of friction than wet clutches, but the oil helps to carry off the heat.
17Cone clutches, with male and female cones, were widely used on the first automobiles. On cones with a slight taper, a small axial force can
produce a large pressure between the surfaces because of the wedge effect. Cone clutches require close alignment of the shafts, and the
development of asbestos-based friction disks has rendered them almost obsolete, at least for automobiles.
18Figure 18 shows a half-section of a multiple-plate disk clutch in which input member 2 is keyed to the driving shaft 1 and output member
3 is keyed to the driven shaft 4. The friction plates b have external gear teeth or splines that mate with teeth on the inside of member 2, while
friction plates c have internal teeth that mate with external teeth on member 3. Plates b can slide axially in 2, while plates c can slide axially
on 3. The clutch is engaged by moving the spool to the left, which, by a wedging action, rotates the lever about the pivot P and creates a force
that squeezes the plates together.
19Automatic and magnetic clutches. Automatic, smooth engagement is obtained with a centrifugal clutch. The friction shoes are segments
of rings that are pivoted to or carried around by the driving member. As the drivers speed increases the shoes gradually make firmer and
firmer contact with the internal cylindrical surface of the driven member. Centrifugal clutches allow the driving motor to reach operating
speed before being loaded. They are particularly useful on internal-combustion engines driving chain saws, and on helicopter rotor drives.
They eliminate the need for a manually operated clutch, and the engine cannot stall when overloaded, since the clutch will slip when the
speed drops below that necessary to create the torque required by the load.
20An overrunning clutch transmits torque in one direction only and permits the driven shaft of a machine to freewheel or keep on rotating
when the driver is stopped. Modern designs utilize the wedging action of rolls or sprags (struts). With rolls, a series of wedge-shaped
pockets, with a roll in each, is formed between the periphery of one member and the inside of a ring on the other member. Rotation of either
member in one direction causes the rolls to roll up the incline in the pocket and lock the members together. In sprag clutches a number of
especially shaped rocking wedges are located in the annular space between concentric circular races, and are kept in contact with both races
at all times by means of a spring.

21On bicycles, freewheeling clutches permit the rider to coast without moving the pedals. They can also be used to prevent damage to
machines by accidental reversal of the input rotation, and if one of the members is fixed they can function as brakes or backstops that
prevent reverse rotation of a loaded output shaft when the driving effort is removed.
22Magnetic-particle clutches have an annular (ring-shaped) gap between the driving and driven members that is filled with powdered iron
and graphite. When a magnetic field is induced across the gap by a direct-current control coil, the iron particles form chains across the gap
and transmit a torque that depends on the strength of the field. Controlled by varying the current, the load can be engaged smoothly and there
is no slippage when the clutch is transmitting the torque for which it was designed.
23BRAKES Basically, brakes are devices for controlling the flow of motion in machines, and in this respect they resemble clutches; clutches
start the flow while brakes arrest it. Before the engagement of a clutch or a brake, one of the two members in the device is moving while the
other is stationary; after the engagement of a clutch both members are moving at the same speed, while after the application of a brake the
moving member is either slowed down or stationary. In both cases the desired effects are produced by devices that are so alike, structurally,
that they can sometimes serve in either capacity.
24In arresting the motion of bodies, brakes must be capable of absorbing kinetic energy. Even when acting on translating bodies (like
automobiles) most brakes are designed to act on rotating mechanical elements and to absorb energy either mechanically, hydraulically, or
electrically. Mechanical brakes are the most common; they dissipate kinetic energy in the form of heat generated by mechanical friction
between a rotating metallic element and a nonrotating friction element, when they are brought into contact by either mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic, or electrical means. The material in the friction element may be organic, metallic, or ceramic. Organic material with an asbestos
base are satisfactory for the majority of applications. When service requirements are severe, however, the heat generated may cause fading
(a drop in braking effectiveness caused by a reduction in the coefficient of friction). In such cases sintered metallic linings are preferred
because of their high thermal conductivity and freedom from fading. By adding ceramic particles to sintered metallic linings, extremely hard
and fade-resistant linings can be produced.
25 The rotating element in a mechanical brake is either a drum, a disk, or a series of disks. The nonrotating friction element in a drum brake
may be either a band or a pair of shoes (blocks) that contract around the outside of the drum or a pair of shoes that expand against the inside
of the drum. A disk brake may be similar to a plate clutch, with alternate rotating metallic and nonrotating friction elements, or it may be of
the caliper type, with a single rotating disk and two opposed friction pads that squeeze the disk between them in a pinching action.
26Shoe brakes. Most of the early automobiles had band brakes with bands that almost completely encircled the drum. Since they were
exposed to the elements and road debris, and the heat radiation was poor, they were superseded by other types. The shoe-type friction
elements that are used on drum brakes in place of bands are usually arranged in diametrically opposite pairs that are pressed against the
outside or the inside surface of the drum. In the external-shoe brake in Figure 19 (left) the shoes H are pivoted to the arms A and B and are
pressed against the outside of the drum D by the springs S, which is compressed between the end of the arm B and the collar R. The position
of R and the spring pressure can be adjusted by means of the nut N. The rod C passes freely through the arm B and is pivotally connected to
both the arm A and the lever L. The brake is released by applying a downward force P, which rotates the lever L clockwise, forces the arms A
and B apart, and compresses the spring.
27Spring-set brakes of the type just described are used on electric elevators. When the starting switch for the hoisting motor is closed, the
current actuates a device that applies the brake-releasing load P. This device may create a magnetic pull or it may be a hydraulic unit driven
by an electric motor.
28The braking of railroad cars is effected by cast-iron shoes that bear directly on the periphery of the wheel, as the shoes in Figure 19 (left)
act on the drum. These brakes are usually activated by compressed air.

29Figure 19 (right) shows an internal-shoe brake. The friction shoes L and R rotate on the fixed pivots A and are pressed against the inner
cylindrical surface of the rotating drum D by means of oil pressure in the cylinder C, which contains two pistons that push outward on the
upper ends of the shoes. The tension spring S retracts the shoes and releases the brake when the oil pressure is reduced. For counterclockwise
rotation of the drum, the shoe L is self-energizing, since the frictional force tends to rotate it in the same direction as the piston in the cylinder
C.
30Because they provide better protection from water and dust and have superior mechanical characteristics, internal-shoe drum brakes are
superior to band brakes, and they are still in widespread use on automobiles. The capacity of drum brakes to dissipate heat, however, is
limited, and for heavy cars traveling at high rates of speed they are inferior to disk brakes.
31Disk, hydrodynamic, and electric brakes. The simplest form of disk brake is the caliper brake, which consists of a rotating metal disk
and two stationary circular pads or buttons fitted with friction linings that are pressed against opposite sides of the disk by hydraulic pressure.
The buttons act on the disk as do the jaws of a pair of pliers. Because of the large area of the disk that is not covered by the pads, these brakes
have a high heat-dissipating capacity. In addition, thermal expansion, since it acts principally to increase the thickness of the disk, has less
effect on brake performance and there is less fading than on drum brakes. Disk brakes are used on airplanes, automobiles, and trains. Disk
brakes are also made with multiple disks, and their action is similar to that of the multiple-disk friction clutch described above. The coaster
brake found on bicycles and operate by reverse pressure on the pedals is an example of a multiple-disk brake.

Bearings
( )
1A bearing is a connector that permits the connected members to either rotate or translate (move to and fro) relative to one another but
prevents them from separating in the direction in which loads are applied. In many cases one of the members is fixed, and the bearing acts as
support for the moving member.
2The relative motion in bearings is always opposed by friction, and the work done in overcoming friction is lost power in all machines.
Consequently, much thought and effort have been devoted to the development of bearings with minimum friction. In all bearings there are
two surfaces (one belonging to each of the connected parts) that move relative to one another. To minimize friction, the co-acting surfaces
may be partially or completely separated by a film of liquid or gas; these are known as sliding-contact bearings. The surfaces may be
separated also by an assemblage of rolling elements such as balls and rollers; these are known as rolling-contact bearings.
3Sliding bearings are the simplest to construct and, considering the multitude of pin-jointed devices and structures in use, are probably the
most commonly used. Nevertheless, man must have discovered thousands of years ago that it is easier to roll a log than to slide it and that
heavy masses can be moved more easily when resting on rolling logs than on sliding skids. Recognition of the superiority of rolling over
sliding motion resulted in most attention being devoted to the improvement of rolling rather than sliding bearings. This continued until the
discovery in the 1880s that under certain conditions a film of oil sufficient to separate the surfaces could be built up in a sliding bearing, and
that in this way the frictional resistance could be very substantially reduced.
4Precise values of the frictional resistance between moving bodies are difficult to predict or measure, but rough comparisons between
different types of friction can be made. To slide a 1,000-pound (450-kilogram) steel block on a dry cast-iron surface, for example, could
require a force of 200 pounds (90 kilograms), while to roll a 1,000-pound dry cast-iron wheel on a dry steel surface might require only two
pounds. If the block were separated from the cast-iron surface by an oil film, the required force could be only two pounds, and if the film
were a gas, the needed force could be considerably less.
5Rolling-contact bearings are designed to support and locate rotating shafts or parts in machines. They transfer loads between rotating and
stationary members and permit relatively free rotation with a minimum of friction. They consist of rolling elements (balls or rollers)
between an outer and inner ring. Cages are used to space the rolling elements from each other. Figure 24 .1 illustrates the common
terminology used in describing rolling-contact bearings.

Fig. 24. 1 Radial contact bearing terminology.

6RingsThe inner and outer rings of a rolling-contact bearing are normally made of SAE 52100 steel, hardened to Rockwell C 60 to 67. The
rolling-element raceways are accurately ground in the rings to a very fine finish (16 min or less). Rings are available for special purposes in
such materials as stainless steel, ceramics, and plastic. These materials are used in applications where corrosion is a problem.
7Rolling ElementsNormally the rolling elements, balls or rollers, are made of the same material and finished like the rings. Other rollingelement materials, such as stainless steel, ceramics, Monel, and plastics, are used in conjunction with various ring materials where corrosion
is a factor.
8Cagessometimes called separators or retainers, are used to space the rolling elements from each other. Cages are furnished in a wide
variety of materials and construction. Pressed-steel cages, riveted or clinched and filled nylon, are most common. Solid machined cages are
used where greater strength or higher speeds are required. They are fabricated from bronze or phenolic-type materials. At high speeds, the
phenolic type operates more quietly with a minimum amount of friction. Bearings without cages are referred to as full-complement.
9 A wide variety of rolling-contact bearings are normally manufactured to standard boundary dimensions (bore, outside diameter, width) and
tolerances which have been standardized by the AFBMA. All bearing manufacturers conform to these standards, thereby permitting interchangeability. ANSI has for the most part adopted these and published them jointly as AFBMA/ANSI standards as follows:
10Single-Row Radial Ball Bearings This bearing is often referred to as the deep groove or conrad bearing. Available in many variations
single or double shields or seals. Normally used for radial and thrust loads (maximum two-thirds of radial).

11Cylindrical Roller Bearings These bearings utilize cylinders with approximate length/diameter ratio ranging from 1 : 1 to 1 : 3 as rolling
elements. Normally used for heavy radial loads. Especially useful for free axial movement of the shaft. Highest speed limits for roller
bearings.
12Needle Bearings These bearings have rollers whose length is at least 4 times their diameter. They are most useful where space is a factor
and are available with or without inner race. If shaft is used as inner race, it must be hardened and ground. Full-complement type is used for
high loads, oscillating, or slow speeds. Cage type should be used for rotational motion. They cannot support thrust loads.
13Tapered-RollerBearings These bearings are used for heavy radial and thrust loads. The bearing is designed so that all elements in the
rolling surface and the raceways intersect at a common point on the axis: thus true rolling is obtained. Where maximum system rigidity is
required, the bearings can be adjusted for a preload. They are available in double row.
14Spherical-RollerBearing These bearings are excellent for heavy radial loads and moderate thrust. Their internal self-aligning feature is
useful in many applications such as HVAC fans.
15Ball Thrust Bearing It may be used for low-speed applications where other bearings carry the radial load. These bearings are made with
shields, as well as the open type.
16Straight-Roller Thrust Bearing These bearings are made of a series of short rollers to minimize the skidding, which causes twisting, of
the rollers. They may be used for moderate speeds and loads.
17Tapered-Roller ThrustBearing It eliminates the skidding that takes place with straight rollers but causes a thrust load between the ends
of the rollers and the shoulder on the race. Thus speeds are limited because the roller end and race flange are in sliding contact.
18Linear-motion rolling bearings If the cage of a cylindrical roller bearing were cut and stretched out flat, it would form a self-contained
pack (cartridge) of rollers that could be inserted between flat surfaces, or ways, on adjacent machine parts to reduce the friction of relative
linear motion; linear-motion rolling bearings of the ladder type are constructed in a similar way. Since the cartridge moves relative to both
the fixed and moving waysas can be demonstrated by rolling a pencil between the palm of ones hand and a tablethe distance that the
moving body can move is limited by the extent of the rolling surfaces on both ways and the length of the cartridge. This disadvantage can be
overcome by using a recirculating ball or roller bearing, which, when attached to either the fixed or moving body, rolls on the ways
attached to the other body and permits a movement limited only by the length of the ways.
19Gas bearings. Since there are shortcomings of oil-lubricated bearings for very-low-temperature (cryogenic) and high-temperature missile
applications, since oil may disintegrate in a radioactive atmosphere while gases do not, gas bearings are well suited for applications in
nuclear power plants. Although helium, hydrogen, and nitrogen have been used in gas bearings, air is the most commonly used lubricant.
20Like liquid-lubricated bearings, air bearings may operate on a self-induced aerodynamic film or on an aerostatic film generated by an
external pump; they may be designed as journal bearings or thrust bearings. At low speeds the self-induced aerodynamic film in a journal
bearing breaks down, while at high speeds the journal may become unstable and whirl around with a planetary motion in the bearing. In
order to avoid metallic contact between the journal and the bearing in either case, pressure-jacking is used. This involves pumping highpressure air into the bearing through holes in the bearing wall. If the jacking air is fed to the bearing continuously, the bearing is essentially
an aerostatic bearinga hybrid bearingin which a substantial part of its load-carrying is generated by aerodynamic action.
21Other types of bearings Jewel bearings are used in instruments, clocks, watches, and other devices in which the only loads are friction
and the weights of the moving parts. Usually the rotating element is a shaft with a flat end, spherical end, or conical end, while the fixed
element or jewel may be in the form of a ring (a ringstone) that carries shafts in a hole, or a flat plate (an endstone) that carries end thrust
from shafts with a spherical end, or a thick plate with a conical or V-shaped notch that is a receptacle for the conical end of a shaft.
22Comparison of bearings. All sliding and rolling bearings have their own particular advantages and disadvantages. The most important
advantage of rolling bearings over sliding bearings is their availability as standardized off-the-shelf units covering a wide range of sizes and
with known load-carrying capacities and life expectancies. They require more radial space but less axial space than journal bearings, and the
dimensions of the shaft and housing to which they are fitted must be kept within close limits. In addition, if properly sealed, there is
practically no leakage of lubricant, and the starting friction is less than on hydrodynamic or aerodynamic bearings but greater than on
externally pressurized bearings.
23 In automotive engines sliding bearings are used for crankshafts, connecting rods, and wrist pins. These are low-cost, mass-produced
sleeve bearings that have been improved from year to year and function successfully when well supplied with a lubricant. Ball and roller
bearings are found in the front wheels, rear axle, and transmission. In the suspension systems of automobiles there are many joints in which
the relative motion between the connected parts is small and can be easily taken care of with a flexible rubber connection. These bearings
require no lubricant, since there is no relative sliding and nothing to wear.

Design Engineer and Design Methodology

()
1 What Makes a Good Design Engineer ?Is design an art form only to be practiced by those gifted with its talents, or is it a regimented
discipline that can be learned? Virtually everything that humans do involves altering the environment around us, which is essentially what
design is all about; thus every individual possesses the ability to design to some extent. While there are few Mozarts in the history of the
world, there are numerous musicians who play his music and enable us all to enjoy it. Each person must identify the area in which he feels
promise, and must do the best job he can. It is true there is only one queen been in a hive, but without the workers even the queen cannot
survive. In other words, be careful of your ego and always strive to improve your abilities.
2 It is very difficult to teach people how to become creative design engineers because everyone thinks differently. There are often no clear
solutions to a problem. Historical knowledge can also often be a powerful tool to help demonstrate how creative ideas are formed;
unfortunately, a discussion of the history of machine tool development is beyond the scope of this book. Systematic methods of analysis and
synthesis can be formulated to aid in development of ideas; however, these methods have often been blamed for stifling creativity. A good
design engineer often uses systematic methods of analysis and synthesis in order to help evaluate wild and crazy conceptual ideas generated
during the initial creative phase of problem solving.
3
How can creativity be stimulated and enhanced? Perhaps if this question could be answered with an equation, a computer program
could be written that could design anything. Good design engineers usually think in terms of pictures instead of equations or if then else
logic. Often, it seems as if daydreams are an inner manifestation of the creative urge within all individuals. The task of the design engineer,
therefore, is to install enough reality into his or her memory to enable daydreams to produce useful solutions to real problems. One must
also be able to keep a mental catalog of available building blocks and methods in which they can be manufactured and put together. The
database must be open, so as to not preclude the development of new building blocks, while taking care to keep abreast of new technologies.
4
A design engineer must also become good at identifying problems. Once a problem is identified, it will usually yield to an unending
barrage of creative thought and analysis. High-priced consultants do not necessarily solve detailed problems; they identify the problems for
others to solve. Identifying a problem requires careful detective work. In addition to solving and identifying problems, the design engineer
must also learn to identify what the customer really needs, which is not necessarily what the customer thinks that he or she needs. This
requires interaction with marketing research groups, customers, and manufacturing personnel on a continuing personal basis.
5
To keep his or her mind tuned, a good design engineer must always ask: How does that work? and Why does that catch my eye?
regarding everything he or she sees in daily life. This will help to develop a feel for the needs and wants of people and the ability to make a
realistic assessment of what is technologically feasible. It will also help the design engineer to develop a feel for color, form, texture, and
proportion. By being observant, patient, and optimistic, a design engineer will become aware of what people buy and use. If the design
engineer notices fault with something, chances are that others do, too, and thus money could be made by correcting the fault. Opportunity
only knocks for those who listen, and it is hard to hear knocking when the radio is turned up too loud.
6
In addition, although each engineer must understand the physics of operation of the machine, he or she must realize that the design
process is itself a precision dynamic system. If each engineer understands the structure of the design process and what other members of the
team have to do, he or she will be less likely to cause problems that adversely affect the project. Once attitudes such as why should I bother
with this detail because someone will catch it become established, competitiveness is the next thing to be lost. Design engineers must feel a
personal love for their work and the work of team.
7
Formulating a Personal Design Methodology One of the founding fathers of machine tools, Henry Maudslay who was born in
1771, is credited with the development of the compound side, whose design principle is used on virtually every lathe in the world today.
Although it is said that many of his inventions were described before by others in principle, it was Maudslay who reduced many ideas to
practice. One of Maudslays fundamental contributions was to note that the extra cost of making a machine from metal, as opposed to wood,
was recouped many times over in terms of the machines accuracy and life. Maudslay had several maxims which still serve as a set of basic
guidelines for all types designs:
1). Get a clear notion of what you desire to accomplish, then you will probably get it.
2). Keep a sharp look-out upon your materials: get rid of every pound of material you can do without. Put yourself to the question, what
business has it there? Avoid complexities and make everything as simple as possible.
3). Remember the get-ability of parts.
Maudslays maxims can be used as a good foundation for just about any personal design methodology.
8
Because many modern systems are often so complex, expertise is required in many different disciplines; hence often it is nearly
impossible for one person alone to design an entire system. However, it is possible to be aware of the capabilities of other disciplines. This
allows an individual or small group to develop a design plan for complex system.
9
Although it is often said that no matter what you design, somebody has already thought of it before, at least in principle, this should
not be accepted as a defeatist attitude but rather one of awareness. Continual updating of ones mental memory banks with new knowledge
about advances in all fields of engineering and science is a must if a design engineer is to remain competitive. This updating must be the
cornerstone of every design engineers personal design methodology. Other than that, every design engineer has his or her own way of
doing things, many aspects of which are borrowed from established methods. Some of these methods are discussed below.

