Teaching Business English

The need for ESL/EFL teachers in specialized markets is constantly on the rise; Business
English teachers, in particular, are high in demand. For many global multinational firms and
companies, employers require that their employees worldwide learn English so they can
better use resources which are available only in what has become the global language
namely English.
Gone are the days when a cursory glance through a copy of a Business English textbook
was all it took to prepare for a lesson.
Working with business people demands special skills, knowledge, and interests. It is also an
area of teaching that can favour the mature teacher. Students are highly motivated since the
course has clear advantages for them within their companies or careers in general.
The teacher also needs to be highly flexible. Business English is a 'catch all' phrase, but
each company will have specific demands and needs for their individual programs.
While the world of Business English instruction is wide and varied with instructors delivering
classes or tutoring in many different contexts, this course will help paint a general picture of
this ESP (English for Specific Purposes) industry, suggest strategies for effective teaching,
investigate general methods and approaches in language acquisition, and provide a
background for employment in the field.

Teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

How is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) different from English as a Second Language (ESL), also known as
general English?
The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning English. ESP students are
usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and are learning the language in order to
communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular job-related functions. An ESP program is
therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which English is required .
ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers
subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point
is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is
integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners.
However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, as a
general rule, while in ESL all four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in
ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed by the students, and the
syllabus is designed accordingly. An ESP program, might, for example, emphasize the development of reading
skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the
development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides.
As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a combination is highly
motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field of study,
whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the
vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their

motivation.
The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter
knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the English of the classroom. In the ESP class,
students are shown how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of
the students' knowledge of the subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster.
The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students approach the study of
English through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they
learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of
what the students are learning and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since
their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts.
ESP assesses needs and integrates motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of relevant skills.
The responsibility of the teacher
A teacher that already has experience in teaching English as a Second Language (ESL), can exploit her
background in language teaching. She should recognize the ways in which her teaching skills can be adapted for
the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, she will need to look for content specialists for help in
designing appropriate lessons in the subject matter field she is teaching.
As an ESP teacher, you must play many roles. You may be asked to organize courses, to set learning objectives,
to establish a positive learning environment in the classroom, and to evaluate student s progress.
Organizing Courses
You have to set learning goals and then transform them into an instructional program with the timing of activities.
One of your main tasks will be selecting, designing and organizing course materials, supporting the students in
their efforts, and providing them with feedback on their progress.
Setting Goals and Objectives
You arrange the conditions for learning in the classroom and set long-term goals and short-term objectives for
students achievement. Your knowledge of students' potential is central in designing a syllabus with realistic goals
that takes into account the students' concern in the learning situation.
Creating a Learning Environment
Your skills for communication and mediation create the classroom atmosphere. Students acquire language when
they have opportunities to use the language in interaction with other speakers. Being their teacher, you may be
the only English speaking person available to students, and although your time with any of them is limited, you
can structure effective communication skills in the classroom. In order to do so, in your interactions with students
try to listen carefully to what they are saying and give your understanding or misunderstanding back at them
through your replies. Good language learners are also great risk-takers , since they must make many errors in
order to succeed: however, in ESP classes, they are handicapped because they are unable to use their native
language competence to present themselves as well-informed adults. That s why the teacher should create an
atmosphere in the language classroom which supports the students. Learners must be self-confident in order to
communicate, and you have the responsibility to help build the learner's confidence.
Evaluating Students
The teacher is a resource that helps students identify their language learning problems and find solutions to them,
find out the skills they need to focus on, and take responsibility for making choices which determine what and how
to learn. You will serve as a source of information to the students about how they are progressing in their
language learning.
The responsibility of the student

What is the role of the learner and what is the task he/she faces? The learners come to the ESP class with a
specific interest for learning, subject matter knowledge, and well-built adult learning strategies. They are in charge
of developing English language skills to reflect their native-language knowledge and skills.
Interest for Learning
People learn languages when they have opportunities to understand and work with language in a context that
they comprehend and find interesting. In this view, ESP is a powerful means for such opportunities. Students will
acquire English as they work with materials which they find interesting and relevant and which they can use in
their professional work or further studies. The more learners pay attention to the meaning of the language they
hear or read, the more they are successful; the more they have to focus on the linguistic input or isolated
language structures, the less they are motivated to attend their classes.
The ESP student is particularly well disposed to focus on meaning in the subject-matter field. In ESP, English
should be presented not as a subject to be learned in isolation from real use, nor as a mechanical skill or habit to
be developed. On the contrary, English should be presented in authentic contexts to make the learners
acquainted with the particular ways in which the language is used in functions that they will need to perform in
their fields of specialty or jobs.
Subject-Content Knowledge
Learners in the ESP classes are generally aware of the purposes for which they will need to use English. Having
already oriented their education toward a specific field, they see their English training as complementing this
orientation. Knowledge of the subject area enables the students to identify a real context for the vocabulary and
structures of the ESP classroom. In such way, the learners can take advantage of what they already know about
the subject matter to learn English.
Learning Strategies
Adults must work harder than children in order to learn a new language, but the learning skills they bring to the
task permit them to learn faster and more efficiently. The skills they have already developed in using their native
languages will make learning English easier. Although you will be working with students whose English will
probably be quite limited, the language learning abilities of the adult in the ESP classroom are potentially
immense. Educated adults are continually learning new language behaviour in their native languages, since
language learning continues naturally throughout our lives. They are constantly expanding vocabulary, becoming
more fluent in their fields, and adjusting their linguistic behaviour to new situations or new roles. ESP students can
exploit these innate competencies in learning English.

Do I need an MBA?

Many instructors who want to find positions teaching Business English wonder if they need a strong
background in business (like a Masters in Business Administration), to do so. It helps, and having one
can certainly make you more attractive to some employers; it is a misconception, however, that
Business TESOL instructors are hired to teach business. Your students already know their business or
they would not have been hired in the first place. What they really want to learn is how to talk about
what they already know, but in English.
While it helps to have an understanding of office culture and language, the language of business can
be learned, and can suit perfectly the needs of organizations seeking English teachers for this specific
purpose. This course looks specifically at this 'business language' and prepares you to approach
Business English jobs with confidence, regardless of your background.
To reiterate, teaching English in a business context is not the same as teaching business as a subject
(unless you are a business teacher or professor in a high school or university). As an English instructor

you will likely be hired to teach business professionals how to use English to introduce themselves in a
business context, express themselves at meetings, write proper email, answer the telephone, or
deliver presentations concerning their business. They can already do all of these things in their own
language but, given the fact that English is the global language and the fact that so many are now
conducting business on an international level, students want to learn to do what they already know
how to do, but in English.
I taught English seminars at one of the world's largest business advisory firms (in Taiwan), and was
humbled (but not surprised) at how little I knew about auditing or tax advisory services. I wasn't hired,
however, to teach these subjects. My students, many with PhDs and many who were extremely
successful, wealthy and well-respected professionals, had already learned their professions in
colleges and universities and through many years of experience. I was hired to help these people
improve their English basics, but in a business context. Unlike a general EFL/ESL class, instead of
teaching useful phrases for buying groceries or introducing vocabulary related to 'rooms in the house'
or 'summer sports', I taught useful phrases for participating in a meetings, and included vocabulary
related to writing email, or checking in at the airport and hotels.
Remember also that in terms of content, it is not difficult to find, learn, and then teach definitions of
profession-specific vocabulary. (Besides, the real value for students will be using such vocabulary in
proper sentences and with clear pronunciationskills you already have as a native English speaker.)
To emphasize the importance of basics is not to say that Business English teachers are never required
to understand the context in which they are teaching. Indeed, many law firms or investment banking
firms post ads seeking instructors who are also lawyers or stock brokers; having such teachers on
board is definitely added value for any organization. Unfortunately, there are not an abundance of
lawyers or doctors (or whatever the profession may be) who want to give up their careers and teach
English. An understanding of the business your student(s) work for is helpful, and having a business
background yourself is also attractive to employers; you can, however, be hired with a TESOL
Teaching Business English Certificate which you will earn upon completion of this course.

Why the need for business English?

The spectrum of topics surrounding Business English is wide and varied, especially since this facet of
the English teaching industry is growing by the minute. The demand for Business English teachers can
be seen in virtually every country around the globe. Asia and the Middle East have a wide variety of
positions for Business English teachers, with South and Central America in a close second.
English is the global language and has therefore become a highly sought after skill for both employees
and employers. Many multinational firms now have programs in place designed to increase current
employees' English ability, and many have put in place prerequisites for new employees which
demand a certain level of English ability before they can be hired. Large corporations, smaller
businesses and even entrepreneurial businessmen seek to learn English in order to broaden their
client base and to meet the needs of a variety of consumers. Some companies also see the need to
leverage internal training programs and communications across the company, regardless of where it is
located, and this information is written in English.

One must also consider that in the new global economy, colleagues and employees in similar
businesses often meet in various countries at conferences and professional development events. If an
Italian and a Japanese colleague meet, for example, they will likely be forced to share a common
language to communicate, and that language is likely English.
The introduction of the Internet has also made a huge impact on business and has created a demand
for the English language. International businesses make use of the internet for information, marketing
and communication. More than 80% of home pages on the Web are in English, while the next
greatest, German, has only 4.5% and Japanese 3.1%.
Before continuing, one important thing to remember as a future Business English Instructor (as
mentioned earlier), is that you are teaching individuals how to talk about their business (and business
in general) in English. You are not teaching students about their business; indeed, unless you have an
accounting designation (for example), there is little you can teach your accounting student about
accounting. You can, however, teach students how to write a proper email in English, or practice some
commonly used greetings for use in meetings.