10 Designs can be categorized as being original, adaptive, or scaled. Original design means developing a new way of doing
something(e.g., cutting with waterjets, as opposed to using a saw blade). Adaptive design means using technology developed for another
task and adapting it to perform the task at hand (e.g., using lasers to sculpt wood). Scaled design means changing the size or arrangement of
a design in order to accommodate a similar change in an existing process (e.g., design a bigger version of an existing machine). each of these
types of design can be equally challenging and all require five basic steps:
1) Task definition
2) Conceptual design
3) Layout design
4) Detail design
5) Design follow-up
11
Task definition often starts with the customer or sales representative requesting the design department to provide a study regarding the
feasibility, cost, and potential availability of a design to perform a specific function. In response to this request, the companys best design
engineers get together to sketch out concepts. It is in the conceptual design phase that the functional relationships of components and the
physical structure are usually defined. Once a few select conceptual designs are chosen, they are expanded in detail through layout design
where preliminary sizing of components and calculations are made in order to produce rough assembly drawings of the conceptual designs.
This enables more accurate feasibility and cost estimates to be developed. After modifying the required specifications and conceptual
designs, the projects feasibility can be determined, usually resulting in one design being chosen for detailing. The detail design phase is
everything that follows in order to bring the design to life. Design follow-up involves activities such as the development of a maintenance
plan and documentation, which often cause many design engineers to run and hide. However, if the design is not maintained , or if nobody
can figure out how to use it, the design will not be used and design effort will have been wasted.
12 Along each step of the design path, design engineers have to apply their own personal design methodology, which they must develop
themselves. Whatever from the methodology takes, it should realize that no design engineer is an island. In general, the method should:
1) Foster creativity. The design engineer should always start with wild, crazy, what if designs and if necessary scale back to more rational
conventional solutions.
The design engineer, however, must know when to turn off the wild, crazy, dreaming aspect often associated with generating conceptual
designs, and proceed with a systematic consideration of one or two concepts that will lead to the detail design.
2) Acknowledge the creativeness of others. Anor invented here (NIH) syndrome is unacceptable and has been the downfall of many a firm
that was unwilling to adopt an outsiders superior concept. There is no room for prejudice in design. One must take what exists, use it to its
fullest potential, and then improve upon it.
3) Do not depend on luck or ignore a problem in the hope that it will go away. A wishful attitude has killed many people and generated huge
legal fees. Every detail from where to run electric lines and hydraulic hoses, to placement of the warning labels and nameplates, must be
carefully considered.
4) Be disciplined and well organized so the design can be passed onto others for detailing or completion. This requires knowing how to
delegate authority to optimize utilization of an organizations resources.
5) Respect simplicity and the fundamental knowledge of how and why things work. This will hasten the convergence process for a design
and will help prevent oversights such as placing a measuring element far away from the process to be measured (Abbe error). It will also
lead to the minimizing of design cost, manufacturing cost, functional errors, and embarrassment.
6). Continually subject designs to value analysis in an effort to reduce cost with an equal or increased level of quality. Not only must the
design be subject to value analysis, but the manufacturing and sales must be considered as integral parts of a successful design process. Thus
the design engineer must also be knowledgeable in production and marketing skills.
13 When developing your own personal design methodology, also consider some of the following common methods used by design
engineers to develop solutions to design problems:
1). Persistent questioning. By always asking Why? and Can it be made simpler and better? You will be less likely to settle for less than
best, or to overlook a possible improvement.
2). Known solutions. By analyzing known solutions to existing similar problems, one can often find a wheel that exists without having to
reinvent it. This method also includes systematic analysis of variations of known solutions.
3). Forward chaining. Start with a sketch of the problem depicting what you hope to accomplish and then form an expanding tree of ideas.
4). Backward chaining. Start with what you know the complete design must look like and then trace back through all the elements that lead
to the final design and scale and modify them accordingly. This procedure is usually used to develop manufacturing or process plans.
14 The array of products that are designed in the world is so varied and complex that it is nearly impossible to list a comprehensive generic
design plan that incorporates these concepts for a generic product.

Creative Design
()
1 ABSTRACT: The paper presents initial results from an emerging new direction in engineering design research, in particular, creative
design. It argues that constructive induction, which was originally proposed in the field of machine learning, can serve as a foundation for
developing a computational theory of engineering design and design creativity. Constructive induction is a process of creating new
knowledge (e.g., design knowledge) by performing two intertwined searches, one for the most adequate knowledge representation space,
and second for the best hypothesis in this space. Basic concepts and methods of constructive induction are reviewed and illustrated by
examples of their application to conceptual structural design. Several crucial design concepts, including those of an emergent concept and of
a goal-oriented transformation of the design representation space are interpreted in terms of a construction induction process. It is also shown
how constructive induction applies to the control of the design creativity level. Several measures of the design complexity and relative
creativity are proposed. The conclusion presents some unresolved problems and a plan for future research.
2 INTRODUCTION: Engineering is presently undergoing a paradigm change. The previous analytical paradigm is being gradually
replaced by a knowledge paradigm, and this change appears to have a significant impact on the understanding of engineering design
creativity. When the first paradigm was dominant, the major focus in engineering was to build analytical models of engineering systems in
order to develop understanding of their behavior and to produce knowledge about them. In this context, engineering knowledge was
understood as a combination of a representation of the engineering system being designed, of the design process itself, as well as of all
relationships existing among attributes describing the system and their groups in the representation space.
3 At present, sufficient knowledge about engineering systems is frequently available; therefore, the focus in design is on how to utilize the
available knowledge by means of information technology in the development of new designs. In this context, information technology
signifies a cluster of related disciplines concerned with acquisition, processing, distribution and/or generation of information, or knowledge,
using computer technology. These disciplines include computer science, artificial intelligence, machine learning, automated reasoning,
decision science, software engineering, systems engineering, and others. The process of entering the knowledge paradigm can be compared
to moving from medieval times to renaissance. One of the hallmarks of renaissance was Leonardo daVincis observation that human artistic
creativity, a spontaneous process of employing imagination and thinking to create art, can be used to produce engineering inventions and to
solve engineering problems. In the knowledge paradigm, reasoning, invention and creativity are viewed as knowledge processing activities,
and could be, at least partially, performed on a computer. Such a view is supported by the development of machine learning methods and
their application to an automated knowledge creation and improvement. It is believed these efforts will likely lead to the development of
computational foundations of conceptual design and to building a new class of design support tools. Such tools could, in turn, result in a new
generation of inventions.
4 The above prospect creates an outstanding challenge for researchers and calls for study of design processes in terms of ideas developed in
the area of artificial intelligence, particularly in machine learning and inference. Research in this new direction is at an early stage and,
naturally, results are preliminary and have not made any significant impact on the design practice. This paper presents recent results of work
on engineering design and design creativity in the context of constructive induction and the recently proposed Inferential Theory of Learning
(Michalski, 1994). The material presented here rests on three ideas.
5 The first idea is that the problems of design creativity can be usefully discussed by employing concepts and methods developed in the field
of inductive learning. Any design process can be viewed as a search for a knowledge structure (a design, in this case) that satisfies given
objectives and constraints. Such a process is a form of learning, therefore, ideas and methods developed in the field of machine learning may
potentially bring new insights to the understanding of design processes.
6 The second idea is that traditional learning methods, in which the search for desired knowledge occurs in the same representation space in
which the original data are presented, are inadequate for understanding design processes. A more adequate approach is based on viewing the
design processes as a form of constructive induction. Constructive induction is a concept proposed in the field of inductive concept learning
(Michalski, 1978a) to cope with learning problems in which the original representation space is inadequate for the problem at hand, and
needs to be improved in order to correctly formulate the knowledge to be learned. More specifically, constructive induction is a process of
hypothesizing new knowledge that involves not one search, as traditionally done, but two interrelated searches. The first search is for the
best representation space in which desirable knowledge (e.g., a design) is to be searched for and represented. The second search is for the
best hypothesis in the representation space which has been found. The underlying principle for this approach is that the desirable
knowledge is easier to determine if the search for it is in the right representation space. It is claimed that partitioning a design process into
two such searches can lead to novel and powerful models of design creativity. Thus, constructive induction can be viewed as the key to
design creativity.
7 The third idea is that the two searches in constructive induction can be conducted by applying design knowledge transmutations, as
proposed in the Inferential Theory of Design (Arciszewski and Michalski, 1994). Design knowledge transmutations are generic types of
design knowledge changes or generations, and have been based on more general knowledge transmutations, as first proposed in the
Inferential Theory of Learning (Michalski, 1994). The following sections present a more detailed exposition of the above ideas, discuss their
significance for engineering design, and illustrate them by specific examples.
8 BASIC CONCEPTSAND ASSUMPTIONS: To explain the proposed view of design creativity as a form of constructive induction, we
start with presenting basic concepts and assumptions. An engineering design is a description of an engineering system (that usually does not
yet exist) expressed in terms of attributes defining a representation space. It consists of two major components: a design concept and a
detailed description.
9 This is a multidimensional space spanned over attributes (in general, descriptive terms or descriptors) that are used to describe an
engineering design (that is, a design concept and a detailed design description). Attributes can be symbolic (when they take values from an
unordered or partially ordered set) or numerical (when they take numerical values representing quantities or measurements). Symbolic
attributes that take values from an unordered set are called nominal attributes; when they take values from a partially ordered set, they are

called structured. Design concepts are typically described in terms of symbolic attributes. Numerical attributes are used for a detailed
description of a design.
10 DESIGN CONCEPT A design concept describes a future engineering system in terms of abstract concepts, called primary
concepts, that involve nominal attributes and possibly also relations among design components. For example: the concept of a steel truss
can be understood as a structural system whose description employs at least three primary concepts (symbolic attributes) and their values: the
type of material with the value steel, the member shape with the value straight, and the type of connection with the value pinned.
Similarly, a concept of a belt truss system in wind bracings of a tall building employs primary concepts of a truss, a vertical truss, a truss
grid, etc.
11 DETAILED DESCRIPTIONA detailed description of a design specifies values of all numerical attributes characterizing the design,
such as specific dimensions, number of members, weight, etc.
12 DESIGNS COVERED BY A DESIGN CONCEPT A given design concept represents a large class of specific engineering designs
that differ in their detailed descriptions, i.e., in the values of numerical attributes characterizing these descriptions.
13 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PARADIGMS Five major conceptual design paradigms can be distinguished. This classification is based
on the taxonomy proposed by Altschuller (1969), but has been modified and adapted in the context of the Inferential Design Theory:
1 Selection: the design concept is produced by selecting it from a class of known concepts in a given engineering domain.
2 Modification: the design concept is produced as a combination and/or modification of known design concepts from a given domain. The
modification process is based on a deterministic or random generation process.
3 Innovation: the design concept is produced as a combination of known concepts from a given domain and other domains.
4 Invention: the design concept is produced as a combination of known concepts from a given domain and new concepts based on a new
technology, which have been recently introduced.
5 Discovery: the design concept is produced as a combination of known concepts from a given domain and new concepts based on new
scientific principles.
14 ROUTINE DESIGN Routine design is a design process based only on selection or on modification. In both cases, no changes in the
representation space occur.
15 CREATIVE DESIGN Non-routine or creative design is a conceptual design process which is based on innovation, invention, or
discovery. In all these cases, changes in a representation space occur. Thus, design processes are divided into creative or routine depending
on whether the changes in the representation space occur or not, respectively.
16 ROUTINE VERSUS CREATIVE DESIGN In general, there are two major differences between the routine and creative design
processes: the number of changes of the representation space and the nature of inference. There are no changes in the representation space for
routine design, and at least one change for non-routine or creative design. Routine design typically employs deductive inference (selection
and modification), while creative design employs inductive inference (innovation, invention and/or discovery). For a definition and
classification of inference types that are adopted in this paper, see (Michalski, 1994).
17 OPERATORS FOR REPRESENTATION SPACE TRANSFORMATION Operators that change the representation space during
the design process can be divided into four classes: attribute elimination (removing unimportant attributes), attribute abstraction (combining
attribute values into larger units), attribute addition (adding new attributes to the representation space), and attribute construction (creating
new attributes, called constructed
attributes by a simple or complex transformation of the initial attributes). The last class is particularly interesting from the viewpoint of
design creativity.
18 CONSTRUCTIVE INDUCTION Constructive induction (in the context of engineering design) is a process of creating new
knowledge (design) by two intertwined processes: one that searches for the best representation space for the design, and the second that
searches for the best design in that space. Searching for the best representation space is done by applying constructive induction operators for
the representation space transformation. This can be accomplished with the help of a human designer or automatically. In the first case, a
human designer considers various design aspects (attributes from different representation spaces or primary concepts), intuitively conducting
search for the best representation and looking for emergent concepts (constructed attributes) which might lead to a creative design. In the
automated representation space transformation, constructive induction operators are applied by a computer program according to a
constructive induction algorithm. Such an algorithm may use the advise of a designer as to the desirable representation space transformations
and/or a set of predefined rules and methods. Constructive induction thus offers a formal methodology for characterizing and/or modeling a
creative design process.
19 INDUCTIVE NATURE OF CREATIVE DESIGNA creative design process is intrinsically inductive. It creates knowledge (design)
that cannot be deductively derived from the original knowledge. The design is typically represented in a new representation space that was
not initially given. A new representation space can be produced by employing knowledge from previous designs in other domains or by
another process. In the former case, we say that constructive induction is guided by knowledge drawn from other domains. The new
representation space may employ constructed attributes that appear to have high relevance for the design (emergent concepts). Their
importance is recognized by human designers on the basis of their subjective understanding (background knowledge), and/or by applying
methods for multicriterion evaluation. The evaluation criteria are usually acquired as the result of a human learning process about the
problems being solved in the context of the designer's background knowledge.

Mechanical Engineering Design

1
The essence of engineering is the utilization of the resources and laws of nature to benefit humanity . Mechanical engineering design is
a major segment of engineering; it deals with the conception, design, development, refinement, and application of machines and mechanical
apparatus of all kinds. Our basic concern is with the creative and intelligent application of solid mechanics and related sciences to real life
situations. Thus, the material treated in this book is down the mainstream of modern mechanical engineering.
2
For many students, mechanical engineering design is one of their first professional engineering courses --- as distinguished from
background courses in science and mathematics. Professional engineering is concerned with obtaining solutions to practical problems.
These solutions must reflect an understanding of the underlying sciences, but usually this understanding is not enough; empirical knowledge
and engineering judgment are also involved. For example, scientists do not completely understand electricity, but this does not prevent
electrical engineers from developing highly useful electrical devices. Similarly, scientists do not completely understand combustion
processes or metal fatigue, but mechanical engineers use the understanding available to develop highly useful combustion engines, As more
scientific understanding becomes available, engineers are able to devise better solutions to practical problems.
3
Moreover, the engineering process of solving problems often highlights areas particularly appropriate for more intensive scientific
research. There is a strong analogy between the engineer and the physician. Neither is a scientist whose primary concern is with uncovering
basic knowledge, but both use scientific knowledge --- supplemented by empirical information and professional judgment --- in solving
immediate and pressing problems.
4
Because of the professional nature of the subject, most problems in mechanical engineering design do not have a single right answer.
Consider, for example, the problem of designing a household refrigerator. There is a nearly endless number of workable designs, none of
which could be called an incorrect answer. But of the correct answers, some are obviously better than others because they reflect a
more sophisticated knowledge of the underlying technology, a more ingenious concept of basic design, a more effective and economical
utilization of existing production technology, a more pleasing esthetic appearance, and so on. It is precisely at this point, of course, that one
finds the challenge and excitement of modern engineering.

5
Engineers today are concerned with the design and development of products for a different society than any which existed previously,
and they have more knowledge available to them than did engineers in the past. Hence, they are able to produce distinctly better solutions to
meet todays needs. How much better depends upon their ingenuity, imagination, depth of understanding of the need involved, and of the
technology that bears on the solutions, etc.
6
This article is primarily concerned with the design of specific components of machines or mechanical systems. Competence in this
area is basic to the consideration and synthesis of complete machines and systems in subsequent courses and in professional practice. It will
be seen that even in the design of a single bolt or spring, the engineer must use the best available scientific understanding together with
empirical information, good judgment, and often a degree of ingenuity, in order to produce the best product for todays society.
7
The technical consideration of mechanical component design are largely centered around two main areas of concern: (1) stress-strainstrength relationships involving the bulk of a solid member, and (2) surface phenomena including friction, lubrication, wear, and
environmental deterioration. Part One of the book is concerned with the fundamentals involved, and Part Two with applications to specific
machine components. The components chosen are widely used and will be somewhat familiar to the student. It is not feasible or desirable
for the student to study the detailed design considerations associated with all machine elements. Hence, the emphasis in treating those
selected here is on the methods and procedures used so that the student will gain competence in applying these methods and procedures to
mechanical components in general.
8
When considering a complete machine, the engineer invariably finds that the requirements and constraints of the various components
are interrelated. The design of an automotive engine valve spring, for example, depends upon the space available for the spring. This, in
turn, represents a compromise with the space requirements for the valve ports, coolant passages, spark plug clearance, and so on. This
situation adds a whole new dimension to the imagination and ingenuity required of engineers as they seek to determine an optimum design
for a combination of related components. This aspect of mechanical engineering design is illustrated by a case study in the final chapter
of the book.

9
In addition to the traditional technological and economic considerations fundamental to the design and development of mechanical
components and systems, the modern engineer has become increasingly concerned with the broader considerations of safety, ecology, and
overall quality of life. These topics are discussed briefly in the following sections.

Introduction to Drawing
()
1 There are about 12,000 parts in the average car. Just think how hard it would be if the people who design and build cars had to use words
alone to describe the size and shape of each part. Drawings are important in industry because they show rather than tell how something is
made. It is much easier to understand how to make a part when you are shown a drawing of it than if someone merely tells you how it
should be made. No product, be it a motorcycle or a computer, could be made without accurate drawings. And the more complex the
product, the more drawings are neededabout 14,000 of them to build a car. Some of these are body drawings, which picture sheet metal or
plastic surfaces. Others are mechanical drawings, which show the size and shape of parts and assemblies. There are also drawings which
show the tools needed to make the parts. The process of making these drawings is called drafting.
2 In a sense, drafting is a language because it communicates facts and ideas. As a matter of fact, you might call drafting a kind of picture
writing. You can see many examples picture writing in everyday life. They might be found in airports, restaurants, and other public places.
These symbols can be understood in any country because they dont use words. In the language of drawing, different lines have different
meanings. It is important you understand what these various lines stand for.
A visible line is a thick, solid line used to show the outline of an object.
A hidden line is a thin, dashed line used to show surfaces that are not normally seen.
A dimension line is a thin line that shows the extent of a dimension.
The dimension text is written either within or above the line.
An extension line is thin line that extends out from the object and is used with dimension lines.
A leader is a thin line that points out the part to which a dimension or note refers.
A center line is a thin line that consists of alternating long and short dashes. It is used to show the center of an object.
A cutting-plane line is a thick line. It may be either long dashes or long dashes separated by two short dashes. The cutting-plane line
shows an imaginary cut (section) through an object.
Section lines are thin, parallel lines that show cut surfaces in section view. Section lines are drawn at an angle.
A break line is used to show that part of an object has been removed.
breaks.

Thick break lines are used for short breaks, thin lines for long

A phantom line is a thin line used to draw alternate positions for a part. 3 MULTIPLE DRAWING: There are several ways to show the
shape of an object with drawings. One way is to show the top, front , and end views of a coffee table. This type of drawing is called
multiview or an orthographic projection. Orthographic means placing the views at right angles to one another. Projection means to show
the parts of an object on flat surfaces, or planes. To make an orthographic projection you must place the views of an object on planes lying
at right angles to one another.
4 Every object has six views: a top and a bottom, a front and a back, a right side and a left side. To make a multiview drawing of most
objects it is necessary to show only three viewsusually the front , top, and right side. The front view is generally the most important or
most descriptive view.
5 It is easy to see how orthographic projection works if you imagine that the object is inside a glass box. If you were to look straight into
the front of the box and trace what you saw with a wax pencil, you would have sketched the front view. Then if you did the same for the top
and right-side views, you would have sketches of all three views. Next, if you could fold the top and right-side views forward, you would
have an orthographic projection showing three views of the object. Orthographic projection is as simple as that. Not all objects need three
views. For example, cylindrical shapes such as a hockey puck can need only two. The layout of a softball diamond requires only one view
(called a plan view) to describe its shape.
6 You must carefully study the object to be drawn before you can begin. You should select those views of the object which best describe it.
Use only the views that are necessary. It is important to select those views which show the object in its natural position. For example, it
would be wrong to show a drawing of an automobile upside down.