Article: In Many Business Schools, The Bottom Line is in English

By Doreen Carvajal
Published: April 10, 2007

PARIS : When economics students returned this winter to the elite cole Normale Suprieure
here, a simple one-page petition was posted along the corridors demanding an unlikely privilege:
French as a teaching language.
"We understand that economics is a discipline, like most scientific fields, where the research is
published in English," the petition read, in apologetic tones. But it declared that it is "unacceptable"
for a native French professor to teach standard courses to French-speaking students in the
adopted tongue of English.
Bienvenue, or make that welcome, to the shifting universe of academia, where English is
becoming as commonplace as creeping ivy and mortarboards. In the last five years, the world's
top business schools and universities have been pushing to make English the teaching tongue in
a calculated strategy to raise revenues, overcome declining birthrates and respond to
globalization.
Business universities are driving the trend, but English is spreading to the undergraduate level,
with some South Korean universities offering up to 30 percent of their courses in the language.
The former president of Korea University sought to raise the bar to 60 percent, but ultimately lost
his post in December in a faculty backlash over his ambitions.
In Madrid, business students can take their admissions test for the elite Instituto de Empresa in
English and enroll in core courses for a master's degree in business administration in the same
language. At the Lille School of Management in France, English stopped being considered a
foreign language in 1999, and now half of the post-graduate programs are taught in English to
accommodate a rising number of international students.

Over the last three years, the number of master's programs offered in English in schools with
another host language has more than doubled to 3,300 programs in 1,700 universities, according
to Dave Wilson, chief executive of the Graduate Management Admission Council, an international
organization of leading business schools.
"We are shifting to English. Why?" said Laurent Bibard, the dean of MBA programs at Essec, a
French business school in a suburb of Paris that is a fertile breeding ground for chief executives.
"It's the language for international teaching. English allows students to be able to come from any
place in the world and for our students - the French ones - to go everywhere."
In fact, this year the university is celebrating its 100th anniversary in its adopted tongue. The
school's new publicity film made its debut in English and French. Along one of the main roads
leading into Paris loomed a giant blue billboard boasting about the birthday in French and, in
smaller lettering, English.
A number of elements are transforming English into a teaching tool. One is that international
accreditation standards required business schools in the late 1990s to include English-language
components. Another is the competition for foreign students, who offer new revenue sources to
universities.
At Essec and the Lille School of Management in France, for example, the tuition for a two-year
master's degree in business administration is 19,800, or more than $26,000, for European Union
citizens and 34,000 for non-EU citizens.
"The French market for local students is not unlimited," said Christian Bredillet, the associate dean
for the Lille School of Management's MBA and postgraduate programs. "Revenue is very
important, and in order to provide good services we need to cover our expenses for the library and
research journals. We need to cover all these things with a bigger number of students, so it's quite
important to attract international students."
Essec, whose population of foreign students has leaped by 38 percent in four years, to 909 today
out of a student body of 3,700, is now offering 25 percent of its 200 courses in English. Its
ambition is to accelerate the English offerings to 50 percent in the next three years.
Santiago Iiguez, dean of the Instituto de Empresa, argues that the trend is a natural
consequence of globalization, with English functioning as Latin did in the 13th century as the
lingua franca most used by universities.
"English is being adapted as a working language, but it's not Oxford English," he said. "It's a
language that most stakeholders speak." He carries out conversations on his blog, deanstalk.net,
in English.
With the shift in working languages, the English testing industry is thriving on the rising demand to
evaluate skills of a new generation that is expected to master English at more sophisticated levels.
Many countries have stepped up English-language requirements at lower levels, which is
improving the language abilities of students entering the university system.

The latest survey from ETS, the U.S. company that administers standardized tests, of 1.3 million
takers of the Test of English as a Foreign Language showed that Europeans outperformed other
areas of the world, with Germans achieving the highest scores.
But universities are looking for more proof that their students can demonstrate a working
knowledge not only of written English, but also of speaking and listening comprehension.
The entertainment industry has given an unlikely advantage to smaller countries like Portugal or
Greece where most original English-language films and television shows appear in subtitled form unlike Italy, France and Spain, which have a dubbing tradition, according to Liam Vint, the country
manager in Italy for Cambridge ESO. Cambridge is a testing service of the University of
Cambridge that annually conducts English exams for almost two million candidates in 135
countries.
"No one has ever claimed that the school program was better in Portugal than Italy," Vint said.
"The fact is that in Portugal there is no dubbing." Students raised on subtitled programming are
stronger in their speaking and listening skills, he added.
But building the bridge between comprehension in the living room and participation in the
classroom is easier said than done.
When younger French students at Essec start a required course in organizational analysis, the
atmosphere is marked by long, uncomfortable silences, said Alan Jenkins, a management
professor and academic director of the school's executive MBA program.
"They are very good on written tasks, but there's a lot of reticence on oral communication and
talking with the teacher," Jenkins said, noting that he used role-playing to encourage them to
speak. He also refuses to speak in French. "I have to force myself to say, 'Can you give me that in
English?' "
The Ewha Woman's University in Seoul is also aware that it faces a difficult task at the first stage
of its Global 2010 project, which will require new Ewha students to take four classes in English,
two under the tutelage of native-speaking professors. The 121-year-old university has embarked
on a hiring spree to attract 50 foreign professors.
At the beginning, "teaching courses in English may have less efficiency or effectiveness in terms
of knowledge transfer than those courses taught in Korean," said Anna Suh, program manager for
the university's office of global affairs, who noted that students see the benefits. "Our aim for this
kind of program is to prepare and equip our students to be global leaders in this new era of
internationalization."
The Lille school is planning to open a satellite business school program next autumn in Abu Dhabi,
where the working language will also be in English.
"Internationally, the competition is everywhere," Bredillet said. "For a master's in management, I'm
competing with George Washington University. I'm competing with some programs in Germany,
Norway and the U.K. That's why we're delivering the curriculum in English."

Tomorrow: For adults who need English but did not master it in school, the pressure is on. A look
at the many ways - some of them downright crazy - that English is taught around the world.

Article: Across Cultures, English is the Word

By Seth Mydans

Published: April 9, 2007

SINGAPORE : Riding the crest of globalization and technology, English dominates the world as no
language ever has, and some linguists are now saying it may never be dethroned as the king of
languages.
Others see pitfalls, but the factors they cite only underscore the grip English has on the world:
cataclysms like nuclear war or climate change or the eventual perfection of a translation machine that
would make a common language unnecessary.
Some insist that linguistic evolution will continue to take its course over the centuries and that English
could eventually die as a common language as Latin did, or Phoenician or Sanskrit or Sogdian before
it.
"If you stay in the mind-set of 15th-century Europe, the future of Latin is extremely bright," said
Nicholas Ostler, the author of a language history called "Empires of the Word" who is writing a history
of Latin. "If you stay in the mind-set of the 20th-century world, the future of English is extremely bright."
That skepticism seems to be a minority view. Experts on the English language like David Crystal,
author of "English as a Global Language," say the world has changed so drastically that history is no
longer a guide.
"This is the first time we actually have a language spoken genuinely globally by every country in the
world," he said. "There are no precedents to help us see what will happen."
John McWhorter, a linguist at the Manhattan Institute, a research group in New York, and the author of
a history of language called "The Power of Babel," was more unequivocal.
"English is dominant in a way that no language has ever been before," he said. "It is vastly unclear to
me what actual mechanism could uproot English given conditions as they are."
As a new millennium begins, scholars say that about one-fourth of the world's population can
communicate to some degree in English.
It is the common language in almost every endeavor, from science to air traffic control to the global
jihad, where it is apparently the means of communication between speakers of Arabic and other
languages.
It has consolidated its dominance as the language of the Internet, where 80 percent of the world's
electronically stored information is in English, according to David Graddol, a linguist and researcher.

There may be more native speakers of Chinese, Spanish or Hindi, but it is English they speak when
they talk across cultures, and English they teach their children to help them become citizens of an
increasingly intertwined world.
At telephone call centers around the world, the emblem of a globalized workplace, the language
spoken is, naturally, English. On the radio, pop music carries the sounds of English to almost every
corner of the earth.
"English has become the second language of everybody," said Mark Warschauer, a professor of
education and informatics at the University of California, Irvine. "It's gotten to the point where almost in
any part of the world to be educated means to know English."
In some places, he said, English has invaded the workplace along with the global economy. Some
Swedish companies, for example, use English within the workplace, even though they are in Sweden,
because so much of their business is done, through the Internet and other communcations, with the
outside world.
As English continues to spread, the linguists say, it is fragmenting, as Latin did, into a family of dialects
- and perhaps eventually fully fledged languages - known as Englishes.
New vernaculars have emerged in such places as Singapore, Nigeria and the Caribbean, although
widespread literacy and mass communication may be slowing the natural process of diversification.
The pidgin of Papua New Guinea already has its own literature and translations of Shakespeare. One
enterprising scholar has translated "Don Quixote" into Spanglish, the hybrid of English and Spanish
that is spoken along the borders of Mexico and the United States.
But unlike Latin and other former common languages, most scholars say English seems to be too
widespread and too deeply entrenched to die out. Instead, it is likely to survive in some simplified
international form - sometimes called Globish or World Standard Spoken English - side by side with its
offspring.
"You have too many words in English," said Jean-Paul Nerrire, a retired vice president of IBM USA,
who is French. He has proposed his own version of Globish that would have just 15,000 simple words
for use by nonnative speakers.
"We are a majority," Nerrire said, "so our way of speaking English should be the official way of
speaking English."
As a simplified form of global English emerges, the diverging forms spoken in Britain and America
could become no more than local dialects - two more Englishes alongside the Singlish spoken in
Singapore or the Taglish spoken in the Philippines. A native speaker of English might need to become
bilingual in his own language to converse with other speakers of global English.
"We may well be approaching a critical moment in human linguistic history," Crystal wrote. "It is
possible that a global language will emerge only once."