7 Be sure to center your work on the paper and leave enough space around and between the views for dimensions and notes. Notice how the
sizes of the views, the distances from the borders, and the distances between the views are added to determine the scale and paper size
needed. Draw the outline of each view. Add details such as holes. The arcs and circles should be drawn in first with object lines. It is
easier to join two arcs with a line than to add two arcs to a line. Try it. Add dimension and notes to complete the drawing. Follow the same
procedures for one- and two-view drawings.
8 SECTIONAL AND AUXILIARY VIEWS: It is very important that multiview drawings be as clear and understandable as possible.
Sometimes special views, such as sections and auxiliaries, can help to make them clearer. Sectional views show interior or hidden details of
objects. For example, it would be difficult to make an automobile carburetor without knowing what the inside looked like. Auxiliary views
show true views of surfaces which are set at angles to the planes of the transparent box. Orthographic views of these inclined or angular
surfaces would appear foreshortened (shorter than true size). An auxiliary drawing provides a view which is true in size and shape.
9 DIMENSIONING: Shape description is one important part of drawing, but it is not enough to only describe the shape of an object. The
drawing must also show its size. Size description involves placing numbers and letters on the drawing which show the objects width, height,
depth, size of holes, and other information. Putting the size description on a drawing is called dimensioning. There are many things to
learn about dimensioning so that you can describe the size of an object properly. Some of these important facts are:
(1). There are two systems for placing dimensions on a drawing: In the aligned system. dimensions are placed so as to be read from the
bottom and right side of the page. In the unidirectional system, all numbers are placed so that they can be read from the bottom of the page.
Select either of these systems. Do not mix them on the same drawing.
(2). Some dimensions are used to show the overall size of an object. These are called size dimensions. Location dimensions are used to
locate holes, slots, etc., in relation to other features. Note the difference between extension and dimension lines. Extension lines should not
touch the object. The arrowheads on dimension lines should just touch the extension lines. Arrowheads should be neat and narrow and
should end in a sharp point. They should be about 1/8 long. The width should be about 1/3 of the length.
(3). There are number of ways to dimension narrow spaces, arcs, circles, and angles. The method you use depends upon how much space
you have. Do not crowd dimensions. They should be accurately placed, neat and easy to read.
(4). Study an object carefully before you dimension it. There may be a better way of dimensioning to make it less cluttered and easier to
read.
(5). Avoid placing dimensions on the views; place them between views whenever possible.
10 DESIGNING IN METRICS: Good drawing practice includes designing in metric units and not just converting inch values to
millimeters. To make metric measuring simpler, you can round off numbers to the nearest whole metric size. Avoid using decimal fractions
of millimeters when designing a part unless the accuracy of the piece demands it. This is what designing in metrics is al about --- making it
simple to make products based on metric dimensions. For example, the length of the handle of a knife is 100 mm instead of 4 inches. Note
that 4 inches converts to 101.6 mm exactly. Obviously, that 101.6 mm can be rounded to 100 mm so that the handle is easier to make.

11 DETAIL AND ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS: You have already learned that drawings must have all the information needed to build a
product. Such drawings are called working drawings. These drawings show all the dimensions and notes necessary to make the pieces.
There are other types of working drawings used in industry. A product such as an engine carburetor is made up of many parts. Each part is
made separately, and for each part one must have a detail drawing. This is necessary because in mass production, different people make
different parts of the product. Such drawings include all dimensions plus notes about what materials to use and how to finish them. In
industry each part would be drawn on a separate sheet.

12 Still another drawing is needed to show how the parts fit together. This is called an assembly drawing. Assembly drawings show the
various parts fastened together to make the final product. Industry also uses exploded assembly drawings.
13 PLANNINGPROCEDURE: After you have designed a product and made the drawings, you must decide how you are going to make
the product. This is necessary to avoid mistakes and waste of materials. Industry dose this through very careful tooling and control
procedures in production. You must do this by preparing a plan of procedure for your work. There are four main parts to this plan.

(1). Bill of materials. List all of the items that will actually be part of the product. Be sure to use their right names. Look at the supply
catalogs and materials list to find these correct terms.
(2). List of tools and machines. All of the necessary tools, machines, and other equipment should be listed.
(3). Outline of the steps to follow in making the product. To make your outline, first study the individual parts of the product. Next, think of
what you must do to make each part. Then think about the assembly and finishing of the product. Listing all of these operations or tasks in
proper order will give you the outline.
(4). Working drawing. This drawing is necessary for you to learn the sizes and shapes of the products parts. Both detail and assembly
drawings are generally used.

Metal Materials
()
1 Metals are among the most widely used materials. They are useful to us because of their physical and mechanical properties, which are
very different from those of wood, concrete, or plastic. For instance, metals are strong enough to withstand high loads at high temperatures,
yet flexible enough to be worked easily.
2 Properties of Metals The many kinds of metals used in schools and industry have different properties. Some metals are very hard.
This means they resist scratching. Others are strong, yet tough and ductile. Ductile means capable of being drawn out or hammered thin.
Metals are also good conductors of electricity and heat. Because of the many properties of the various kinds of metals, almost every product
need can be met. The following chart describes some of the most important and useful properties.
3 The properties of metals are due to their structure; that is, the special way their atoms are grouped together to make up a solid material.
Pure metals have simple structures. Alloys have more complex structures.
Metal Properties
Property
Hardness

Description

Tensile strength
Ductility
Toughness
Elasticity
Compressive strength
Fatigue strength

Resists penetration, wear, cutting, and

scratching
Resists stretching
Easy to form without tearing or rupturing
Resists shock and impact; not brittle
Resists bending
Resists squeezing
Resists fracturing

4 Alloys Most metals used in product manufacturing are alloys, not pure metals. Pure metals are seldom used except in the laboratory.
Alloys are composed of two or more metals and small amounts of nonmetallic elements. By carefully alloying, new metals with desirable
properties are created. Some of the results are surprising. For example, nickel can be combined with copper to produce an alloy that is
stronger than either nickel or copper. A great number of alloys can and have been made because of the ease with which metal atoms
combine with other atoms.
5 One of the most important alloys used in industry is steel, which is an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content of a metal is shown as
a percentage or as points. One percent (1.00%) carbon is called 100 carbon, 100 point carbon, or point 100 carbon. You can tell the
difference among steels by grinding a piece and studying the sparks. High-carbon steel gives off a bomblike cluster of sparks, while lowcarbon steel gives off a long, spread-out pattern.
6 Metallurgy is the science of making metals and alloys for practical use. For thousands of years it was an art where results came from hard
experience and little understanding. Now it is a science using the basic principles of the microstructure (microscopic structure) of metals
and alloys and how that structure affects their behavior and properties. Scientists continue to experiment with metals, to create the new and
improve the old.
7 Kind of Metals Our supply of metals comes from the earth in the form of metal ores. That is, the metals are combined with other
materials, such as rock. The ores are refined and then made into forms usable by the manufacturing industry. Many kinds of metal steel,
copper, nickel, lead, aluminum, gold, silver, and others are used to make the products we need.
8 The following paragraphs describe metals you will probably find in the shop and how they are refined. Pay special attention to the
properties and common uses of each so that you will be able to select wisely for any projects you make. Ferrous metals are mostly iron in
content. Nonferrous metal contain little or no iron.
9 Ferrous MetalsThe main materials in this group are iron and steel. Iron is one of the basic elements used in making cast iron, wrought
iron, and steel, The great iron ore producing areas in this country are in Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The steel making centers are
in Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
10 Steel is one of our most important metals, It is tough, durable, plentiful, and is used in every industry. Well over 500,000 people in this
country are involved in the mining, refining, and fabricating of steel.
11 The first important step of the steel making process is to take out the iron from the ore. This is done in a blast furnace . Coke, iron ore,
and limestone make up the charge for the furnace. The coke supplies the heat ( about 3500 degree F ) , and the limestone serves as a flux;
that is , it combines with the impurities to draw them away from the iron. The iron is then made into steel by one of three processes; openhearth furnace, electric furnace, or basic-oxygen furnace.
12 In each of these three systems, raw iron, which is fairly soft, is made into steel by adding other metals and chemicals to it to form alloys.
The alloys are varied to make special steels for drawing into pipe, for casting, for machining, and for many other uses. After the steel is
made, it is poured into ingot molds. Later it is milled into bars, sheets, plates, and other forms to be used by industries.
13 Instead of reheating ingots and rolling them into blooms, slabs, or billets, these three shapes of steel can also be made by a new process
called continuous casting. Molten steel is poured continuously into a water-cooled mold that is open at the top and bottom. A starting bar
temporarily closes the bottom. The steel gradually cools and begins to become solid in the mold. Then the starting bar is slowly pulled
downward, drawing the steel with it. The rate at which molten steel is poured in at the top is matched with the rate at which the solid steel
is pulled out at the bottom. In this way, a long, continuous piece is formed. It can then be cut into lengths as desired. Different shapes of
molds are used, depending upon whether blooms, slabs, or billets are being made.
14 Some steel are hot rolled (squeezed between rollers which red hot). Such metals have a bluish scale on the surface and are called hotrolled steel (HRS). Cold-rolled steels (CRS) are smoother and have a clean shiny surface finish.
15 Nonferrous Metals These metals contain little or no iron and are soft and easily worked. They are good conductors of heat and
electricity and are generally more durable than iron and steel.
16 Copper is reddish brown and can be bought as sheets, tubes, or rods in a variety of sizes. Copper is perhaps best known for its uses in the
electrical industryit is second only to silver as a conductor of electricity. It is also used for working utensils, for roofing, and as an alloy
for other metals. It is easily worked into bows, but hammering makes it harder. (This is known as work harding.) To soften the copper, it
must be heated red hot and plunged into water. Copper tarnishes easily and does not machine easily. Brass is an alloy of copper (90 percent)
and zinc (10 percent). It is yellow-gold and more brittle than copper. Brass comes in forms similar to copper. Bronze resembles brass in
both color and working properties. It is an alloy of about 90 percent copper and 10 percent tin, with small amounts of nickel or aluminum.
Pewter is also an alloy containing about 10 percent copper and 90 percent tin. It is an excellent material for making bowls and vases because
it is so easily formed.
17 Sterling silver is a kind of lovely, warm and lustrous metal, and is used for jewelry and fine tableware. An article marked sterling must
contain not less than 0.925 parts of silver with 0.075 parts of copper or some other alloying metal added for hardness.
18 Aluminum is silver-white, is remarkably light, and is easily worked. It work-hardens quickly and must be softened as follows: Cover
the metal with chalk, heat until the chalk turns brown, and allow the metal to air-cool. It is available in sheets, tubes, rods, and bars.
Aluminum is very light, corrosion resistant, and an excellent conductor of electricity. Although it is soft, aluminum can be made strong by
adding copper or zinc. Aluminum alloys are used for bridges, airplanes, house siding, kitchen utensils, and many other products. Today
about 27 percent of aluminum is recycled. Using recycled aluminum to make new products is less costly than refining ore, and it helps
reduce the production of waste.

19 Heat-TreatingIn the forging process, the metal become soft when you heat it and hard but brittle (easily broken) when you work it.
In order to make chisels and other tools usable, they must be heated and cooled through a specific temperature sequence. This process of
heating and cooling metal to change its properties is called heat treatment, and is usually done in a heat-treating furnace. Here, for example,
are the steps in heat-treating a screwdriver made of tool steel.
20 First, anneal the workpiece by heating until cherry red, then cooling slowly in air. This process softens the metal and relieves the strains
of forging. Next, harden by reheating about of the screwdriver tip until it is cherry red. This is called the critical temperature. Plunge the
metal quickly into water, moving it with a circular motion. Finally, temper the metal by applying heat about 1 above the tip, When the
temper color (light purple in this case) reaches the tip, plunge the tool into water. Tempering reduces the brittleness of the piece.
21 Mild steel is heat-treated by a process called case hardening. This is done by adding a special carbon hardening powder to the surface of
a metal workpiece, and then hardening this outer case.
22 To case harden metal, heat the workpiece to a bright red. Remove any scale with a wire brush. Dip, roll, or sprinkle the powder on the
wokpiece.. The powder will melt and adhere to the surface, forming a shell around the work. Reheat to bright red, hold at this temperature
for a few minutes, and then quench in clean, cold water. This will give the workpiece a completely hard outer surface, or case.

Five Basic Machining Techniques

()
1 The five basic techniques of machining metal include drilling and boring, turning, planing, milling, and grinding. Variations of the five
basic techniques are employed to meet special situations.
2 Drilling consists of cutting a round hole by means of rotating drill, on the other hand , involves the finishing of a hole already drilled or
cored by means of a rotating, offset, single-point tool. On some boring machines, the tool is stationary and the work revolves; on others, the
reverse is true.
3 The lathe, as the turning machine is commonly called, is the father of all machine tools. The piece of metal to be machined is rotated and
the cutting tool is advanced against it. We will discuss the structure and functions of lathe in later paragraphs of this article.
4 Planing metal with a machine tool is a process similar to planing wood with a hand plane. The essential difference lies in the fact that the
cutting tool remains in a fixed position while the work is moved back and forth beneath it. Planers are usually large pieces of equipment;
sometimes large enough to handle the machining of surfaces 15 to 20 feet wide and twice as long. A shaper differs from a planer in that the
workpiece is held stationary and the cutting tool travels back and forth.
5 Milling consists of machining a piece of metal by bringing it into contact with a rotating cutting tool which has multiple cutting-edges.
There are many types of milling machines designed for various kind of work. Some of the shapes produced by milling machines are
extremely simple, like the slots and flat surfaces produced by circular saws. Other shapes are more complex and may consist of a variety of
combinations of flat and curved surfaces, depending on the shape given to the cutting-edges of the tool and on the travel path of the tool.
6 Grinding consists of shaping a piece of work by bringing it into contact with a rotating abrasive wheel. The process is often used for the
final finishing to close dimensions of a part that has been heat-treated to make it very hard. This is because grinding can correct distortions
that may have resulted from heat treatment. In recent years, grinding has also found increased application in heavy-duty metal removal
operations.

7The Lathe The lathe is one of the most useful and versatile machines in the workshop, and is capable of carrying out a wide variety of
machining operations. The main components of the lathe are the headstock and tailstock at opposite ends of a bed, and a tool-post between
them which holds the cutting tool. The tool-post stands on a cross-slide which enables it to move sidewards across the saddle or carriage as
well as along it, depending on the kind of job it is doing. The ordinary centre lathe can accommodate only one tool at a time on the tool-post,
but a turret lathe is capable of holding five or more tools on the revolving turret. The lathe bed must be very solid to prevent the machine
from bending or twisting under stress.
8 The headstock incorporates the driving and gear mechanism, and a spindle which holds the workpiece and causes it to rotate at a speed
which depends largely on the diameter of the workpiece. A bar of large diameter should naturally rotate more slowly than a very thin bar; the
cutting speed of the tool is what matters. Tapered centers in the hollow nose of the spindle and of the tailstock hold the work firmly between
them.
9 A feed-shaft from the headstock drives the tool-post alone the saddle, either forwards or backwards, at a fixed and uniform speed. This
enables the operator to make accurate cuts and to give the work a good finish. Gears between the spindle and the feed-shaft control the speed
of rotation of the shaft, and therefore the forward or backward movement of the tool-post. The gear which the operator will select depends on
the type of metal which he is cutting and the amount of metal he has to cut off. For a deep or roughing cut the forwards movement of the tool
should be less than for a finishing cut.
10 Centers are not suitable for every job on the lathe. The operator can replace them by various types of chucks, which hold the work
between jaws, or by a front-plate, depending on the shape of the work and the particular cutting operation. He will use a chuck, for example,
to hold a short piece of work, or work for drilling, boring or screw-cutting.
11 A transverse movement of the tool-post across the saddle enables the tool to cut across the face of the workpiece and give it a flat surface.
For screw-cutting, the operator engages the lead-screw, a long screwed shaft which runs along in front of bed and which rotates with the
spindle. The lead-screw drives the tool-post forwards along the carriage at the correct speed, and this ensures that the threads on the screw
are of exactly the right pitch. The operator can select different gear speeds, and this will alter the ratio of spindle and lead-screw speeds and
therefore alter the pitch of the threads. A reversing lever on the headstock enables him to reverse the movement of the carriage and so bring
the tool back to its original position.

Laser Machining
()
1 Laser, acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Lasers are devices that amplify light and produce coherent
light beams, ranging from infrared to ultraviolet. A light beam is coherent when its waves, or photons, propagate in step with one another.
Laser light, therefore, can be made extremely intense, highly directional, and very pure in color (frequency).
2Based on the laser medium used, lasers are generally classified as solid state, gas, semiconductor, or liquid. The most common solid laser
media are rods of ruby crystals and neodymium-doped glasses and crystals. The ends of the rod are fashioned into two parallel surfaces
coated with a highly reflecting nonmetallic film. Solid-state lasers offer the highest power output. They are usually operated in a pulsed
manner to generate a burst of light over a short time.
3The laser medium of a gas laser can be a pure gas, a mixture of gases, or even metal vapor and is usually contained in a cylindrical glass
or quartz tube. Two mirrors are located outside the ends of the tube to form the laser cavity. Gas lasers are pumped by ultraviolet light,
electron beams, electric current, or chemical reactions.
4 The semiconductor laser usually consists of a junction between layers of semiconductors with different electrical conducting properties.
The laser cavity is confined to the junction region by means of two reflective boundaries. Common uses for semiconductor lasers include
compact audio digital disk (CD) players and laser printers.
5The most common liquid laser media are inorganic dyes contained in glass vessels. They are pumped by intense flash lamps in a pulse
mode or by a gas laser in the CW mode. Tunable dye lasers are a type for which frequency can be adjusted with the help of a prism inside
the laser cavity.
6The use of lasers is restricted only by imagination. Lasers have become valuable tools in industry, scientific research, communication,
medicine, the military, and the arts. Laser machining is based on principles that were only recently discovered. The process of laser
machining depends on the interaction of an intense, highly directional coherent monochromatic beam of light with a workpiece, from which
material is removed by vaporization.
7Powerful laser beams can be focused on a small spot with enormous power density. Consequently, the focused beams can readily heat,
melt, or vaporize material in a precise manner.Lasers have been used, for example, to drill holes in diamonds, toshape machine tools, to
trim microelectronics, to heat-treat semiconductor chips, to cut fashion patterns, to synthesize new material, and to attempt to induce
controlled nuclear fusion.
8Weldingis the process in which two or more pieces of metal are joined together by the application of heat, pressure, or a combination of
both. The welding processes most commonly employed today include gas welding, arc welding, and resistance welding. Other new
joining processes include thermite welding, laser welding, and electron-beam welding.
9 The use of lasers for welding has grown during the second half of the 20 th century. This method produce high-quality welded products
at a rapid rate. Laser welding has valuable applications in the automotive and aerospace industries.
10 Laser-beam machining (LBM) is accomplished by precisely manipulating a beam of coherent light to vaporize unwanted material.
LBM is particularly suited to making accurately placed holes. The LBM process can make holes in refractory metals and ceramics and in
very thin materials without warping the workpiece. Extremely fine wires can also be welded using LBM equipment.

Computer
()
1 Computer, electronic device that can receive a set of instructions, or program, and then carry out this program by performing calculations
on numerical data or by compiling and correlating other forms of information.
2 TYPES OF COMPUTERS: Two main types of computers are in use today, analog and digital, although the term computer is often used
to mean only the digital type. Analog computers exploit the mathematical similarity between physical interrelationships in certain problems,
and employ electronic or hydraulic circuits to simulate the physical problem. Digital computers solve problems by performing sums and by
dealing with each number digit by digit.
3 ANALOG COMPUTERS: The analog computer is an electronic or hydraulic device that is designed to handle input in terms of, for
example, voltage levels or hydraulic pressures, rather than numerical data. The simplest analog calculating device is the slide rule, which
employs lengths of specially calibrated scales to facilitate multiplication, division, and other functions. In a typical electronic analog
computer, the inputs are converted into voltages that may be added or multiplied using specially designed circuit elements. The answers are
continuously generated for display or for conversion to another desired form.