After that, Crystal said, it would be very hard to dislodge. "The last quarter of the 20th century will be
seen as a critical time in the emergence of this global language," he said.
English and globalization have spread hand in hand through the world, Warschauer said. "Having a
global language has assisted globalization, and globalization has consolidated the global language,"
he said. That process started with the dominance of two successive English-speaking empires, British
and American, and continues today with the new virtual empire of the Internet.
Although Chinese and other languages are rapidly increasing their share of Internet traffic, English is
likely to remain the common language, experts say.
"Estonian has an amazing Web presence," McWhorter said. But when Estonians speak on the Internet
with people outside their small country, they will continue to use English.
In a phenomenon never seen before, Crystal said, English is spoken in some form by three times as
many nonnative speakers as native speakers.
The teaching of English has become a multibillion-dollar industry, and according to Graddol, nearly
one-third of the world's population will soon be studying English.
By the most common estimates, 400 million people speak English as a first language, another 300
million to 500 million as a fluent second language, and perhaps 750 million as a foreign language.
The largest English-speaking nation in the world, the United States, has only about 20 percent of the
world's English speakers. In Asia alone, an estimated 350 million people speak English, about the
same as the combined English-speaking populations of Britain, the United States and Canada.
Thus the English language no longer "belongs" to its native speakers but to the world, just as
organized soccer, say, is an international sport that is no longer associated with its origins in Britain.
Two years ago for the first time, a nonnative English speaker, Jun Liu of China, was elected president
of the global education association Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, known as
Tesol.
Even if English were somehow to collapse as the language of its birthplace, England, Crystal said, it
would continue its worldwide dominance unperturbed.
A recent study found that the Queen's English - the language as spoken by the queen of England has evolved over the past 50 years, becoming slightly less plummy and slightly more proletarian. But
the future evolution of the language, scholars say, is more likely to belong to the broken-English
speakers of far-off lands.
"The people who were once colonized by the language are now rapidly remaking it, domesticating it,
becoming more and more relaxed about the way they use it," wrote the Indian author Salman Rushdie
in an essay in 1991.
But in the end, Ostler said, all of this could become moot. The advance of technology that helped push
English into its commanding position could pull it down again.

Though it still sounds like science fiction, it seems likely that some time, many decades from now, a
machine will be perfected that can produce Urdu when it hears someone speaking German.
"With progress, the problem of machine translation and automatic interpreting is going to be solved,"
Ostler said, "and the need for a common language is going to be technically replaced."
Tomorrow: The world's top universities are shifting into English, but the move is not without its
difficulties, for faculty and students.
Cultural Considerations in Business Lessons

Many teachers take it for granted that their students may be dealing with a variety of different business
cultures, or even that different business cultures exist. The idea of business culture is not a new one,
but it is becoming a larger part of a business curriculum. The following article provides an excellent
view into how business cultures differ, and how the teacher can include this important element into a
business syllabus.
BUSINESS ENGLISH & CROSS CULTURAL PROBLEMS
Ela Gusakowska (English Unlimited, Poland)
My affair with Business English started three years ago. I jumped at an opportunity of joining our ESP
department with a hope for a new challenge and experience. There I was, an inexperienced teacher,
foolhardy explorer, equipped with such tools as language knowledge and ELT tricks. At first, I thought
my challenge was turning into a nightmare I felt I was trudging through business infested jungle,
cutting my way through such alien concepts as market saturation, or futures and options. But with
time, I settled down. The nightmare disappeared. In this article, I would like to describe one of the
biggest nightmares Business English gave me in my initial years and present the way I managed to
fight it.
I am not going to describe one particular group since the problem I faced was a universal one and
common to each and every group I taught. The problem, I mentioned above, concerns meetings and
cross-cultural behaviour.
Polish people have a very specific way of discussing things. If you are brought up with it, you see no
problem. However, in terms of strategies for communication in Business English, the Polish way may
be ineffective.
It is overdirect and often could be received as an abusive one. Therefore, I decided to investigate the
case and find some solution. Unfortunately, there was absolutely no data and no descriptive evaluation
of Polish strategies for communication. That is why, I decided to start my own project. The question
was: What are the possible problem spots in the Polish British communication process?
I spent hours searching libraries, when, suddenly, my first inspiration came. Intercultural
Communication -- a Discourse Approach by Scollon and Scollon focuses on professional
communication in a cross-cultural context and emphasises the importance of proper meaning
interpretation. In a nutshell, Scollon and Scollon suggest that in most cases, a sudden breach of any
kind of professional communication could be owed to the misinterpretation of signals, verbal
messages and gestures particular to a given culture. Therefore, they believe that to eliminate or lower

the risk of a breach, professional students should be informed about potential problems and sensitised
to peculiarities of an alien code of practice. But it is virtually impossible to predict every professional
problem, one might say. To solve this problem, the authors suggest a skeleton for situation-context
analysis Grammar of Context.
The main purpose of Grammar of Context is to analyse and describe the environment in which a
communicative situation occurs. It takes into consideration the following factors:
(1) Scene --- participants expectations in terms of location and communication content ( what
information should be used and how)
(2) Key --- participants expectations of the communication tone (formal / informal)
(3) Participants --- their status; relationship with each other
(4) Message Form --- whether it is speaking, writing, or other media
(5) Manifestation --- deals with the way members of a particular group find out about a code of
practice; whether it is explicit a companys statute/regulation, or tacit common knowledge,
traditional behaviour
The second inspiration came from a teacher training session for Business English Teachers led by
Marie Delaney. The theme was: Cross-cultural awareness. Since, at that time, I was in my process of
building up the chassis for my research, the session offered what I needed a cross-cultural
awareness questionnaire which is presented below.
What is your cultural approach to the following aspects? Answer the following questions.
1. Time Do you tolerate being late? If yes, how much?
2. Eye contact Is it important for a communicative event? Do you need to maintain it? If yes, for how
long?
3. Small Talk Do you use it? Do you think it is important? What is your personal attitude to it?
4. Silence How do you understand silence? Is it meaningful?
5. Teams Is it natural for you to work in teams?
6. Difficult people & situations What is your way of dealing with interruptions and difficult people?
The theoretical chassis was ready, my decision was to put together the Grammar of Context and
Cross-cultural questionnaire within an inner companys meeting context. I was extremely careful in
choosing subjects for my study and I selected two principles to follow: (1) subjects had to work in the
same environment, (2) the company had to be a multinational one. I managed to find five volunteers
among my students and their British colleagues. First, we established the parameters:
1. Companys office -- inter-departmental meeting, A Mission Statement a new mission statement
which will represent the companys values through to the year 2000