4 DIGITAL COMPUTERS: Everything that a digital computer does is based on one operation: the ability to determine if a switch, or
gate, is open or closed. That is, the computer can recognize only two states in any of its microscopic circuits: on or off, high voltage or
low voltage, or-in the case of numbers-0 or 1. The speed at which the computer performs this simple act, however, is what makes it a marvel
of modern technology. Computer speeds are measured in megaHertz, or millions of cycles per second. A computer with a clock speed of
33 mHz is capable of executing 33 million discrete operations each second. Business microcomputers can perform 60 to 100 million
operations per second, and supercomputers used in research and defense applications attain speeds of billions of cycles per second.
5 Digital computer speed and calculating power are further enhanced by the amount of data handled during each cycle. If a computer checks
only one switch at a time, that switch can represent only two commands or numbers; thus ON would symbolize one operation or number, and
OFF would symbolize another. By checking groups of switches linked as a unit, however, the computer increases the number of operations it
can recognize at each cycle. For example, a computer that checks two switches at one time can represent four numbers (0 to 3) or can execute
one of four instructions at each cycle, one for each of the following switch patterns: OFF-OFF (0); OFF-ON (1); ON-OFF (2); or ON-ON
(3).
6 EARLY COMPUTERS Analog computers began to be built at the start of the 20 th century. Early models calculated by means of
rotating shafts and gears. Numerical approximations of equations too difficult to solve in any other way were evaluated with such machines.
During both world wars, mechanical and, later, electrical analog computing systems were used as torpedo course predictors in submarines
and as bombsight controllers in aircraft. Another system was designed to predict spring floods in the Mississippi River Basin.
7 In the 1940s, Howard Aiken, a Harvard University mathematician, created what is usually considered the first digital computer. This
machine was constructed from mechanical adding machine parts. The instruction sequence to be used to solve a problem was fed into the
machine on a roll of punched paper tape, rather than being stored in the computer. In 1945, however, a computer with program storage was
built, based on the concepts of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann. The instructions were stored within a so-called
memory, freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the paper tape reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved
without rewiring the computer.
8 ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS: The rapidly advancing field of electronics led to construction of the first general-purpose all-electronic
computer in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania by the American engineer John Presper Eckert, Jr. and the American physicist John
William Mauchly. (Another American physicist, John Vincent Atanasoff, later successfully claimed that certain basic techniques he had
developed were used in this computer.) Called ENIAC, for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the device contained 18,000
vacuum tubes and had a speed of several hundred multiplications per minute. Its program was wired into the processor and had to be
manually altered.
9 The use of the transistor in computers in the late 1950s marked the advent of smaller, faster, and more versatile logical elements than were
possible with vacuum-tube machines. Because transistors use much less power and have a much longer life, this development alone was
responsible for the improved machines called second-generation computers. Components became smaller, as did intercomponent spacings,
and the system became much less expensive to build.
10 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: Late in the 1960s the integrated circuit, or IC, was introduced, making it possible for many transistors to
be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with inter- connecting wires plated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and
failure rate. The microprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the introduction of the large scale integrated (LSI) circuit and, later,
the very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuit, with many thousands of interconnected transistors etched into a single silicon substrate.
11 To return, then, to the switch-checking capabilities of a modern computer: computers in the 1970s generally were able to check eight
switches at a time. That is, they could check eight binary digits, or bits, of data, at every cycle. A group of eight bits is called a byte, each
byte containing 256 possible patterns of ONs and OFFs (or 1s and 0s). Each pattern is the equivalent of an instruction, a part of an
instruction, or a particular type of datum, such as a number or a character or a graphics symbol. The pattern 11010010, for example, might be
binary data-in this case, the decimal number 210 or it might tell the computer to compare data stored in its switches to data stored in a certain
memory-chip location.

12 The development of processors that can handle 16, 32, and 64 bits of data at a time has increased the speed of computers. The complete
collection of recognizable patterns---the total list of operations---of which a computer is capable is called its instruction set. Both factorsnumber of bits at a time, and size of instruction sets, continue to increase with the ongoing development of modern digital computers.
13 HARDWARE: Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size. Nevertheless, they can be divided into several
categories on the basis of cost and performance: the personal computer or microcomputer, a relatively low-cost machine usually of desk-top
size (some, called laptops, are small enough to fit in a briefcase); the workstation, a microcomputer with enhanced graphics and
communications capabilities that make it especially useful for office work; the minicomputer, an appliance-sized computer, generally too
expensive for personal use, with capabilities suited to a business, school, or laboratory; and the mainframe computer, a large expensive
machine with the capability of serving the needs of major business enterprises, government departments, scientific research establishments,
or the like (the largest and fastest of these are called supercomputers).
14 A digital computer is not actually a single machine, in the sense that most people think of computers. Instead it is a system composed of
five distinct elements:
(1) a central processing unit;
(2) input devices;
(3) memory storage devices;
(4) output devices;
(5) a communications network, called a bus, that links all the elements of the system and connects the system to the external world.
15 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU): The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and logical
calculations and that time and control the operations of the other elements of the system. Miniaturization and integration techniques made
possible the development of a CPU chip called a microprocessor, which incorporates additional circuitry and memory. The result is smaller
computers and reduced support circuitry. Microprocessors are used in most of todays personal computers.
16 Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections: (1) an arithmetic/logic unit; (2) registers; (3) a control
section; and (4) an internal bus. The arithmetic/logic unit gives the chip its calculating ability and permits arithmetical and logical
operations. The registers are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track of instructions, and hold the location and results of these
operations. The control section has three principal duties. It times and regulates the operations of the entire computer system; its instruction
decoder reads the patterns of data in a designated register and translates the pattern into an activity, such as adding or comparing; and its
interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operations use the CPU, and regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may
consume.
17 The last segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is its internal bus, a network of communication lines that connects the internal
elements of the processor and also leads to external connectors that link the processor to the other elements of the computer system. The
three types of CPU buses are: (1) a control bus consisting of a line that senses input signals and another line that generates control signals
from within the CPU; (2) the address bus, a one-way line from the processor that handles the location of data in memory addresses; and (3)
the data bus, a two-way transfer line that both reads data from memory and writes new data into memory.
18 INPUT DEVICES: These devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and programs into the CPU. The most common
input device is the keyboard. Information typed at the typewriter-like keyboard is translated by the computer into recognizable patterns.
Other input devices include light pens, which transfer graphics information from electronic pads into the computer; joysticks and mouses,
which translate physical motion into motion on a computer video display screen; light scanners, which read words or symbols on a printed
page and translate them into electronic patterns that the computer can manipulate and store; and voice recognition modules, which take
spoken words and translate them into digital signals for the computer. Storage devices can also be used to input data into the processing
unit.
19 STORAGE DEVICES: Computer systems can store data internally (in memory) and externally (on storage devices). Internally,
instructions or data can be temporarily stored in silicon RAM (Random Access Memory) chips that are mounted directly on the computers
main circuit board, or in chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the computers main circuit board. These RAM chips consist of
up to a million switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current. So-called static RAM chips hold their bits of data as long as current
flows through the circuit, whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages applied at regular intervals-every two
milliseconds or so --- if they are not to lose their information.
20 Another type of internal memory consists of silicon chips on which all switches are already set. The patterns on these ROM (Read-Only
Memory) chips form commands, data, or programs that the computer needs to function correctly. RAM chips are like pieces of paper that
can be written on, erased, and used again; ROM chips are like a book, with its words already set on each page. Both RAM and ROM chips
are linked by circuitry to the CPU.
21 External storage devices, which may physically reside within the computers main processing unit, are external to the main circuit board.
These devices store data as charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as an audio tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated with a
fine layer of metallic particles. The most common external storage devices are so-called floppy and hard disks, although most large
computer systems use banks of magnetic tape storage units. Floppy disks can contain from several hundred thousand bytes to well more than
a million bytes of data, depending on the system. Hard, or fixed, disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which contain the
electronics to read and write data onto the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks can store from several million bytes to a few hundred million
bytes. CD-ROM technology, which uses the same laser techniques that are used to create audio compact disks (CDs), promises storage
capacities in the range of several gigabytes (billion bytes) of data.

22 OUTPUT DEVICES: These devices enable the user to see the results of the computers calculations or data manipulations. The most
common output device is the video display terminal (VDT), a monitor that displays characters and graphics on a television-like screen. A
VDT usually has a cathode-ray tube (CRT) like an ordinary television set, but small, portable computers may use liquid crystal displays
(LCD) or electroluminescent screens. Other standard output devices include printers and modems. A modem links two or more computers by
translating digital signals into analog signals so that data can be transmitted via telecommunications.

23 OPERATING SYSTEMS: Different types of peripheral devices---disk drives, printers, communications networks, and so on---handle
and store data differently from the way the computer handles and stores it. Internal operating systems, usually stored in ROM memory, were
developed primarily to coordinate and translate data flows from dissimilar sources, such as disk drives or co-processors (processing chips
that perform simultaneous but different operations from the central unit). An operating system is a master control program, permanently
stored in memory, that interprets user commands requesting various kinds of services, such as display, print, or copy a data file; list all files
in a directory; or execute a particular program.
24 PROGRAMMING: A program is a sequence of instructions that tells the hardware of a computer what operations to perform on data.
Programs can be built into the hardware itself, or they may exist independently in a form known as software. In some specialized, or
dedicated, computers the operating instructions are embedded in their circuitry; common examples are the microcomputers found in
calculators, wristwatches, automobile engines, and microwave ovens. A general-purpose computer, on the other hand, contains some built-in
programs (in ROM) or instructions (in the processor chip), but it depends on external programs to perform useful tasks. Once a computer has
been programmed, it can do only as much or as little as the software controlling it at any given moment enables it to do. Software in
widespread use includes a wide range of applications programs---instructions to the computer on how to perform various tasks.

25 LANGUAGES: A computer must be given instructions in a language that it understands---that is, a particular pattern of binary digital
information. On the earliest computers, programming was a difficult, laborious task, because vacuum-tube ON-OFF switches had to be set by
hand. Teams of programmers often took days to program simple tasks such as sorting a list of names. Since that time a number of computer
languages have been devised, some with particular kinds of functioning in mind and others aimed more at ease of use-the user- friendly
approach.
26 MACHINE LANGUGE: Unfortunately, the computers own binary-based language, or machine language, is difficult for humans to
use. The programmer must input every command and all data in binary form, and a basic operation such as comparing the contents of a
register to the data in a memory-chip location might look like this: 11001010 00010111 11110101 00101011. Machine-language
programming is such a tedious, time-consuming, task that the time saved in running the program rarely justifies the days or weeks needed to
write the program.
27 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE: One method programmers devised to shorten and simplify the process is called assembly- language
programming. By assigning a short (usually three-letter) mnemonic code to each machine-language command, assembly-language programs
could be written and debugged---cleaned of logic and data errors---in a fraction of the time needed by machine-language programmers. In
assembly language, each mnemonic command and its symbolic operands equals one machine instruction. An assembler program translates
the mnemonic opcodes (operation codes) and symbolic operands into binary language and executes the program.
28 Assembly language, however, can be used only with one type of CPU chip or microprocessor. Programmers who expended much time
and effort to learn how to program one computer had to learn a new programming style each time they worked on another machine. What
was needed was a shorthand method by which one symbolic statement could represent a sequence of many machine-language instructions,
and a way that would allow the same program to run on several types of machines. These needs led to the development of so- called highlevel languages.
29 HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES: High-level languages often use English-like words --- for example, LIST, PRINT, OPEN, and so on --as commands that might stand for a sequence of tens or hundreds of machine-language instructions. The commands are entered from the
keyboard or from a program in memory or in a storage device, and they are intercepted by a program that translates them into machinelanguage instructions. Translator programs are of two kinds: interpreters and compilers. With an interpreter, programs that loop back to reexecute part of their instructions reinterpret the same instruction each time it appears, so interpreted programs run much more slowly than
machine-language programs. Compilers, by contrast, translate an entire program into machine language prior to execution, so such programs
run as rapidly as though they were written directly in machine language.
30 American computer scientist Grace Hopper is credited with implementing the first commercially-oriented computer language. After
programming an experimental computer at Harvard University, she worked on the UNIVAC I and II computers and developed a
commercially usable high-level programming language called FLOW-MATIC. To facilitate computer use in scientific applications, IBM then
developed a language that would simplify work involving complicated mathematical formulas. Begun in 1954 and completed in 1957,
FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was the first comprehensive high-level programming language that was widely used.
31 In 1957, the Association for Computing Machinery set out to develop a universal language that would correct some of FORTRANs
perceived faults. A year later they released ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language), another scientifically oriented language; widely used in
Europe in the 1960s and 1970s, it has since been superseded by newer languages, while FORTRAN continues to be used because of the huge
investment in existing programs. COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language), a commercial and business programming language,
concentrated on data organization and file handling and is widely used today in business.

32 BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed at Dartmouth College in the early 1960s for use by
nonprofessional computer users. The language came into almost universal use with the microcomputer explosion of the 1970s and 1980s.
Condemned as slow, inefficient, and inelegant by its detractors, BASIC is nevertheless simple to learn and easy to use. Because many early
microcomputers were sold with BASIC built into the hardware (in ROM memory) the language rapidly came into widespread use.
33 Although hundreds of different computer languages and variants exist, several others deserve mention. PASCAL, originally designed as a
teaching tool, is now one of the most popular microcomputer languages. LOGO was developed to introduce children to computers. C, a
language Bell Laboratories designed in the 1970s, is widely used in developing systems programs, such as language translators. LISP and
PROLOG are widely used in artificial intelligence.
34 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS: One ongoing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort to compress more
circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. Researchers are also trying to speed up circuitry functions through the use of
superconductivity, the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance observed as objects exposed to very low temperatures become
increasingly colder.
35 Computer networks have become increasingly important in the development of computer technology. Networks are groups of computers
that are interconnected by communications .
36 facilities. The public Internet is an example of a global network of computers. Networks enable connected computers to rapidly exchange
information and in some cases, to share a workload, so that many computers may cooperate in performing a task. New software and
hardware technology is being developed that will accelerate both of these processes.
37 The fifth-generation computer effort to develop computers that can solve complex problems in what might eventually be called creative
ways is another trend in computer development, the ideal goal being true artificial intelligence. One path actively being explored is the
parallel-processing computer, which uses many chips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing may eventually
be able to duplicate to some degree the complex feedback, approximating, and assessing functions of human thought.
38 Another form of parallel processing that is being investigated is the use of molecular computers. In these computers, logical symbols are
expressed by chemical units of DNA instead of by the flow of electrons in regular computers. Molecular computers could potentially solve
complicated problems much faster than current supercomputers and would use much less energy.

Development History of Computer Use

()
1
This paper deals with the application of process control computer in manufacturing designing and management. It reviews the
development of computer use from early data acquisition to hierarchical computer control. After introducing the interactive computer-aided
design and predicting the computers impact in assembly area, the article mainly discuss computer-aided technologies its present state and
its future and the relationship between man and computer in the future factory, the role of computer in product design, raw material supply,
machining operation and workpiece inspection.
2
The process control computer began to appear in the production facilities of several automation and aircraft manufactures in about
1964. Originally, it was used for factory data acquisition, quality control, and monitoring of machine functions. The manufacturing
engineers quickly realized that the basic data that this computer acquired from the production floor provided the foundation for the
management information system. Data could easily be transferred via communication lines to the business computer for further processing.
This lead to the conception of distributed computer systems for factory control.
3
With the appearance of minicomputers and microcomputers, these distributed computers also came within the reach of many smaller
companies. Development eventually lead to hierarchical computer control concepts for manufacturing organizations. A good example of
such a hierarchical computer control system was introduced with direct numerical control. Here planning, scheduling, and programming are
done by a computer at an upper hierarchical level, and the execution of machining operations is directed and supervised by a computer at a
lower hierarchical level. Because of its real-time capabilities, the process control computer was also used for early interactive computer
aided design (CAD) activities.
4
The development of useful computer-aided design methods took quite a long time since both the hardware and software are very
complex. However, within recent years this technology is being accepted very rapidly by progressive design department. Through use of the
computer creative designers can improve their productivity at least fourfold over that using conventional design methods. It is expected that
computer-aided design will be introduced by many manufacturing organizations.
5
One of the areas in which the computer has had little effect so far is assembly. However, the computers impact will also be felt here
within the near future. There are presently robots and special assembly machines being developed which will be equipped with the advanced
sensors and vision systems that are needed for complex assembly tasks. In the introductory discussion it was shown that there are isolated
computer-aided technologies available today with which we are able to increase manufacturing productivity. Within the years to come it will
be the task of the manufacturing engineer to integrate these technologies fully into a useful computer-aided design / computer-aided
manufacturing ( CAD / CAM ) concept. Looking at the present state of the art, it is already possible to design a product with the help of a
computer and to store the information describing it in a central computer.
6 With the help of this information, the bill of materials can be generated, which after the drawing, is the most important document needed
for the manufacture of a product. These documents can be used to do automatic process planning and to implement a production schedule.
Upon release of the design to manufacturing, the material movement will be activated to supply the machine tools with raw material. The
program to generate the workpiece will also be sent by computer to the machine tool. Data from the machining operation and material
movement will be sent back to the computer system and evaluated to perform automatic process adjustments. The finished workpiece will be
measured in a computer-controlled inspection machine, which receives the test program for the product from the central computer. The
supply of the raw material for storage and process buffers will also be initiated and supervised by the computer.
7 The system described above will be very complex and will require the combined skills of the craftsman and the highly trained engineer.
The future factory can be visualized as an organization where management is supported by a hierarchy of interconnected computers. It will
be the task of the computer to perform repetitive short-range planning and control work, thereby giving management free time to be more
creative in long-range planning, processes and more effective manufacturing organizations.
8 In this control concept the computer will never be able to replace human beings, since the processes are too complex to be left to a
machine. It must also be realized that the computer is capable of handing routine work economically. However, in general, it is very costly to
control process exceptions automatically. In the future factory these exceptions will still be within the human domain. In addition, it is
inconceivable that a factory organization that consists of many individual persons can ever be operated efficiently by a programmed
computer system.

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

()
1
Computer integrated manufacturing is one of several advanced manufacturing concepts that comprise modern manufacturing
technology. As with other modern manufacturing concepts (e.g., Just In Time, Total Quality Assurance), CIM has a pervasive technological
component. But it is more than just a new technology, it is a philosophy of operation. The philosophical basis of operation revolves from the
definition of CIM which requires an understanding of the current concepts of manufacturing and integration.
2
The modern view of manufacturing encompasses all activities necessary to transform purchased materials into product, to deliver
product to customer, and to support the performance of the product in the field. This concept of manufacturing starts with the development
of a product concept, which may exist in the marketing organization: includes design and specification activities which are usually the
responsibility of an engineering organization, and extends to delivery and after-sales activities which are usually part of the sales
organization. This definition of manufacturing is far broader than the responsibilities that are traditionally associated with the manufacturing
arm of a corporation.
3
The modern concept of manufacturing recognizes the importance of information. Performance of each activity within manufacturing
requires information. Some of the required information is generated within the area that requires it: some comes from other areas within the
manufacturing realm, and some comes from areas outside of manufacturing.
4
For example, the activity plan production of new product within product planning requires inventory information (from within
product planning), a bill of materials (which is produced by product design), and a sales forecast (which is provided by marketing), Activities
also supply information to areas outside of the manufacturing realm. A new product is designed to meet specifications provided by
marketing and the products bill of materials and process design information must be provided to accounting for cost calculations.
5
The term integration must be viewed in light of the informational needs of the manufacturing activities. Integration means that the
information required by each activity is available on a timely basis, accurately, in the format required, and without asking. Data may come
directly from their sources, which include both manufacturing activities and other functional activities, or from an intermediate database.
This definition implies that information needs for each activity must be identified and planned for in advance.
6
Computers are the tool of choice for automating activities. With their exemplary data collection, storage, and handling capabilities,
they are also the tool of choice for automating integration. Viewing the computer as the means, and using the above definitions of
manufacturing and integration. CIM is defined as the use of computer technology to integrate manufacturing activities. The concept
computer Integrated Manufacturing was coined by Dr. Joseph Harrington in his book Computer Integrated Manufacturing published in 1974.
7
For the purposes of our integration scheme we need a model or definition which identifies at least the main components of CIM. From
a survey of the proposed models four major components were identified, these may be defined as:
Computer aided design (CAD)Effective use of computers to create, store, modify, analyze, and/or transfer an engineering design.
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM)Effective use of computer in designing and controlling the physical operations of a manufacturing
facility, and the development of equipment to utilize this control. Included in this component are process planning methods, flexible
manufacturing systems, etc.
Computer integrated production planning & control (CIPP&C)Use of computers to store product, resource, material, labour, and demand
data, and then to generate appropriate decisions for the optimal control of production operations.
Manufacturing management (MGMT) Effective execution of the function management which are directly related to manufacturing.
Included in this component are quality management, strategy formulation, facilities improvement, labour supervision, gain sharing schemes,
etc.
Applications. CIM is applicable to any manufacturing organization. However, the technologies used to automate the various manufacturing
activities are dependent upon the industry and the manufacturing process employed by the company. Similarly, the technologies used for
integration and communications are determined by the automation technologies and geographic considerations.
8
The concept of CIM can be applied to portions of an organization --- e.g.. the engineering function or the production function --- on a
stand alone basis. When approaching CIM in this manner, planning is still critical, both to assure integration of the various activities within a
function and to assure that the hooks for inter-functional integration are put in place.
9
The concept of CIM can also be applied to nonmanufacturing organizations by redefining the term manufacturing to apply to a
service, and integrating the informational needs associated with the design specification and delivery of that service.