2. Formal code of behaviour, high formality of language, both physical and verbal distance should be
maintained.
3. Head managers representing each department.
Next, I interviewed the subjects individually using the cross-cultural questionnaire and came up with
five problem spots:
1. EYE CONTACT
My students tacit assumption was that people not maintaining eye- contact were not credible thus
proceeding with any business could be tricky.
As a result: the process of communication could be slowed down and reaching consensus could be an
obstacle.
2. SMALL TALK
My students believed that making a small talk was a waste of time, since what they wanted to do was
getting down to business.
As a result: the process of communication could be slowed down by different communication
strategies.
3. SILENCE
Since for my British subject it wasnt obvious that silence could be used to show disagreement, my
students signal could be missed out
4. WORKING IN TEAMS
Team work involves submitting to group priorities and giving up individual interests.
As a result: My students dislike of working in teams could lead to disruptive behaviour and sequence
disorganisation.
5. INTERRUPTIONS
My students direct responses could be quite abusive and insulting for their British colleagues.
The above data allowed me to assume that there were three areas to work on : (1) cross-cultural
awareness eye contact & silence, (2) Business English skills socializing & language of meeting, (3)
team building. On the basis of the above observation, I designed a target-oriented lesson. The
proceeding session was structured in such a way as to put my students into an inductive team building
training within the above mentioned Business English skills context. As for cross-cultural awareness, I
felt that all I could do was to sensitize my students to certain differences.
The project I have presented encouraged me to embark on more extensive studies of the field. It made
me understand the importance of cross - cultural awareness in a Business English classroom.

Business English serves the role of a medium for a corporate communication, it is used and influenced
by different cultures. Therefore, by raising cultural awareness in our students, we help them to improve
both the language and their working relationships.

Example of Cross-Cultural activity

If teaching a culturally diverse group one may consider an activity such as this.
Body Language
In groups, discuss how each of these gestures would be interpreted in the different cultures
represented in your group. Designate someone to take notes.
1. Standing very close while speaking to someone
2. Arms folded across the chest
3. Two men hugging
4. Not looking at the person to whom you are speaking
5. Smiling all the time
6. Nodding your head while someone is speaking to you
7. Winking at someone
8. Drumming your fingers on the table
9. Leaning back on a chair
10. Chewing gum
11. Constantly fixing your hair, clothes, etc.
12. Touching the person with whom you are speaking

Corporate Teaching

Corporate teaching positions can be found in any country. This type of teaching is normally done right
at the place of business and normally at the main headquarters, although there are many international
companies that hire teachers at the smaller branches as well. Samsung, mining companies and
Motorola, for example, are known for hiring foreign teachers. Teachers may be expected to train a

certain group of employees, or all employees. Sometimes teachers will teach in the morning before the
employees begin work, or at the end of their work day.
In a corporate teaching situation, it can be quite easy to teach various employees, as all of the
products, company culture and goals are the same. In many cases, these corporations maintain strict
guidelines in terms of what to teach.
Other businesses or corporations where such jobs may be found include airlines, telemarketing
companies, cell phone companies, car dealerships, hotels and resorts and Canadian or American
companies with offices overseas.
Some companies hire corporate English teachers and contract them out to a variety of companies. In
this case, a teacher may travel to a few different companies for a shorter period of time. Often,
courses include a combination of general English instruction along with a variety of business-specific
topics such as leadership, corporate training, and recruitment and selection.
Business Classes in a Private School or Language Center

Although corporate training seems to be growing, numerous positions still exist for teaching Business
English in a private school setting. In this case, the curriculum is often more general, as the teacher
will have to focus on teaching students who have different positions, different business backgrounds,
and different reasons for learning. These students often choose to study at a private school because
their company does not provide lessons, or because they are pursuing a personal interest.
In most cases, the students are studying to gain a general command of business communication,
writing, or an overall understanding of doing business in English.
In some countries, businesses have been opening which serve the general public operating as
privately owned "Business English Centers". Native English speakers are hired to work at these "drop
in" centers to help business professionals who come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Sometimes
the instructors are guaranteed a wage to simply remain at the center and provide assistance to any
client who may drop by seeking assistance with a specific need, such as drafting a report, or preparing
for a trip overseas. In other cases, instructors are assigned to a client whose needs can be best met
by that instructor's background or expertise. The benefit of working for such an organization is that it
may offer some flexibility in terms of when the instructor is expected to be available. A disadvantage is
that it may be difficult to rely on the income from such a position since the number of available hours
depends entirely on the ability of the business to draw new clients.