Automation
()

1 WHAT IS AUTOMATION? In its modern usage, automation can be defined as a technology that uses programmed commands to operate
a given process, combined with feedback of information to determine that the commands have been properly executed. Automation is often
used for processes that were previously operated by humans. When automated, the process can operate without human assistance or
interference. In fact, most automated systems are capable of performing their functions with greater accuracy and precision, and in less time,
than humans are able to do.
2 The process in an automated system is one that requires power to actuate or drive it from one physical condition to another. The physical
condition can be defined in terms of mechanical, electrical, or chemical states. For example, there are many manufacturing processes in
which the shape of the product is produced by transforming it from one mechanical state to a more desirable state. Other products are made
by changing their chemical or electrical properties. In each case, power in some form is required to accomplish the process. Accordingly, one
of the conditions that must be satisfied in order for a system to be classified as an automated system is that the controlled process uses power
(energy) which results in a change in physical state.
3 The technology of automation has become strongly associated with and dependent on computer technology. Today, computers provide the
principal means for programming and controlling an automated system. As computer technology has become more and more sophisticated,
the automated processes which depend on it have become more sophisticated. Modern automated systems are able to control physical
processes with accuracy measured in millionths of an inch, detect and identify problems related to their operations, make decisions, report
their own performance, and interact with humans if that becomes necessary. As a result of the application of computers in automated
systems, the technology of automation has reached a level where automated systems can perform functions that humans are not capable of
performing.
4 The terms automated system and computer system are often used interchangeably. A computer system is sometimes referred to as an
automated system, and vice versa. Although the tow terms are closely associated, as suggested above, it is appropriated to recognize a
principal distinction between them. The distinction is that an automated system causes some physical action or process to occur whereas a
computer system results in the generation of data, information, and/or calculations. A computer system can be utilized as a component in an
automated system to store programs of processing commands, perform control calculations, make decisions, etc, but these various functions
are then converted into actions by other components of the automated system. Computers are also used in applications that have little or no
association with automation. These applications include data processing and engineering analysis. Similarly, automated systems can be
implemented without digital computers. Mechanical or electrical devices can be used to define and store the control programs for the
automated system. Computer systems and automated systems overlap, but they also can exist on their own as well.
5 Robotics is a technology closely associated with automation. Industrial robotics can be defined as a particular field of automation in which
the automated machine (i.e., the robot) is designed to substitute for human labor. To do this, robots possess certain human-like characteristics.
Today, the most common human-like characteristic is a mechanical manipulator that is patterned somewhat after the human arm and wrist.
The robots manipulator can be programmed to move through a series of positions to perform some useful task, such as loading and
unloading a machine tool, spray painting a metal part, or spot welding an automobile car body. The motion sequence will be repeated until
the robot is reprogrammed to accomplish some alternative task. In the future, industrial robots will have other human-like characteristics in
addition to the manipulator. These characteristics might include: two arms instead of one, vision and other advance sensors, greater
intelligence to perform more complicated tasks, and the ability to move around the factory.
6 Industrial robots are related to computer technology. Indeed, robotics has been described as a combination of machine tool technology and
computer science. The reason is that virtually any robot designed today uses a computer (either a microcomputer or programmable logic
controller) as its controller or brain. The controller stores the programs that define the tasks performed by the robot. The computer is also
an important component in the feedback control system used to correctly position the manipulator in the workspace.
7 Robotics is a subset of automation technology. Since robots rely on the computer a portion of robotics lies within the scope of computer
technology. Automation is a technology that has been applied widely to a variety of fields including household appliances, control of
automobile engines, automatic bank teller machines, industrial manufacturing processes, and robotics. The discussion in this article of the
encyclopedia focuses on automation as it relates to manufacturing and robotics.
8 BUILDING BLOCKS OF AUTOMATION The definition of automation permits the identification of four basic attributes found in
automated systems. These attributes might be termed the building blocks of automation. They are
1Power to perform some action or process.
2Programmed commands to define the action or process performed.
3Feedback controls.
4Decision-making.
9 Although examples of automation can be cited in which the four building blocks are not all readily apparent, most modern automated
systems used in production today exhibit these four features in some way.
Power to Perform some Action or Process
10 A factory production system is designed to perform some useful activity, such as removing metal in a machining operation, or loading
materials into a storage bin, or spray painting a car body panel. In each of these activities, power is required in order to perform the

operation. Today, electrical power is the most common and versatile form because it can be generated from so many alternative sources (e.g.,
coal, fuel oil, atomic energy, etc) and because it can be converted into so many other energy forms to accomplish work (e.g., mechanical,
hydraulic, and pneumatic). Electrical energy can even be stored by means of long-life batteries in applications where transmission of
electricity is not feasible.
11 Whether the production system is automated or not, power is required to perform the activity. The activities performed by automated
production systems can usually be classified into two types (1) processing and (2) transfer and/or positioning. The processing activities are
those associated with a given manufacturing operation. The manufacturing process transforms a starting work-part into a more desirable and
valuable form. Examples of important manufacturing processes include metal machining, bending of sheet metal, forging, plastic molding,
etc. These activities are usually performed by production machines such as lathes, presses, forge hammers, and injection-molding machines.
In all of these machines, power is needed to perform the process.
12 The second type of activity performed by an automated system is transfer and/or positioning. This refers to the movement of the part
before and after each manufacturing process and between manufacturing operations. The term transfer is typically used to denote the
movement of the part between operations, and positioning refers tot the procedure of accurately locating the part prior to a given processing
operation. Material handling is the name commonly used to describe this collection of activities that occur in manufacturing.
Programmed Commands to Define the Activity Performed
13 The activities that are performed by an automated system are contained in a program. The program specifies the step by step actions that
are carried out by the system. It defines what actions are to be accomplished, the sequence in which they must be performed, and when to
perform them. The actions defined by the program are often performed in a cyclical manner. In many production operations, this cycle of
actions constitutes what is called the work cycle. For every work cycle, a unit of product is completed in the process.
14 Another feature in an automated system that makes the program of commands complex is that the program may contain decision-making
routines. In these cases, one or more decisions must be made during the work cycle in response to variations in the operating environment.
This is discussed later as a separate automation building block.
15 The programmed commands are contained in the controller unit of the automated system in any of several different forms.
Feedback Controls
16 Feedback control is used in an automated system to determine that the programmed commands are correctly executed. As illustrated in
Figure 1, a feed back control system consists of five basic elements(1)input, (2) output, (3) process being controlled, (4) sensing elements,
and (5) controller and actuating elements. The input to the system represents the desired set point value of the output. In an automated
system, the input at a given moment corresponds to a desired control action that is to be taken in the work cycle. This action is associated
with a particular command in the program.
17 The controller and actuating elements are the components of the control system that cause changes to occur in the process that in turn
determine the output values. The operation of the controller generally involves a comparison of the input value and the measured output
value followed by some control computation whose objective is to determine how the difference between them can be reduced. The action
resulting from this computation is applied to the process by the actuator.
18 Feedback control systems are often referred to as closed loop control systems. Not all control systems are closed loop. A second type of
control that is used in many automated systems is called an open loop system. In this type of control, there is no feedback loop to verify that
the input command has been executed.
Decision-making
19 Some automated systems are programmed with the ability to make decisions during operation. The decision-making capability is in the
form of logic subroutines in the control program. By linking these subroutines in the control program to sensors that monitor the process and
its environment, the system can respond to changes and irregularities in a logical manner. In effect, the control system makes decisions.
There are a number of reasons for endowing an automated system with the capacity to make decisions. These reasons include: process
optimization; interaction with human; error detection and recovery; and safety.
20Process Optimization.Process optimization involves controlling the system in such a manner as to optimize some economic or quality
objective for the process. For example, the objective may be to maximize the yield of good product or to minimize the cost per unit of
product. In many process optimization problems, the system controller must make decisions about how to best achieve the defined
performance objective. In these cases, the controller uses sensory data collected from the process, and decides according to a preprogrammed
algorithm the appropriate modifications to make in the process to optimize it.
21 There are various other strategies that can be employed in process optimization, many of which requiring decisions to be made during the
operation as in adaptive control. New strategies currently being researched will make use of artificial intelligence to figure out the most
appropriate decisions to achieve optimal performance, rather than relying on preprogrammed logic contained in the controller.
22Interaction with Human.Another reason for automated systems to make decisions is to interact with humans. The system must be capable
of making decisions and taking different actions depending on the instructions and inputs entered by humans.
23 Error Detection and Recovery. Automated systems have traditionally been programmed to call a human worker when a malfunction
arose during the normal operating cycle. Today, computer controlled systems are being programmed to identify these malfunctions using

sensors, determine their cause, and execute routines to recover from the difficulty. This capability is referred to as error detection and
recovery.
24 Safety. Safety procedures implemented by the automated system are a special case of error detection and recovery. A decision-making
capability is often required by the automated system in many safety hazard situations. When the system detects by means of its sensors that
an unsafe condition has occurred, it must respond to the problem by taking appropriate action.

TYPES OF PRODUCTION AUTOMATION

25 As the term is applied in production, automation can be defined as a technology that involves the application of mechanical, electronic,
and computer-based systems to operate, control, and mange manufacturing systems. Automated production systems can generally be
classified into three basic types:
1
2
3

Fixed automation.
Programmable automation.
Flexible automation.

26 These three types correlate to a large extent with the kind of production that is accomplished. Fixed automation is limited to large
volumes of product being made where the variations in product are limited to large volumes of product being made where the variations in
product are limited. Programmable automation is usually applied to low and medium volumes of production and is equipped to deal with
relatively large variations in product configuration. Flexible automation is a relatively new form of automation and has thus far been applied
in the mid-volume production range.
COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
27 The physical activities that take place in a typical factory can be classified into four categories: (1) manufacturing processes; (2)
assembly operations; (3) material handling and storage; and (4) inspection. A common feature of these activities is that they all come in
physical contact with the product in one way or another. Automation technology can be applied to each of the four activities to create
smooth-running systems that operate with little or no human intervention. These automated systems are sometimes referred to as islands of
automation.
28

In addition to the physical activities in manufacturing, there are other functions that must be performed which do not come in physical
contact with the product. Instead, these other functions deal with the data, information, and knowledge that are applied to operate the factory.
They are information processing activities that are performed in support of the physical activities. A useful conceptual model of the
relationship between the physical activities and the information processing function in the factory is illustrated in Figure 3. The physical
manufacturing activities are performed in the pipe of the model which is supposed to represent the actual factory. Raw materials flow in
one end of the pipe and finished products flow out the opposite end. While in the pipe, the materials are processed, assembled, handled, and
inspected. It is inside the pipe that automation, as it is defined in the article, is applied. Surrounding the pipe is the cycle of information
processing activities.

This cycle of activities can be divided into four functional areas:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

business functions;
product design;
manufacturing planning;
manufacturing control.

30 The business functions deal with sales and marketing, order entry, customer billing, and other related activities that interface the factory
with the outside world. These business activities represent the beginning of the information processing cycle because the order to produce
enters the firm as part of this function. This area also represents the end of the cycle because customer billing for the products made in the
factory occurs here.
31 Product design is concerned with all of the activities that support the specification of the product for manufacturing. It includes product
development, engineering analysis, prototype fabrication, engineering drafting, preparation of bills of material, product approval by top
management, and any other activities associated with the product design function in a company. The output of product design feeds into
manufacturing planning.
32 Manufacturing planning logically follows product design, although some of the planning functions must be accomplished concurrently
with design. Manufacturing planning is concerned with preparing the plans needed to produce the product. These planning activities include
process planning (preparation of the route sheets), master production scheduling, make-or-buy decisions, material requirements planing
(MRP), capacity planning, and preparation of purchase orders. The output of manufacturing planning flows into manufacturing control.
33 Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the production operation in accordance with the manufacturing plans
that have been prepared. It is the function in the in the information processing cycle which intersects with the physical activities in the
factory. Typical control activities included in this function are shop floor control, inventory control, and quality control.

REASONS FOR ATOMATION

34

There are a number of economic and technical reasons for installing an automated production system. These reasons for automating include
the following:
1

Higher productivity and lower cost. Automation reduces the labor content of the production operation and usually increases the rate at
which parts are made. Both of these factors tend to increase labor productivity and reduce the cost per unit produced.

Increased safety. By removing human operators from active participation in potentially dangerous production jobs, safety is improved.

Improved uniformity and quality of product. Automated production tasks are typically performed with a higher degree of precision
and consistency than tasks accomplished by manual labor. This precision and consistency usually mean greater uniformity and quality of
product.

Reduced work-in-process and manufacturing lead time. Work-in-process inventory represents unfinished product. The producer has
invested money in raw materials, labor, and equipment to make the product but cannot receive payment until it has been completed.
Automation tends to reduce the amount of unfinished product held in the factory, and it also reduces the time required to complete the
associated production processes.

Better corporate image. Finally, by automating its factories and maintaining a technological advantage over its competitors, a company
tends to improve its corporate image. This translates into higher employee morale and better customer acceptance of its products.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
( )
1 Artificial intelligence (AI) is, in theory, the ability of an artificial mechanism to demonstrate some form of intelligent behavior equivalent
to the behaviors observed in intelligent living organisms. Artificial intelligence is also the name of the field of science and technology in
which artificial mechanisms that exhibit behavior resembling intelligence are developed and studied.
2 The term AI itself, and the phenomena actually observed, invite --- indeed demand --- philosophical speculation about what in fact
constitutes the mind or intelligence. These kinds of questions can be considered separately, however, from a description of the various
endeavors to construct increasingly sophisticated mechanisms that exhibit intelligence.
3 Research into all aspects of AI is vigorous. Some concern exists among workers in the field, however, that both the progress and
expectations of AI have been overstated. AI programs are primitive when compared to the kinds of intuitive reasoning and induction of
which the human brain or even the brains of much less advanced organisms are capable. AI has indeed shown great promise in the area of
expert systems --- that is, knowledge-based expert programs --- but while these programs are powerful when answering questions within a
specific domain, they are nevertheless incapable of any type of adaptable, or truly intelligent, reasoning.
4 Examples of AI systems include computer programs that perform such tasks as medical diagnoses and mineral prospecting. Computers
have also been programmed to display some degree of legal reasoning, speech understanding, vision interpretation, natural-language
processing, problem solving, and learning. Although most of these systems have proved valuable either as research vehicles or in specific,
practical applications, most of them are also still very far from being perfected.
5 CHARACTERISTICS OF AI: No generally accepted theories have yet emerged within the field of AI, owing in part to the fact that AI
is a very young science. It is assumed, however, that on the highest level an AI system must receive input from its environment, determine
an action or response, and deliver an output to its environment. A mechanism for interpreting the input is needed. This need has led to
research in speech understanding, vision, and natural language.
The interpretation must be represented in some form that can be
manipulated by the machine.
6 In order to achieve this goal, techniques of knowledge representation are invoked. The AI interpretation of this, together with knowledge
obtained previously, is manipulated within the system under study by means of some mechanism or algorithm. The system thus arrives at an
internal representation of the response or action. The development of such processes requires techniques of expert reasoning, common-sense
reasoning, problem solving, planning, signal interpretation, and learning. Finally, the system must construct an effective response. This
requires techniques of natural-language generation.
7 THE FIFTH-GENERATION ATTEMPT: In the 1980s, in an attempt to develop an expert system on a very large scale, the Japanese
government began building powerful computers with hardware that made logical inferences in the computer language PROLOG. (Following
the idea of representing knowledge declaratively, the logic programming PROLOG had been developed in England and France. PROLOG is
actually an inference engine that searches declared facts and rules to confirm or deny a hypothesis. A drawback of PROLOG is that it
cannot be altered by the programmer.) The Japanese referred to such machines as fifth-generation computers.
8 By the early 1990s, however, Japan had forsaken this plan and even announced that they were ready to release its software. Although they
did not detail reasons for their abandonment of the fifth-generation program, U.S scientists faulted their efforts at AI as being too much in
the direction of computer-type logic and too little in the direction of human thinking processes. The choice of PROLOG was also criticized.
Other nations were by then not developing software in that computer language and were showing little further enthusiasm for it.
Furthermore, the Japanese were not making much progress in parallel processing, a kind of computer architecture involving many
independent processors working together in parallela method increasingly important in the field of computer science. The Japanese have
now defined a sixth-generation goal instead, called the Real World Computing Project, that veers away from the expert-systems approach
that works only by built-in logical rules.
9 THE FUTURE OF AI RESEARCH: One impediment to building even more useful expert systems has been, from the start, the problem
of input---in particular, the feeding of raw data into an AI system. To this end, much effort has been devoted to speech recognition, character
recognition, machine vision, and natural-language processing. A second problem is in obtaining knowledge. It has proved arduous to extract
knowledge from an expert and then code it for use by the machine, so a great deal of effort is also being devoted to learning and knowledge
acquisition.

10 One of the most useful ideas that has emerged from AI research, however, is that facts and rules (declarative knowledge) can be
represented separately from decision-making algorithms (procedural knowledge). This realization has had a profound effect both on the way
that scientists approach problems and on the engineering techniques used to produce AI systems. By adopting a particular procedural
element, called an inference engine, development of an AI system is reduced to obtaining and codifying sufficient rules and facts from the
problem domain. This codification process is called knowledge engineering. Reducing system development to knowledge engineering has
opened the door to non-AI practitioners. In addition, business and industry have been recruiting AI scientists to build expert systems.
11 In particular, a large number of these problems in the AI field have been associated with robotics. There are, first of all, the mechanical
problems of getting a machine to make very precise or delicate movements. Beyond that are the much more difficult problems of
programming sequences of movements that will enable a robot to interact effectively with a natural environment, rather than some carefully
designed laboratory setting. Much work in this area involves problem solving and planning.
12 A radical approach to such problems has been to abandon the aim of developing reasoning AI systems and to produce, instead, robots
that function reflexively. A leading figure in this field has been Rodney Brooks of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. These AI

researchers felt that preceding efforts in robotics were doomed to failure because the systems produced could not function in the real world.
Rather than trying to construct integrated networks that operate under a centralizing control and maintain a logically consistent model of the
world, they are pursuing a behavior-based approach named subsumption architecture.
13 Subsumption architecture employs a design technique called layering,---a form of parallel processing in which each layer is a separate
behavior-producing network that functions on its own, with no central control. No true separation exists, in these layers, between data and
computation. Both of them are distributed over the same networks. Connections between sensors and actuators in these systems are kept
short as well. The resulting robots might be called mindless, but in fact they have demonstrated remarkable abilities to learn and to adapt to
real-life circumstances.
14 The apparent successes of this new approach have not convinced many supporters of integrated-systems development that the alternative
is a valid one for drawing nearer to the goal of producing true AI. The arguments that have arisen between practitioners of the two different
methodologies are in fact profound ones. They have implications about the nature of intelligence in general, whether natural or artificial.