Tutoring
Business English students who are not offered English lessons at their place of work, or who find that
private schools do not meet their specific needs, may choose to hire a private tutor. In many cases, the
student may be looking for help with a specific goal such as writing a business plan in English, or
preparing a presentation. In these cases, the student normally has a clear idea of what he or she
needs and will communicate this to the tutor before the classes begin.
Businesses sometimes hire English teachers in a tutoring capacity to help specific individuals (often
high-ranking executives) in their company. Some private schools also offer private lessons to students

who have specific goals which cannot be met in regular business classes. In many of these cases,
clients have an immediate need to improve their English, and may be under some pressure to do so.

Who are Business English Students?

The following is a partial list of positions a typical business English student might hold. Consider how
the style of instruction and choice of course material might vary depending on the profession:

managers

receptionists

airline attendants

tour guides

interpreters

entrepreneurs

chief executive officers

assistants

students

sales people

telemarketers

marketers

resort workers

restaurant workers

real estate agents

financial professionals

medical professionals

How to tech Business English

Delivering lessons and choosing material for a business class requires a different approach than one
might take when preparing for a more general English class. Business students may need to be "sold"
on an exercise by having its purpose and benefits clearly spelled out. They often want to learn as
much as possible in the shortest amount of time (time is money), so classes need to be practical and
well-prepared.

Instructors need to be flexible. Business English is a catch-all phrase, so not only will each company
have different and often quite specific language needs, but each student will too. A receptionist may
not need the same range of vocabulary as a senior executive, but you might find yourself teaching
them both on the same day. You may also be called upon to teach English for very specific purposes.
One teacher remembers being given three days to prepare two Italian businessmen for a trip to New
York. There was a slight clash of interest. I was supposed to be teaching them English for use in
business, yet they were more interested in learning English for use in nightclubs!
Self-presentation is also key to success. The Business English teacher should maintain a consistently
professional image, be well organized, be an excellent communicator, and most importantly, be
interested in and have a good understanding of the needs of the company in which he or she is
working. One may find that they have spent an hour travelling to a company, only to find that the
lesson has been canceled because of something that has cropped up in the workplace. If you can
remain flexible and maintain a professional image, you will earn your the respect of your students and
grow in this area of ESL/EFL.

Teaching Adults

What stops you from taking classes that interest you? Is it money? Time? Fear? All adults, no matter
where they are from, face similar challenges when approaching learning. The main challenges that
many adults face are the following:

Adults have many responsibilities which hinder the amount of time they have for class and for
studying. The race for time can be a huge influence on how the adult learns and how they feel
in your classroom. Do not expect adult students to be able to complete a great amount of
homework. It is also often unreasonable to expect that adults will spend time studying outside
of the classroom, on their own.

The time factor can also increase frustration among adult students. First of all, adults
sometimes forget how long learning a language can take. To discover that they have not
become fluent in English after a couple of years of practice can be discouraging and
frustrating.

Adults generally have many years of experience in school and at work, and they come to the
classroom with preconceived notions. Some students expect a very formal and traditional
classroom setting that focuses on learning from a textbook and very little participation on their
part. Some students will be open to new ideas and change in the classroom. It is important to
understand what your students expect in the classroom as it will help ease the more traditional
students into a classroom setting that is lively and communicative.

Adults may have different learning styles and a preferred method of learning new information.
It is important that you use a variety of methods to teach and to have students use the new
information that you have taught. If you teach and provide the same activities in every class,
then only a portion of your class will learn. Some adults enjoy lectures because they are
auditory learners, while some need to write down information and use it as often as possible.
These are tactile learners. Some students prefer to see many examples of the language point
in use and to hear other students practice before trying it themselves. These students are

visual learners. It is important to understand that your students will fall into each of these
learning categories, and to adapt your lessons accordingly.

Adults need organization and clarity in their lessons. When teaching adults, it is very important
that you are prepared. Adults become frustrated and annoyed when they dont understand
what you are teaching or why it is important. You must motivate your students by explaining a
reason for why they are learning what you are teaching in that class. Moreover, because
adults dont have a lot of time and because they have likely taken many classes in the past,
they may become agitated if your lesson does not have a flow or a clear organization. For
example, if you begin teaching banking vocabulary then suddenly have the students read
about household cleaning products, they will notice that there is no connection in your lesson.
Be sure to have a clear agenda for what the students will be learning that day and stick to it.

Adults are more self-conscious than younger learners. Most young children will speak without
hesitation, whereas adults will be very shy about speaking because they dont want to make
mistakes. It is a proven fact that children learn faster, and one of the main reasons is because
they lack the fear that the adults seem to carry with them. Your adults must speak in class, as
they will rarely speak English outside of the classroom. Be sure to create a positive and
welcoming atmosphere where adults feel confident and will take risks such as making
mistakes and speaking as much as possible. This will help them learn faster and with more
confidence.