Mechatronics
()
1 A blend of mechanics and electronics, mechatronics has come to mean the synergistic use of precision engineering, control theory,
computer science, and sensor and actuator technology to design improved products and processes.
2 The standard clothes dryer is typically controlled by a mechanical timer. The user adjusts the timer according to the size and dampness of
the load. If the timing device is not set properly, the drying cycle may be too short and the laundry may come out wet, or the machine could
run long and waste energy.
3 A clothes dryer, however, might be fitted with a sensor-based feedback system that lets the machine measure the moisture content of the
fabrics or the exhaust air, and turn itself off when the load is dry. Operating performance is enhanced and energy use is lowered as a result.
The redesigned dryer might even be cheaper to buy, depending mainly on the cost of the components that comprise the electromechanical
control system.
4 The computer disk drive, such as Cheetah from Seagate Technology, is one of the best examples of mechatronic design because it exhibits
quick response, precision, and robustness.
5 Many U.S.-trained design engineers would say that the improved dryer is the result of up-to-date but conventional design practices. A
reliable yet relatively inaccurate mechanical device was replaced by a "smarter" electronic control. In much of the rest of the world, however,
design engineers would say that the dryer redesign followed the principles of mechatronics.
6 Mechatronics is nothing new; it is simply the application of the latest techniques in precision mechanical engineering, controls theory,
computer science, and electronics to the design process to create more functional and adaptable products. This, of course, is something many
forward-thinking designers and engineers have been doing for years.
7 The vaguely awkward word was first coined in Japan some 30 years ago. Since then, mechatronics has come to denote a synergistic blend
of mechanics and electronics. The word's meaning is somewhat broader than the traditional term electromechanics, which to many connotes
the use of electrostatic or electromagnetic devices. It is also an amorphous, heterogeneous, and continually evolving concept with 1,001
definitions, many of which are so broad or so narrow to be of seemingly marginal use.
8 Mechatronics is more than semantics, however. It's a significant design trend that has a marked influence on the product-development
process, international competition in manufactured goods, the nature of mechanical engineering education in coming years, and quite
probably the success mechanical engineers will have in becoming team leaders or engineering managers.
Defining Mechatronics
9 For Takashi Yamaguchi, who works at Hitachi Ltd.'s Mechanical Engineering Laboratory in Ibaraki, Japan, mechatronics is "a
methodology for designing products that exhibit fast, precise performance. These characteristics can be achieved by considering not only the
mechanical design but also the use of servo controls, sensors, and electronics." He added that it is also very important to make the design
robust. Computer disk drives, for example, are a prime example of the successful application of mechatronics: "Disk drives are required to
provide very fast access, precise positioning, as well as robustness against various disturbances," he said.
10 For Giorgio Rizzoni, associate professor of mechanical engineering at Ohio State University in Columbus, mechatronics is "the
confluence of traditional design methods with sensors and instrumentation technology, drive and actuator technology, embedded real-time
microprocessor systems, and real-time software." Mechatronic (electromechanical) products, he said, exhibit certain distinguishing features,
including the replacement of many mechanical functions with electronic ones, which results in much greater flexibility and easy redesign or
reprogramming; the ability to implement distributed control in complex systems; and the ability to conduct automated data collection and
reporting. The diagram at left illustrates that mechatronics is where mechanics, electronics, computers, and controls intersect
11 "Mechatronics is really nothing but good design practice," said Masayoshi Tomizuka, professor of mechanical engineering at the
University of California, Berkeley. "The basic idea is to apply new controls to extract new levels of performance from a mechanical device."
It means using modern, cost-effective technology to improve product and process performance and flexibility. In many cases, the application
of computer and controls technology yields a design solution that is more elegant than the purely mechanical approach. By having a good
idea of what can be done using other than mechanical means, design freedom increases and results improve, according to Tomizuka, who is
also editor-in-chief of the quarterly IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics jointly published by the Institute for Electrical and
Electronics Engineers and ASME.
12 The journal, first published in March 1996, is another indication that the importance of this interdisciplinary area is being recognized.
Transactions covers a range of related technical areas, including modeling and design, system integration, actuators and sensors, intelligent
control, robotics, manufacturing, motion control, vibration and noise control, microdevices and optoelectronic systems, and automotive
systems.
The Roots of Mechatronics
13 Mechatronics was first used in terms of the computer control of electric motors by an engineer at Japan's Yaskawa Electric Co. in the late
1960s. The word has remained popular in Japan, and has been in general use in Europe for many years. Although mechatronics has been slow
to gain industrial and academic acceptance as a field of study and practice in Great Britain and the United States, its increasingly prominent
place worldwide is shown by the growing number of undergraduate and postgraduate mechatronics courses now being offered.
14 Many engineers would contend that mechatronics grew out of robotics. Early robotic arms, then unable to coordinate their movements
and without sensory feedback, benefited greatly from advances in kinematics, dynamics, controls, sensor technology, and high-level

programming. The same battery of modern technologies that made robots more flexible and thus more useful was then brought to bear on the
design of new generations of high-performance, adaptable machinery of all kinds.
15 In the 1970s, mechatronics was concerned mostly with servo technology used in products such as automatic door openers, vending
machines, and autofocus cameras. Simple in implementation, the approach encompassed the early use of advanced control methods,
according to Transactions editors.
16 In the 1980s, as information technology was introduced, engineers began to embed microprocessors in mechanical systems to improve
their performance. Numerically controlled machines and robots became more compact, while automotive applications such as electronic
engine controls and antilock-braking systems became widespread.
17 By the 1990s, communications technology was added to the mix, yielding products that could be connected in large networks. This
development made functions such as the remote operation of robotic manipulator arms possible. At the same time, new, smaller--even
microscale--sensor and actuator technologies are being used increasingly in new products. Microelectromechanical systems, such as the tiny
silicon accelerometers that trigger automotive air bags, are examples of the latter use.
18 As significant as these developments may seem, a good deal of skepticism remains about the idea of codifying them in an engineering
field called mechatronics. "It's certainly a catchy word," said controls expert Ernest O. Doebelin, professor emeritus at Ohio State and an
ASME Fellow, "but it's an evolutionary, rather than revolutionary, development. Now that computers are small and relatively cheap, it just
makes sense for designers to build them into products. Mechatronics is really the familiarity with all the other technologies--computers,
software, advanced controls, sensors, actuators, and so forth--that make the advanced products possible."
19 Similar sentiments were expressed by Davor Hrovat, senior staff technical specialist at the Ford Research Laboratory in Dearborn, Mich.:
"The word singles out an area that perhaps is not a single area. Mechatronics is mixture of technologies and techniques that together help in
designing better products."
20 However mechatronics is defined, it means "we now have viable technology for computer control of mechanical systems at all levels,
from toasters to autos," said David M. Auslander, professor of mechanical engineering at Berkeley. "Today we have mechanical systems for
which performance is defined by what's in a computer, whether it's software algorithms, neural networks, or fuzzy logic. That alone makes it
different from anything you could do 25 years ago."
21 Auslander takes a very generalized view of the topic. "Any system in which you control or modulate power is a candidate for computer
control. For any mechanical component you can ask the question: What is its purpose? Does it transmit power? Or is its purpose control and
coordination? Computers, software, and electronics can generally do this second function more efficiently--simpler, cheaper, with much more
flexibility." This approach, he emphasized, constitutes a totally different view of how mechanical systems work compared with previous
conceptions. "This is a machine viewed from the controls outward.
22 Following mechatronic principles, General Electric's Profile Super 32 clothes washer features a sensor-based feedback control that
maintains correct water temperature no matter the load size "
23 Consider the standard multicolor printing press this magazine used to be printed on," Auslander added. "Until recently, web presses had
line-shaft controls in which a long shaft coordinates operations from station to station. Now it's done all by computer control, which makes it
much easier to change the machine over to a new setup."
24 The view of Belgian robotics researcher Hendrik M. J. Van Brussel, published in Transactions (June 1996), follows a similar fundamental
theme but with a different emphasis. "In the past, machine and product design has, almost exclusively, been the preoccupation of mechanical
engineers," he wrote. Solutions to control and programming problems were added by control and software engineers, after the machine had
been designed by mechanical engineers.
25 This sequential-engineering approach usually resulted in suboptimal designs. "Recently, machine design has been profoundly influenced
by the evolution of microelectronics, control engineering, and computer science," Van Brussel wrote. "What is needed, as a solid basis for
designing high-performance machines, is a synergistic cross-fertilization between the different engineering disciplines. This is exactly what
mechatronics is aiming at; it is a concurrent-engineering view of machine design." He then offered his working definition of the term:
"Mechatronics encompasses the knowledge base and the technologies required for the flexible generation of controlled motion."
26 An essential feature in the behavior of a machine, Van Brussel continued, is the occurrence of controlled and/or coordinated motion of
one or more machine elements. "The generation and coordination of the required motions, such that the increasingly growing performance
and accuracy requirements are satisfied, is the raison d'etre of mechatronics."
27 Van Brussel pointed out that traditional mechanisms are limited in their flexibility in generating a wide variety of motions. Also restricted
is their potential for creating complex functional relationships between the motion of the actuator and that of the driven element. Yet another
limitation of purely mechanical drive systems is their inherent lack of accuracy, caused by friction, backlash, wind-up errors, resonances,
dimensional errors, and so forth.
28 "These restrictions can be alleviated by eliminating or simplifying the 'forced-motion' mechanism between actuator and driven elements,"
he wrote. Instead, each driven element is provided with a drive motor and a position sensor. A motion controller generates the required
relationships between the motions of the different driven elements. "The motion synchronization function is shifted from the error-prone
hardware mechanism to the flexible software controller. By applying the mechatronics approach, a large number of motions can be
synchronized, even at long distances away from each other."
29 Under external forces, a range of secondary effects such as vibration and noise can adversely affect the functional behavior of machine
elements and instruments, according to Van Brussel. Passive damping treatments are available, but they have limited applicability. "The
mechatronic approach can provide more effective solutions. Based on the state information about vibration and noise levels, captured by
appropriate sensors, the vibrations are counteracted by actuators distributed over the structure. The machine elements become active (smart

structures)." The term adaptive structures can be used "when the behavior of the structure can be changed at will, without mechanical
modifications."
Institutional Implications
30 Beyond design theory, Auslander said, "mechatronics is also saying something about industrial structure." In the new paradigm, "the
focal point is not traditional machine design, which is what industry and therefore universities are presently geared to teach. In the future, the
focal point will be the mechatronics specialist."
31 "It's always a bit embarrassing to talk about mechatronics," said Kevin Craig, associate professor of mechanical engineering at
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N.Y. "As far as engineering practice goes, there really isn't anything new here, except evolutionary
advances in computers, sensors, actuators, and the rest. What is new from the educational viewpoint is that we're teaching mechanical
engineers how to use electronics, how to program computers to do real-time control, how to do control design, and then to integrate all this
into the design process.
32 "It's an interdisciplinary approach," he added. "Do the integration right from the beginning; don't just add a control system at the end.
Controls used to be left to specialists--mostly electrical engineers. That's not true anymore." Besides teaching a three-day short course on
mechatronics as part of an ASME Professional Development program, Craig has also worked on two videotape series on the topic.
33 "Mechatronics does not change the design process," Craig said. "It gives the engineer greater knowledge, so the concepts that are
developed are better, and communications with other engineering disciplines is improved. The result is a highly balanced design."
34 "One thing that is not at all not clear is how all this additional material should be delivered to the student," observed Ed Carryer,
consulting associate professor at Stanford University in Palo Alto, Calif. "Most mechanical engineering curricula are already stuffed to the
gunnels," he said. "It's either overload the undergrads or make it the focus of a certificate program at the master's level."
35 Few academics expect mechatronics to attain the level of a formally accepted engineering discipline. "Our academic system tends to
resist the forming of new disciplines," Auslander said. "For example, controls has been a well-recognized and important discipline since the
Second World War. However, there are few control departments in the United States. It's mostly taught in mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, and some chemical engineering departments. Yet we graduate lots of people who do the controls function." He concluded that
mechatronics' place in the academic hierarchy is really an organizational and bureaucratic issue.
36 In the short courses he teaches, "besides students you get the occasional professor who wants to learn what the universities are doing in
mechatronics, so they can set up their own programs. The rest are practicing mechanical engineers who basically want to know 'What's this
mechatronics stuff we keep hearing about?'
37 The practicing engineers Craig meets still tend to rely on results of experiments--build and test methods. Surprisingly, "they don't do
much modeling or analysis. We're saying that they won't be able do that much longer, because you can't get products to market quickly
enough in today's markets. You need to model and predict, build a prototype, then validate your predictions."
38 Ford's Hrovat also stressed the need for mechanical engineers to learn advanced modeling and simulation methods. He cited particularly
the use of bond graphs--transfer-function block diagrams that denote power flows and information flows--to depict "means shifting," the
process of finding alternative means to accomplish a design goal. For example, if there is no suitable electrical means of providing some
desired actuation, the designer could go to a pneumatic or hydraulic system--the means to an end are shifted to a substitute technology.
"From what I see, the use of bond graphs is definitely the trend," Hovrat said.
Career Paths in Mechatronics
39 "Mechanical engineers are often at a loss to communicate and understand the issues electrical engineers and the software specialists bring
up" at meetings of interdisciplinary product teams, said Carryer. "The idea is to get rid of the uncertainties associated with electronics and
computers. We want to develop people who are comfortable making the necessary trade-offs among a wide range of approaches based on the
given design constraints."
40 "Maybe the mechanical engineer is not going to do the detail work in any specialty," Craig said, "but they could do it, and they certainly
could lead a team doing it. That's what we're trying to train mechanical engineers to do."
41 With a focus on these kinds of skills, mechatronics is seen as a prime career path for mechanical engineers of the future. "I believe that
mechanical engineers with a mechatronics background will have a better chance of becoming managers," said Thomas S. Moore, general
manager for liberty and technical affairs at Chrysler Corp. in Madison Heights, Mich. "We see mechatronics as the career of the future for
mechanical engineers."
42 "Classically trained mechanical engineers will run the risk of being left out of the interesting work" carried on by multidisciplinary
product design teams, according to John F. Elter, vice president of strategic programs at Xerox Corp. in Webster, N.Y. "At Xerox, we need
designers who understand the control theory well enough to synthesize a better design. These people will have much more of a chance to
lead." Elter added that "the mechanical engineers who know some computer science are far more valuable than the computer scientists who
know some mechanical engineering. The mechanical engineers have a better feel for the overall system and do a better job of making the
crucial trade-offs. One possibility is that the mechatronics practitioner will prototype the whole design, then the specialists in the various
disciplines will take over the detail design."

Development of Robot Systems

First-Generation Robot Systems

1
The majority of robots in use today are first-generation robots with little (if any) computer power. Their only intelligent functions
consist of learning a sequence of manipulative actions, choreographed by a human operator using a teach-box.

2
These robots are deaf, dumb, and blind . The factory world around them must be prearranged to accommodate their actions.
Necessary constraints include precise workpiece positioning, care in specifying spatial relationships with other machines, and safety for
nearby humans and equipment.

3
In many instances costs incurred by these constraints have been fully warranted by increases in productivity and quality of product and
work life. The majority of future applications in material handling, quality control, and assembly will require more intelligent behavior
for robot systems based on both cost and performance criteria.

Second-Generation Robot Systems

4
The addition of a relatively inexpensive computer processor to the robot controller led to a second generation of robots with enhanced
capabilities. It now became possible to perform, in real time, the calculations required to control the motions of each degree-of-freedom in a
cooperative manner to effect smooth motions of the end-effector along predetermined paths. for example, along a straight line in space.

5
Operations by these robots on workpieces in motion along an assembly line could be accommodated. Some simple sensors, such as
force, torque, and proximity, could be integrated into the robot system, providing some degree of adaptability to the robots environment.
6
Major applications of second-generation robots include spot welding, paint spraying. arc welding and some assembly---all operations
that are part of automated manufacturing. Perhaps the most important consequence has been the growing realization that even more
adaptability is highly desirable and could be incorporated by full use of available sensors and more computer power.
Third-Generation Robot Systems
7
Third-generation robot systems have been introduced in the past few years, but their full potential will not be realized and exploited for
many years. They are characterized by the incorporation of multiple computer processors, each operating synchronously to perform specific
functions.
8
A typical third-generation robot system includes a separate low-level processor for each degree of freedom, and a master computer
supervising and coordinating these processors as well as providing higher-level functions.
9
Each low-level processor receives internal sensory signals (such as position and velocity) and is part of the servosystem controlling
that degree-of-freedom. The master computer coordinates the actions of each degree-of-freedom; can perform coordinate transformation
calculations to accommodate different frames of reference; can interface with external sensors, other robots, and machines; store programs;
communicate with other computer systems.
10
Although it is possible to perform all the functions listed with a single computer, the major trend in design appears to favor distributed
hierarchical processing. the resulting flexibility and ease of modification justifying the acceptably small incremental costs incurred by use
of multiple processors.

Mechanical Design ofan Industrial Robot

()
1 The mechanical design of an industrial robot requires application of engineering expertise in a variety of areas.
include machine design, structure design, and mechanical control, and electrical engineering.

Important disciplines

2 Traditionally, robot design decisions have been based largely on use of simple design specifications relating to number of joints, size, load
capacity, and speed.
3 Robots have been designed not to perform specific tasks but to meet general performance criteria. Manipulator bearings, shafts, links, and
other structural elements are selected for strength and stiffness to produce a manipulator meeting the work envelope and mechanical accuracy
requirements.
4 Motors are sized to meet worst case or average case gravity and acceleration torques or loads. Gearing is specified to meet gear tooth load
limits in bending and surface stress. Bearings and shafts are selected and sized for life under estimated loads and to meet structural
requirements such as deflection limits and clearance bores for cables or air lines. Links are sized to provide the required work range and to
have a loaded deflection well bellow the accuracy specification.
5 Component selection is generally made by looking through catalogs for appropriate components and by designing and building the
manipulator around available and appropriately priced standard hardware. This produces a manipulator with unpredictable dynamic
performance and, as a result, with uncertain performance specifications.
6 Early robots were designed with general motion capability under the assumption that they would find the largest market if they could
perform the widest variety of tasks. This flexibility proved to be expensive in both cost and performance.
7 Robots are now beginning to be designed with a specific set of tasks in mind. Overall size, number of degrees of freedom, and basic
configuration are determined from task specifications for reach, work envelope, and reorientation requirements.
8 Also considered are types of motion requirements, such as controlled-path motion for arc welding, continuous-path motion for spray
painting, absolute positioning for CAM-based assembly, repeatability for materials handling, and fine resolution for precise, real-time
sensor-based motion.
9 This article presents a set of considerations for the mechanical designer setting out to design a manipulator. It can also serve as a source of
guidelines for use in evaluating an existing or evolving design or a compilation of lists of features to be considered when selecting a
commercially available robot.
10 The first and most important phase in the process of designing a robot is defining the range of tasks for which the robot is to be built.
This range of tasks should be specified as possible so that detailed manipulator properties and feature specifications may be developed.
11 No single robot configuration will perform well on tasks of widely varying description. Therefore a robot should be designed to have
only the flexibility it needs to perform the range of tasks for which it is intended. This range of tasks must be selected even though it may be
difficult to do so.
12 All design decisions will be made based on this choice of tasks. Several alternative configurations should be considered in detail before
one is chosen. This detailed consideration includes sizing of the most important system components and evaluation of dynamic system
performance.
13 On the basis of these evaluations the design configuration best suited to the tasks to be performed should be chosen. Before detailed
drawings are started it is useful to check out the design by building a very simple mockup. This allows the designer to discover and solve
problems associated with system geometry, structural integrity, cabling, and workspace utilization.

AUTOMATED TELLER MACHINES

()
1 In 1990, automated teller machines (ATMs) across the United States handled 6 billion banking transactions --- a threefold increase from
the early 1980s. Customers used the countrys more than 80,000 banking machines primarily to withdraw cash, make deposits, check
account balances, and transfer funds between savings and checking accounts.
2 The popularity of ATMs has increased dramatically since the early 1970s, when Citibank of New York City and Bank One of Ohio
became the first financial institutions to install ATMs on a large scale. At the time, the banks hoped simply to reduce their operating costs by
replacing human tellers with machines, little suspecting that the cash machines would become so successful. But as more banks added
round-the-clock automated service through ATMs, their competitors scrambled to keep pace and the machines proliferated.
3 By the late 1970s, banks realized that they would save more money---and could provide service at many more locations---by
electronically linking ATMs in networks. Today, nearly all large banks in the United States belong to one of 85 regional networks.
4 A regional network may encompass a metropolitan area; a state; or, in a few cases, several neighboring states. Regional networks
typically operate ATMs at hundreds of locations, thereby enabling customers to get cash not only at banks but also at airports, office
buildings, shopping malls, supermarkets, and other sites.
5 To use an ATM, all you need is a plastic cash card issued by your bank. The cardholder and the issuing bank are identified both by lettering
and by embossed numbers on the card. In addition, a cash card carries the name of the regional network the bank belongs to, such as NYGE
or Star System. The card works in any machine in that network. A card bearing a Cirrus or Plus System logo can be used in all machines in
those networks as well.
6 On the back of the cash card, a magnetic strip carries coded data. including the cardholders personal identification number, bank account
number, and a number that identifies the issuing bank. The strip is made of plastic coated with metallic particles magnetized to form a
pattern that stores the cards numerical data. Magnetic strips on some cards also carry the cardholders name, enabling ATMs to address
customers by name.
7 To begin a transaction, the customer inserts the card into an ATM and punches in a personal identification number on the machines
keypad. This personal ID number, which typically consists of four digits, prevents anyone else from using the card.
8 The ATM next flashes instructions on its display screen for carrying out transactions. To get cash, for example, the customer presses
buttons that indicate whether the money should be withdrawn from a checking or a sayings account and the amount to be withdrawn. This
request is then displayed on the screen. After the customer presses a button to verify that the information is correct, the ATM goes to work
on the request.
9 Inside the machine, an electromagnetic device called a card reader has already scanned the magnetic strip on the card and converted the
data coded on it into electrical signals. These signals and electrical signals representing the cardholders request travel together to a series of
computers that check the information, route it to the next computer, and authorize the transaction. The information nearly always travels
through the system by telephone lines, even through the computers that process transaction requests may be hundreds of miles apart. A few
banks, which have branches in neighboring states, find it cheaper to relay requests by satellite instead.
10 The request first reaches the computer that drives the ATM. This computer checks the numbers on the customers card to determine
whether the customers bank belongs to the same regional network as the ATM. IF so, the computer routes the request to the regional
networks central computer, called the switch. If not, the computer routes the request to a national switch belonging to Cirrus or Plus System
for identification of the regional network. The national switch then routes the request to the proper regional network switch.
11 The switch lies at the hub of an ATM network. It acts as traffic officer, directing request from thousands of ATMs to the proper banks.
The switch stores identification numbers for all the banks that share the regional network. By checking the data received from the ATM
against numerical tables stored in its memory, the switch can identify the customers bank and direct the request to it.
12 The banks computers process the request in two stages. One computer stores personal ID numbers and bank account numbers in its
memory. It identifies the customer and verifies that the personal ID number keyed in at the ATM matches the ID number on the card. If the
numbers do not match, a message comes back to the ATM informing the customer that he or she has entered an invalid ID number.
13 If the ID number do match, the computer forwards the request for cash to a computer that stores records of customers accounts. After
this computer receives the request, it checks how much money is in the customers account, and --- if there are sufficient funds --- subtracts
the cash requested from the balance. The computer then sends a signal approving the transaction. If the account does not contain enough
money, the computer sends a denial of the request.
14 The approval or denial travels back to the ATM via the same series of computers. An approval arrives with signal that instruct the
machines cash-storage bins to extract and dispense the correct number of bills. Although various methods that have been developed for
delivering cash, most machines use rollers or suction devices to count and spit out the precise number of bills.
15 The ATMs printer then makes out a receipt indicating the amount of the transaction and its date and time. Many receipts also note the
new balance in the cardholders bank account.
16 Deposits and other transactions are handled by the system in much the sane way as withdrawals. But deposits must be placed in an
envelope and inserted into a slot in the ATM. The envelope is collected and sent to the bank by people who service the machine. For this

reason, it can take three or four days from the time of an ATM deposit until the funds are available for withdrawal. To limit the delay in
entering deposits, some banks allow customer to make ATM deposits only in machine at the bank.
17 How safe is banking by ATM ? The personal ID number is meant to prevent anyone from using a cash card without authorization. If
someone enters the wrong identification number for a card, a message on the ATMs screen will ask the user to try again. If three attempts
fail to produce the correct number, most machines keep the card. This safeguard prevents anyone who might find a card from trying to crack
the identification code by trial and error. As another precaution against card theft, the bank generally limits the amount that may be
withdrawn by cash card in a single day, in most cases to $200.
18 The ID number and account number magnetically coded on the card are kept confidential during transmission by a process of scrambling
called encryption. A coding device inside the ATM scrambles the numbers before they are sent to switch. The switch and the other
computers along the way unscramble the information to read it, then scramble it again before relaying it. Finally, the computer with the
banks records unscrambles the information once more before gaining access to an account.
Encryption prevents someone from
electronically tapping into an ATM network and stealing money. In addition, all the information on a cash cards magnetic strip is also
encrypted so that someone finding a card cannot learn the cardholders personal ID number or bank account number.
19 ATM technology has changed little since the early 1970s, though todays machines operate with much greater speed and reliability and
perform a wider variety of operations. An entire transaction, from inserting the card to receiving the cash and printed receipt, now takes as
little as 10 seconds, even though the request may have gone to computers in several different states.
20 ATMs may perform more operations in the future. A pilot system in Philadelphia, for example, allows ATM customers to cash
paychecks for exact amounts. make installment payments on loans. Reorder checks, and print bank statements. Access to some ATMs can
be adjusted at the touch of a button to accommodate people in wheelchairs or in automobiles.
21 The U.S. government even plans to deliver welfare benefits through ATMs and has instituted pilot programs in Baltimore. Houston, and
several other cities. Under these programs. welfare recipients receive cash cards, which they use to withdraw funds from a monthly deposit
made by the government.
22 By 1991, banks had issued more than 190 million cash cards. Holders of these cards will one day be able to use almost any machine in
the United States, Canada, Mexico, or overseas, as regional network hook up with the international networks.
23 ATMs have already transformed Americas banking habits. As more financial transactions are performed electronically, the role of
ATMs will become even larger.

Microscopic Machines
()
1
The surgeon picks up a syringe and approaches the man on the operating table. The patients coronary arteries are dangerously clogged
with fatty deposits, which must be removed to prevent him from suffering a heart attack. The doctor injects a cloudy solution into the vein in
the mans arm. The solution contains thousands of microscopic robot surgeons, each equipped with a tiny motor to propel it through the
bloodstream, chemical detectors for locating the life-threatening blockages, and miniature scalpels for cutting them away. Within half an
hour, the swarms of tiny robots have navigated through the patients blood vessels to his heart, located the trouble spots, and sliced the
lumpy, yellowish deposits off the artery walls. Normal blood flow has been restored.
2
For the time being, such medical scenarios will have to remain on the technological dream list-- - and they may never become reality.
No one has built anything remotely like these fictional microrobots. But scientists and engineers in the United States and elsewhere have
already made a variety of gears, levers, rotors, and other mechanical parts the size of specks of dust. Such components---made of the element
silicon or of metals or other materials---may someday be assembled into tiny robots and various other kinds of microscopic machines
designed to perform specific functions. These micromachines would be so small that dozens could easily fit inside a sesame seed.
3
The recent advances in the miniaturization of machine parts represent the beginnings of a new branch of engineering whose
practitioners think small --- extremely small. Micromachine technology is still so new that it doesnt yet have a widely accepted name. Some
researchers call it microengineering, while others refer to it as microdynamics or micromechanics.
Whatever they call their
newdiscipline, theseengineersworkin a realm where objectsare measured in fractions of a millimeter. (One millimeter is about 0.04 inch.)
At that scale, a grain of sand looks like a boulder and mechanical principles such as friction, wear, and lubrication take on new, poorly
understood meanings.
4
Such factors may present problems that cannot be overcome. If they can be surmounted, however, microengineering may usher in a
revolutionary new machine age. We may see the creation of all kinds of teensy devices combining electronic detectors called sensors with
mechanical parts called actuators that do work. In addition to performing microscopic surgery, such micromachines might pump minute
amounts of chemicals, focus laser beams in optical computers, and power tiny tools whose uses can only be guessed at for now.
5
A handful of relatively simple microdevices have already made it to the marketplace. Some computer printers, for example, form letters
by spraying tiny amounts of ink onto the paper through microscopic nozzles developed by engineers at the International Business Machines
(IBM) Research Laboratory in San Jose, Calif. But most currently available microdevices are sensors which react to changes in their
environment, for example, by bending under pressure. Engineers at the Honeywell Corporations Physical Sciences Center in Bloomington,
Minn., have developed microsensors that measure airflow in the ventilation systems of buildings or in the instruments that hospitals use to
monitor patients breathing. Other companies have developed tiny sensors for measuring pressure in automobile engines or in the human
heart.
6
Meanwhile, researchers are working on various kinds of microscopic actuators that may be perfected in the 1990s. Some of these will
perhaps work like minuscule hands or tweezers for manipulating tiny objects, such as individual cells under a microscope.
Miniature pumps and valves are also a possibility and would have a variety of applications. Medical researchers envision an artificial
pancreas for treating diabetes that would pump tiny amounts of insulin as needed into the bloodstream.
7
Microengineering came to national attention in June 1988 when electrical engineer Richard S.Muller and his colleagues at the
University of Californias Berkeley Sensor & Actuator Center announced that they had made a tiny silicon motor, the first electrically
powered microdevice containing a rotating part. The devices rotor, the part that spins, was smaller than the width of a human hair. ( A
human hair is about 0.05 millimeter in diameter.) The cogs of the rotor were the size of red blood cells. When the researchers used static
electricity to activate electrodes surrounding the rotor, the rotor began to spin haltingly. Although the movement was crude, and the rotor
later jammed, the experiment showed that engineers visions of microscopic machines could become reality.
8
The achievement at Berkeley came almost 30 years after researchers first began to think small. In 1959. Nobel Prize-winning physicist
Richard P. Feyman predicted that scientists would someday build machines and tools as tiny as dust specks and then use them to
manufacture even smaller things. Feyman had no idea how that feat would be accomplished, however, and to many ears his speculations
were the widest kind of blue-sky fantasy. But with the coming of the microelectronics revolution in the computer industry in the 1970s,
what had been fantasy suddenly seemed like a distinct possibility.
9
The history of the computer industry is a story of constant miniaturization, as engineers learned to cram more and more electronic
components into a smaller amount of space. In the 1960s, electronics manufacturers began building complex circuits on fingernail-sized
pieces of silicon. By the 1970s, these tiny circuits, which had become known as microchips, contained thousands of elements. Today, a
single microchip can hold millions of components.
10
The production of silicon microchips begins with a procedure called microlithography, which involves several steps. First, a large,
detailed drawing of the chip is made, and the drawing is photographed. The photographic image is then greatly reduced and imprinted--usually as a stencillike pattern of metallic lines ---on a glass plate. The finished plate is known as a mask. Next, a palm-sized silicon wafer
gets a coat of a photoresist, a plastic material that, when exposed to ultraviolet light, is chemically weakened. When the mask is placed over
the coated wafer and exposed to ultraviolet light, the ultraviolet rays that are not blocked by the mask transmit the image of the chip to the
wafer. The regions of the photoresist that are weakened by the process are then etched, or eaten away, by solvents or gases. The etching
exposes the underlying layer of silicon in a pattern that corresponds to the mask pattern.
11
Once this process has been completed, the engineers usually deposit additional thin films of silicon, metal, or insulating materials onto
the exposed silicon pattern and repeat the etching process several more times. In this way, they can build up extremely complicated patterns
and structures on the wafer, all no more than a few thousandths of a millimeter thick. Each patterned layer is connected to the next,
becoming part of the final device or part of the formation of the next layer.

12
Silicon is an excellent semiconductor, a material that conducts electricity better than insulations such as glass but not as well as
conductors such as copper. Silicon is an ideal material for electronic microchips because it can be processed together with an insulating
material such as silicon dioxide. But silicon also possesses unusual mechanical properties.
13
Although it is brittle and fragile when it is in the form of wafers, at microscopic dimensions silicons crystal structure makes it highly
resistant to stress. At that scale, it is in fact stronger than steel. Thus, by 1980, some engineers were suggesting the possibility of crafting
mechanical devices as well as electronic components from silicon. That idea received a major boost in 1982 from Kurt Peterson, an IBM
researcher and now a chief scientist at Lucas/novaSensor, a microengineering company in Ferment, Calif. Peterson argued that by adopting
and modifying the miniaturization techniques pioneered by the electronics industry, it would be possible to create a variety of microdevices
from silicon and mass-produce them. Moreover, he said, silicons mechanical and electronic properties made it an ideal material for the
production of integrated devices consisting of actuators combined with sensors and other electronic devices.
14
Today, a growing number of researchers in the United States, Europe, and Japan are forging a new area of science and technology.
These microengineering pioneers are showing ever-increasing skill at making miniature parts out of silicon as well as other materials. To
make microparts out of silicon, engineers use standard microlithography along with a variety of chemicals that etch into silicon wafers at
different rates and in different directions. By controlling the etching times of these chemicals, or by using a chip on which has been
deposited an underlying layer of a chemical-resistant material, engineers can dig out extremely precise microscopic pits or holes and form
tiny walls and other structures.
15
Using these etching techniques, researchers have learned to chemically chisel around and underneath prepatterned gears and rotors
to separate them from their base and allow them to move freely. This procedure involves depositing a sacrificial layer of a material such as
silicon dioxide on the original blank chip and then overlaying it with another silicon layer from which the moving part is to be fashioned.
After this sandwich is exposed to ultraviolet light projected through the microlithography mask and the silicon layers are etched, chemicals
are used to dissolve the sacrificial layer. As that layer dissolves, the rotor, lever, or other part in the upper layer of silicon is liberated. This
technique has enabled engineers to create a variety of gears, rotors, sliding mechanisms, and other microscopic devices with moving parts.
And because 1,000 or more copies of a device can be etched onto a single silicon wafer, researchers say that it may one day be possible to
manufacture micromachines by the tens of thousands at a cost of only a few cents apiece.
16
Although silicon seems likely to remain the primary microengineering material for some years, some metals also show promise.
Several researchers, including electrical engineer Henry Guckel of the University of Wisconsin in Madison, have been scoring successes in
using metals such as tungsten and nickel to create micromachine parts. Metal seems to have one big advantage over silicon for many
micromachine parts --- structural rigidity. Although silicon is extremely strong at microscopic dimensions, the silicon etching techniques
developed so far work well only for thin structures. Most silicon micromachine parts are so thin that they tend to warp from internal stresses.
Researchers hope to find ways of making silicon parts thicker, but for now only metal can be made into thick parts.
17
Guckel and his colleagues have made all-metal microgears that are slightly larger than the silicon gears made in some laboratories.
But at a diameter of 0.1 to 0.2 millimeter --- 2 to 4 times the width of a human hair --- they are still smaller than grains of salt. The researcher
made the gears using a technique called electroplating. In this procedure, an electric current is used to draw dissolved ions (electrically
charged atoms) of nickel or chromium into tiny molds. The molds have been etched into a layer of plexiglass (a type of hard plastic) on a
metal plate. After the metal ions have filled the molds and solidified, a sacrificial layer underneath the plexiglass is dissolved to free the part.
18
Instead of ultraviolet light, the Guckel team used X-rays generated by an atomic-particle accelerator. These exceptionally powerful
and short-wavelength X-rays, directed through a mask, enabled the researchers to etch deep molds with perfectly vertical sides essential for
the production of thick parts. Guckel thinks gears and other microparts made of metal, because they are thicker and stronger, may be better
suited for powering drills and other tiny tools than similar parts made of silicon. So far, X-rays have not been widely used in the making of
silicon parts because the rays tend to damage the silicon. And there is another reason as well: cost. The use of X- rays, especially those
generated by a particle accelerator, to make microparts is an expensive proposition that may not be commercially practical. Due to these
drawbacks, most micromachine engineers are sticking with methods employing ultraviolet light and chemical etching agents.
19
Although microengineering may indeed herald the beginning of a new machine age, researchers must first solve several fundamental
problems. Besides the warping that can make silicon parts curl up like potato chips, there are other difficulties involved with operating in the
microworld. In that hidden realm, a fine grain of flour could bring a rotor grinding to a halt ---perhaps with a screech that a nearby flea could
hear ---in just a few seconds. In addition, familiar phenomena such as friction, air resistance, electrical charge, wear, and the behavior of
fluids must be redefined because their effects are different at microscopic dimensions than in the everyday world. At tiny scales, where the
spaces between part are vanishingly small, standard lubricants can work instead like adhesives. Blood, which to a human surgeon flows
freely, might seem like molasses to a robot surgeon that is no bigger than a red blood cell.
20
Overcoming such obstacles will undoubtedly keep engineers busy for years to come, but there is already cause for optimism. Even
now, engineers are solving some of the warping and sticking problems that doomed their earliest micromotors to short lives. For example,
Muller and his colleagues have learned to deposit silicon layers in a way that lessens the stresses that lead to warping. Through refinements
in the microlithography process, they have also crafted sets of gears so precise that they mesh with absolutely no slippage.
21
The sheer tinniness of micromotors, however, may present another, altogether different problem: They may be too small to do much
of anything requiring the application of force. Think of trying to move a stone with a whisker and you will see the difficulty facing
researchers. Little machines dont produce big forces, says engineer Stephen Senturia of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
in Cambridge. So scaling machines down may make them so weak they cant do any useful mechanical work. Part of the answer to that
concern may lie in making parts thicker.
22
Another possibility is to build somewhat bigger micromachines, ones that are perhaps 20 times the width of a human hair. At the
University of Utah in Salt Lake City, engineer Stephen Jacobson has been doing just that. Jacobson and his co-workers have been using
conventional machine tools to painstakingly assemble small metal and plastic components into what they call wobble motors, since the

devices rotors wobble as they spin. This form of motion can reduce the effects of friction and thus produce more torque, or rotational force.
Jacobson thinks wobble motors would be better suited than other kinds of micromotors for controlling the movements of the tiny robotics
machines foreseen by many engineers. Wobble motors and other larger-sized micromachines being developed have one big disadvantage of
their own, however. As yet, they cannot be mass-produced. Unless a way can be found to manufacture them by the thousands, such devices
will almost certainly be too expensive to be widely used.
23
For all varieties of microdevices, the list of challenges goes on. In developing micromachines that would have to withstand harsh
environments, such as those of outer space or the interior of jet engines, engineers must find ways of protecting delicate parts against
damage. Researchers must also learn how to connect micromachines requiring human guidance to control systems large enough for people
to operate.
24
Because of the many obstacles that must be overcome, the micromachine age --- assuming there will be one --- is unlikely to arrive
until sometime after the year 2000. In the meantime, however, many kinds of microsensors being perfected and coming into widespread use.
So far, most of these are pressure sensors for automotive and medical uses. Most such sensors consist of an ultrathin disk called a
diaphragm built on a tiny silicon chip. The diaphragm, which is also usually made of silicon, is created by etching away an intermediate layer
of material. The diaphragm is engineered so that the slightest bending caused by a pressure charge alters the electrical resistance of a pattern
of resistors (components that control voltage) in a precise way. Circuitry on the chip, or attached to it, detects the change and translates it
into an electrical signal, which in turn is translated into a pressure measurement.
25
Most of the pressure sensors used in automobiles go under the hood to monitor engine pressure for the on-board computers that help
control the cars combustion and exhaust emissions. Other kinds of sensors are also being used in many new cars, measuring everything
from engine coolant temperature to the moment-by-moment position of the crankshaft. Cars build in coming years will most likely include
microsensors that keep track of all of a vehicles temperatures, pressures, airflow, mechanical motions, and other operating factors.
26
Medical microsensors are often used to measure blood pressure inside patients hearts. The sensor is attached to the end of a plastic
filament, which the physician snakes through the blood vessels to the heart. But other kinds of medical sensors may soon be available to
doctors. For example, engineer Kensall Wise and his associates at the Center for Integrated Sensors and Circuits at the University of
Michigan in Ann Arbor are working on a new kind of brain probe. This silicon probe is thinner than a sewing needle and has 32
microsensors that can eavesdrop on the electrical activity in small groups of neurons (nerve cells). Wise thinks the technology used in the
probe might eventually be used to make tiny medical devices that can be inserted into the brain to detect and control epileptic seizures and
other neurological disorders.
27
Wise foresees a dazzling future for microsensors. He envisions sensors that see, hear, feel, taste, and smell the world with
a precision and sensitivity exceeding that of the human senses. Used in the manufacturing industries the not-so-distant future, hundreds of
widely distributed sensors could continuously gather data about the temperatures of vats, the flow of fluids through pipes, the pressure in
tanks, and the progress of chemical reactions. Computers and technicians would instantly receive and analyze these data to make
adjustments in the factorys processing equipment.
28
Microsensors should also be of great value in space exploration, especially aboard satellites and unmanned spacecraft, in which
compactness and light weight have always been high priorities. Besides taking up less space than conventional sensors, microsensors weigh
less and use less power. Also, they usually respond faster to changes in their environment.
29
While many of the applications of microsensors are already with us, or easily foreseen, the uses of true micromachines --- sensors plus
actuators --- are far less certain. Were in the process of discovering what is possible, says MITs Stephen Senturia. But he predicts some
very good applications coming down the road. Senturia is betting, for one thing, that micromachines will play an important role in the
coming photonics technologies in computers and telecommunications. Instead of shunting electrons through circuits as electronic equipment
does, photonic devices will manipulate light signals. Other likely development Senturia foresees include microefrigeration systems for
cooling electronic circuits and miniature gyroscopes that could be used in compact guidance systems for missiles and space probes.
30
Other researchers predict a number of far-out possibilities that may or may not come to pass. They envision tiny exploration robots
that could easily be packed into a space probe, then set loose to range over the surface of another planet gathering and analyzing soil
samples; speck-sized inspectors designed to crawl through pipes in atomic reactors and other hazardous environments looking for tiny
structural defects; and perhaps even little airborne soldiers that could descend on an enemy camp like a cloud of angry gnats to destroy
weapons and equipment.
31
Even the most optimistic engineers say that those and other futuristic predictions will probably remain just intriguing ideas for a long
time to come. Nevertheless, some scientists have already started to think even smaller. Pursuing what would be the ultimate in
miniaturization, these researchers are learning to manipulate matter on a scale thousands of times smaller than of todays most minuscule
gears and levers. Their territory is the realm of individual atoms and molecules, where distances are measured in nanometers (millionths of a
millimeter) or in even smaller units called angstroms (10 -1 millionths of a millimeter). This infant discipline is known as nanotechnology.
32
In early 1990, nanotechnology researchers at IBM used a device called the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) to arrange
individual xenon atoms in the form of their companys logo. The STM emits an electric current from the tip of a superfine needle, and with
that current the researchers prodded the atoms into the desired alignment. Other investigators have used STMs to dig nanometerwide
trenches or punch equally minute holes in various materials. And with a technique called electron-beam lithography ---similar to ultraviolet
microlithography but substituting high-energy electrons for light --- scientists have etched materials with some of the smallest patterns ever
made.
33
Some visionaries, looking decades or more ahead, see a technological future that boggles the mind. Perhaps most prominent among
them is K.Eric Drexler, a former MIT researcher who now heads the Foresight Institute, a think tank in Palo Alto, Calif. Drexler predicts a
Nanomachine Age in which trillions upon trillions of molecule-sized robot assemblers will do humanitys bidding. Using molecular raw
materials, the assemblers would build foods and fuels or construct full-sized homes and buildings. The ultratiny rotors might also arrange

molecular components into computers the size of sugar cubes; fabricate virus-sized surgeons that can enter the nuclei of cells to repair faulty
genes; and, of course, build more robot assemblers.
34
Although such scenarios may be unbridled flights of fancy, the molecular parts inside cells, bacteria, and viruses show that todays
microengineers have not begun to approach the limits of miniaturization. Nobody knows what developments the future might bring. But
many microengineers at this point believe that almost any little thing seems possible.

A Guide for Using the Engineering Index Annual

()
1 The Engineering Index Annual is an organized compilation of bibliographic citations and abstracts covering the worlds technological
literature in all engineering disciplines. The literature covered is found in published journals, technical reports, monographs, conference
proceedings, directories and other material.

2 The citations and abstracts in The Engineering Index Annual are arranged under main subject headings selected from Engineering
Information Inc.s authority list of indexing terms. EiVocabulary, which is published separately.
Ei
3 Where indicated in Ei Vocabulary, Eis mainsubject headings may be further combined with subheadings in order to provide a more
specific description of the subject .
( e.g. SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS ------ Microwaves )
Ei ---
4 In The Engineering Index Annual, main subject headings are printed in boldface upper case, while subheadings are printed in boldface
upper and lower case.

Abstract Format of the Engineering Index Annual

5 The Engineering Index Annual abstract number is found at the beginning of each abstract. Abstract numbers run consecutively, starting
with number 000001. It should be noted that the abstract numbers in The Engineering Index Annual are not the same as those found in The
Engineering Index Monthly, as these two sets of numbers result from separate sorting processes.
Ei 000001 Ei

6 The title of the article ( or paper, report, monograph, etc. ) follows the abstract number and is printed in boldface upper case. If a title is in
a language other than English, an English translation of the title will follow, enclosed in brackets and printed in boldface upper and lower
case.

7 Following the text of the a abstract, the bibliographic citation is presented. The citation includes the author(s) name, the first authors
affiliation and information describing the source document in which the paper appears. The source information is in abbreviated form. The
full title of the original source material may be found in the Publications List.

Ei

Heading of EI

Agricultural Machinery
Air Conditioning
Aircraft

Air Lubricated
Antifriction

Aluminum and Alloys

Ball

Antennas

Gas Lubrication

Artificial Organs

High Temperature

Atomic Energy

Hydrostatic

Audio Equipment

Jewels

Automobile Engines
Bearings

Low Temperature
Lubrication

Computer Aided Design

Magnetic

Computer Aided Manufacturing

Computer Graphics
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Computer Networks

Miniature
Noise
Powder Metal
Testing

Computer Programming languages

Computer Peripheral Equipment
Machine Tools

Graphics

Measurements

Keyboards

Metal Cutting

Light Pens

Metal Forming
Robotics

Mouse
Plotters
Printers
Terminals

Heading of EI about Computer

(EI )
Computer Aided Analysis
Computer Aided Design
Computer Aided Engineering
Computer Aided Manufacturing
Computer Architecture
Computer Graphics
Computer Hardware
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Computer Interfaces
Computer Metatheory
Computer Networks
Computer Operating Systems
Computer Peripheral Equipment
Computer Programming Languages
Computer Programs
Computer Simulation
Computer Simulation languages
Computer, Minicomputer
Computers, Personal

Selected from SHE ( Subject Headings for Engineering)

Example of Ei Heading, Title of article and Abstract Number

()
070377 Proceedings of Tenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence

070388 Learning Relations by Path finding

026360 Application of the Monte Carlo method in simulative generation test problems

026382 Sophisticated computer tools for water management

037628 3-D modeling of diesel engine intake flow, combustion and emissions

037629 Advanced component development and emissions reduction for heavy duty Diesel Engines

037635 Analysis of the temperature distribution in an air-cooled diesel engine

073274 Instrument for Assessing the Computer Background of Entering College Freshmen

080497 Cooperative Intelligent Robotics in Space

080506 Integrated Prototype Environment for Programmable Automation

080517 Grasp Synthesis for Planar and Solid Objects

()
Sample Entry of Ei
(Ei
)
Heading -----------------BIOMECHANICS
Subheading------------Annual Abstract Number (
)

Joints
011034
Measurement of joint
kinematics using Expert-Vision
system.
Three - dimensional
kinematic
calculations based on the output from a
video-based passive marker detection
system was developed.
Threedimensional position data of the
markers placed on the limb were
obtained with the system and then run
through a program that calculated
absolute and relative joint kinematics
based on Eulerian angle and screw axis
description. In this study, the accuracy
and imitation of the system
for
kinematic analysis were examined.
4 Ref.

Authors Name and Affiliation --

An, K.N. (Mayo Clinic, Rochester,

MN, USA ); Growney, E.; Chao,
E.Y.S. Biomed Scf Instrum. V27

Proceedings of the 28th Annual Rochy

Mountain Bioengineering Symposium
and the 28th international ISA
Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation
Symposium, Rochester, MN, USA,
Ap. 12-13 1991. Publ by ISA Services
Inc, Research Triangle Pk, MC, 1991 p
245-252

--------- Title of article ()

---------- Abstract ()

Number of references ()

Abbreviated Title, Volume, Issue,

Conference: Information, Data and
Pages of Source Publication
(

Patent
()
1 A patent is a federal grant that gives its owner the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling the
invention claimed in the patent for a term of years. In the United States the federal governments power to grant
patents is derived from the Constitution.

2 Patents are granted to encourage inventions and their disclosure to the public. Over five million patents have
been issued since 1836. In the mid-1990s new patents were being issued at an average rate of about 300 per day.
1836

3 Only certain subject matter is eligible for patenting: (1) a product, including a machine or apparatus, a
composition of matter, or an article of manufacture; (2) a process or method; (3) an ornamental design; and (4)
new varieties of plants that are the result of deliberate breeding or were discovered in a cultivated area andwith
certain exceptions --- can be propagated asexually.
1
234

4 In 1980 the Supreme Court ruled that a genetically engineered microorganism is eligible for patent protection.
Foods and medicines may be patented as compositions of matter. Computer software programs may be
patentable, if they can be categorized as processes. An improvement of something already patented, including a
new use for an old product, may be patentable as a new process.
1980

5 To be patentable, eligible subject matter must be useful (unless a design or plant), new, and must not have been
obvious to a person of ordinary skill in the technology at the time the invention was made. An invention is not
considered new if it was known or used by others in the United States or described by anyone (including the
applicant) in a publication or was in public use or on sale anyplace in the world more than one year before
application for a patent.

6 When the same invention is made independently by different persons, the patent is awarded to the person who
can prove he or she made the invention first. In other countries, it would go to the person who was first to apply for
the patent.

7 Patent pending means that an application for a patent has been filed. In the United States, the content of an
application is not published until the patent has been granted; in other countries, applications are published after
eighteen months of pendency.

8 U.S. patents that are issued after a long period of pendency have been characterized as submarine patents
because they may surface without warning.

World Patents Index Classification

( )
P:GENERAL()
P1: AGRICULTURE, FOOD, TOBACCO()
P11 Soil working; planting
P12 Harvesting
P13 Plant culture; dairy products
P14 Animal care
P15 Tobacco
P2: PERSONAL, DOMESTIC ()
P21 Wearing apparel
P22 Footwear
P23 Haberdashery; jewelry
P24 Hand or traveling articles
P25 Furniture, tables
P26 Chairs; sofas; beds
P27 Shop; household; furnishings
P28 Kitchen, sanitary equipment
P3: HEALTH, AMUSEMENT ()
P31 Diagnosis; surgery
P32 Dentistry; bandages
P33 Medical aids, oral admin.
P34 Sterilizing; Syringes; electrotherapy
P35 Life-saving; fire-fighting
P36 Sports; games; toys
P4: SEPARATING, MIXING()
P41 Crushing; centrifuging
P42 Spraying; atomizing
P43 Sorting; cleaning; waste disposal

P5: SHAPING METAL ()

P51 Rolling, drawing, extruding
P52 Metal punching, rolling, forging
P53 Metal casting; powder metallurgy
P54 Turning, milling, machining
P55 Soldering, welding metal
P56 Machine tools
P6: SHAPING NON-METAL()
P61 Grinding, polishing
P62 Hand tools, cutting
P63 Working, preserving wood
P64 Working cement, clay, stone
P7: PRESSING, PRINTING ()
P71 Presses
P72 Working paper
P73 Layered products
P74 Printing; lining machines
P75 Typewriters, stamps, duplicators
P76 Books, special printed matter
P77 Writing, drawing appliances
P78 Decorative art
P8: OPTICS, PHOTOGRAPHY GENERAL( )
P81 Optics
P82 Photographic apparatus
P83 Photographic processes, compass.
P84 Printing, electrography
P85 Education; cryptography; adverts
P86 Musical instruments; acoustics

Q: MECHANICAL ()
Q1: VEHICLES IN GENERAL ()
Q11 Wheels; tyres; connections
Q12 Suspension; heating; door; screens
Q13 Transmissions; controls
Q14 Electric propulsion; seating
Q15 Transporting special loads
Q16 Vehicle lighting, signalling
Q17 Vehicle parts, fittings; servicing
Q18 Brake-control systems
Q19 Air-cushion vehicles
Q2: SPECIAL VEHICLES()
Q21 Railways
Q22 Hand, motor vehicles
Q23 Cycles
Q24 Ships
Q25 Aircraft; aviation; cosmonautics
Q3: CONVEYING, PACKAGING, STORING
Q31 Packaging, labeling
Q32 Containers
Q33 Closures
Q34 Packaging elements, types
Q35 Refuse collection; conveyors
Q36 Handling thin materials
Q37 Container traffic
Q38 Hoisting; lifting; hauling
Q39 Liq. handling; saddlery, upholstery

Q4: BUILDINGS, CONSTRUCTION()

Q41 Road, rail, bridge construction
Q4 Hydraulic engineering; sewerage
Q43 Gen. building constructions
Q44 Structural elements
Q45 Roofing; stairs; floors
Q46 Building aids; special structures
Q47 Locks; window, door fittings
Q48 Blinds; shutters; ladders
Q49 Mining
Q5: ENGINES, PUMPS()
Q51 Machines, engines in general
Q52 Combustion engines; gas turbines
Q53 Jet engines; fuel supply
Q54 Starting; ignition
Q55 Machines; engines for liquids
Q56 Pumps, liq. machines
Q57 Fluid-pressure actuators
Q6: ENGINEERING ELEMENTS ()
Q61 Fastening; bolts, screws, nails
Q62 Shafts; bearings
Q63 Couplings; clutches; brakes;
Q64 Belts; chains, gearing, springs
Q65 Pistons; cylinders; seals
Q66 Valves; taps; cocks
Q67 Pipes; joints; fittings
Q68 Machine frames, lubrication
Q69 Storing/distributing gas/liquid

Q7: LIGHTING, HEATING ()

Q71 Lighting
Q72 Steam generation
Q73 Combustion
Q74 Heating; ranges; ventilating
Q75 Refrigeration; liquefaction
Q76 Drying
Q77 Furnaces; kilns; ovens; retorts
Q78 Heat exchange in general
Q79 Weapons; ammunition; blasting
S: INSTRUMENTATION, MEASURING AND TESTING
()
S1: Electrical instruments
S2: Engineering instrumentation
S3: Scientific instrumentation
S4: Clocks and timers
S5: Electromedical
S6: Electrophotography
T: COMPUTING AND CONTROL
T1: Digital computers
T2: Analogue and hybrid computers
T3: Data recording
T4: Computer peripheral equipment
T5: Counting, checking, sorting
T6: Process and machine control
T7: Traffic control systems

()

U: SEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONIC CIRCUITRY

()
U11: Semiconductor materials and processes
U12: Discrete devices
U13: Integrated circuits
U14: Memories and hybrid circuits
U21: Logic circuits and coding
U22: Pulse generation and manipulation
U23: Oscillation and modulation
U24: Amplification
U25: Impedance networks and tuning
V: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS()
V1: Resistors and capacitors
V2: Inductors and transformers
V3: Switches, relays
V4: Printed circuits and connectors
V5: Valves, discharge tubes and CRTs
V6: Electromechanical transducers
V7: Fibre optics
V8: Lasers and masers
W: COMMUNICATIONS()
W1: Telephony and telegraphy
W2: Broadcasting and transmission
W3: Radio and TV receivers
W4: Audio/video rec. and reprod.
W5: Signaling and alarms
W6: Aviation and marine systems
W7: Weapons guidance systems
X: ELECTRIC POWER ENGINEERING()
X11: Power generation
\ X12: Power distribution
X13: Control equipment
X14: Nuclear power generation
X15: Solar, etc. power generation

X16:
X21:
X22:
X23:
X24:
X25:
X26:
X27:

Electric storage
Electric vehicles
Automotive electrics
Electric railways and signaling
Electric welding
Industrial electric equipment and misc.
Lighting
Domestic appliances

Introduction to Internet

1 Internet, computer-based worldwide information network. The Internet is composed of a large number of
smaller interconnected networks called internets. These internets may connect tens, hundreds, or thousands of
computers, enabling them to share information with each other and to share various resources, such as powerful
supercomputers and databases of information. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to
effectively and inexpensively communicate with each other. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio
and television, the Internet is a decentralized system. Each connected individual can communicate with anyone
else on the Internet, can publish ideas, and can sell products with a minimum overhead cost. In the future, the
Internet may have a dramatic impact on higher education and business as more universities offer courses and more
companies offer goods and services online.
2Other types of internets, called intranets, are closed to public use. Intranets are the most common type of
computer network used in companies and organizations where it is important to restrict access to the information
contained on the network.
3 From the late 1960s to the early 1990s, the Internet was a communication and research tool used almost
exclusively for academic and military purposes. This changed radically with the introduction of the World Wide
Web (also called the WWW, or W3) in 1989. The WWW is a set of programs, standards, and protocols governing
the way in which multimedia files (documents that may contain text, photographs, graphics, video, and audio) are
created and displayed on the Internet.
4Individuals, companies, and institutions use the Internet in many ways. Businesses use the Internet to provide
access to complex databases, such as financial databases. Companies can carry out commerce online, including
advertising, selling, buying, distributing products, and providing after-sales services. Businesses and institutions
can use the Internet for voice and video conferencing and other forms of communication that allow people to
telecommute, or work from a distance. The use of electronic mail over the Internet has greatly speeded
communication between companies, among coworkers, and between other individuals. Media and entertainment
companies use the Internet to broadcast audio and video, including live radio and television programs; to offer
online chat, in which people carry on discussions using written text; and to offer online news and weather
programs.
5 The Internet is based on the concept of a client-server relationship between computers, also called a client/server
architecture. In a client/server architecture, some computers act as servers, or information providers, while other
computers act as clients, or information receivers. The client/server architecture is not one-to-onethat is, a single
client computer may access many different servers, and a single server may be accessed by a number of different
client computers.
6To access information on the Internet, a user must first log on, or connect, to the client computers host network.
A host network is a network that the client computer is part of, and is usually a local area network (LAN). Once a
connection has been established, the user may request information from a remote server. If the information
requested by the user resides on one of the computers on the host network, that information is quickly retrieved
and sent to the users terminal. In the process of connecting to other networks, the host may need to access a
router, a device that determines the best connection path between networks and helps networks to make
connections.
7Once the client computer makes a connection with the server containing the requested information, the server
sends the information to the client in the form of a file. A special computer program called a browser enables the
user to view the file. Examples of Internet browsers are Mosaic, Netscape, and Internet Explorer. Most Internet
files are multimedia documents that is, text, graphics, photographs, audio, and video may be combined in a
single document. The process of retrieving files from a remote server to the users terminal is called downloading.
8 Access to the Internet falls into two broad categories: dedicated access and dial-up access. With dedicated
access, the computer is directly connected to the Internet via a router, or the computer is part of a network linked to
the Internet. With dial-up access, a computer connects to the Internet with a temporary connection, generally over
a telephone line using a modema device that converts the electrical signals from a computer into signals that can
be transmitted over traditional telephone lines. A modem is needed because computers are digital, meaning that
their signals are made up of discrete units, while most telephone lines are analog, meaning that they carry signals
that are continuous instead of discrete. A great many companies, called Internet Service Providers (ISPs), provide
dial-up access to the Internet for a modest fee.
9To be part of the Internet a computer must have a unique Internet Protocol (IP) network address so that messages
can be correctly routed to and from the machine over the Internet. Internet addresses are called URLs (Uniform

Resource Locators). Some URLs are a string of numbers, but because long strings of numbers are difficult for
people to remember, other addressing conventions are also used.
An example of this convention is: http://encarta.msn.com/downloads/pryearbk.asp. The http indicates the
protocolin this instance the hypertext transfer protocolused to access the particular location on the Internet.
The name after the colon and double slash (encarta.msn.com) indicates the hostname, which is the name of a
specific computer system connected to the Internet. The remaining names after the hostname indicate various files
to which the specific URL points.
10 The most widely used tool on the Internet is electronic mail, or e-mail. E-mail is used to send written messages
between individuals or groups of individuals, often geographically separated by large distances. E-mail messages
are generally sent from and received by mail serverscomputers that are dedicated to processing and directing email. Once a server has received a message it directs it to the specific computer that the email is addressed to. To
send email, the process is reversed. A very convenient and inexpensive way to transmit messages, e-mail has
dramatically affected scientific, personal, and business communications.
11Another use of e-mail is Usenet, in which discussions on a particular subject are grouped together into
newsgroups. There are thousands of newsgroups covering an extremely wide range of subjects. Messages to a
newsgroup are not posted directly to the user, but are accessible in the form of an ordered list on a dedicated local
news server. The networking of these servers makes such discussions available worldwide. Associated software
not only enables users to choose which messages they want to read, but also to reply to them by posting messages
to the newsgroup.