Remember that in many instances you will be teaching adults who are also colleagues at
work. Again, the fear of making a mistake and appearing foolish in front of one's colleagues is
prevents many adult students from participating. It is important to remind your students that
your classroom is a non-competitive environment, that participation is mandatory, and that the
best way to learn a language is by making mistakes.

Looking the Part

They expect a professional presentation, so they expect to see a ''professional.'' Dress
appropriately for the occasion, but don't be one of the crowd.
-Wess Roberts (American Author)
Keep in mind that in many traditional cultures, teachers are held in an unusually high regard. The
teacher is a guide, a mentor, a confident, a friend, a disciplinarian, an informer, and a provider. In
short, teachers have authority and should live up to it. Respect your students' expectations and stand
out both in attire and attitude.
A professional appearance and demeanor is important in the pursuit and maintenance of a Business
English position. Of course, as with any job, one can play it safe at first by overdressing and wait to
see what the dress code is around the workplace. On the first day, however, consider the importance
of making a first impression. Professionals like to hire and to work with other professionals, and
remembering as a teacher to appear and act like one is key to gaining respect (and employment).
The following, while mostly obvious and not meant to condescend, are some suggestions to keep in
mind when making a first impression.
As soon as your students enter the classroom, students form an instant opinion of you as an instructor.
As you prepare for each course you teach, carefully consider the nonverbal messages that you may

be projecting. Careful planning can create a first impression that will impress each student or client.
Appearance
From the moment they first see you, students make assumptions about your credibility and
professionalism based on your physical appearance. Remember that as an instructor, you represent
an ideal students aspire to: someone who has a strong command of the English language and who
has something they want.
Clothing can convey powerful messages. As an instructor, you want to ensure that the way you dress
commands respect, yet still projects a friendly, approachable image. Because the first day of your
class will set the tone for the rest of the course (or whatever the case may be), a businesslike look is
appropriate. Your clothing and appearance should say I am a professional.
Greeting Your Students
It is important to establish rapport and trust with your students as soon as you can. This starts when
your students enter your classroom (or meeting place) and meet you for the first time.
Warmly greet your students with a smile and a handshake. Introduce yourself, saying Hi! My name is
___________ and Ill be your instructor for this course. Ask students what they would like to be called
during the class (for example, Ben rather than Benjamin).
Make eye contact and show sincerity in your words and actions. As you ensure that your students
names are correctly recorded on your class list, engage in some friendly small talk. Try to repeat
names as you do this.
All of these suggestions speak of behaviour that comes naturally to most people, and we only mention
it here to remind instructors of the importance of first impressions. Your personal manner is vital to
creating an atmosphere of warmth and friendliness. Listen to students when they speak, and make
eye contact. Speak clearly, varying your tone and pitch. Remain positive and make encouraging
statements. Consider yourself a role model of courtesy, respect, and professionalism to your students.

Playing the Part

"Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths pure theatre."
-Gail Godwin
Indeed, teaching is like a performance in some ways. While we are not hired as Business English
instructors to merely entertain our students or clients, we should certainly keep in mind some of the
following general tips for effective presentations:

Presentation appears well-rehearsed; presenter appears to know content well and be

comfortable with it. Presentation is smooth and professional.

Presentation takes the appropriate length of time. (Your instructor has probably assigned
minimum and maximum times; be sure your presentation is not longer or significantly shorter.)

Technical equipment is set up and presenter knows how to work it with ease.

Presenter has backup plan if something goes wrong with equipment.

Presenter may refer to notes, but does not read presentation, is not dependent on notes.

Presenter makes frequent eye contact.

Presenter makes eye contact with all parts of the room, not just one side.

Presenter delivers presentation with energy and enthusiasm.

Presenter moves about the front of the room while speaking, but does not pace.

Presenter keeps hands out of pockets.

Presenter projects voice well enough so everyone in the room can hear it.

Presenter speaks at a normal pace -- not too quickly or too slowly.

Presenter varies voice pitch and does not speak in a monotone.

Presenter is dressed nicely enough to seem authoritative and persuasive. Business

attire/business-casual attire is always a nice touch.

Presenter introduces self, especially if giving a team presentation.

Presenters in a team presentation do not murmur among themselves during the presentation.

Presenter refrains from wearing distracting headgear, such as a ballcap.

Presenter appears calm and relaxed. If presenter is nervous, it doesn't show.

Presenter keeps "pause words," such as "ummms" and "uhhs" to a bare minimum.

Presenter avoids inserting pause words such as "like" and "you know."

Presenter refrains from distracting behaviour, such as chewing gum, while speaking.

Presenter refrains from rustling papers or fumbling with/dropping notecards while speaking.

Presenter refrains from making inappropriate gestures involving hands and face, such as
scratching or wiping nose.

Presenter asks audience for questions.

Methods and Approaches

Basic Principles
Before we look at the methods and approaches related to English for Specific Purposes (i.e. Business English),
we will first review the Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach.

Natural Approach
In discussing the Natural Approach, we are referring to Krashens work. Stephen Krashen states that learning is a
conscious process; learning should be spontaneous and natural when acquiring language.
In the Natural Approach, the emphasis is on language input rather than language practice. There is an emphasis
on emotional preparedness, a prolonged period of input before expression, and a focus on comprehension. A
distinction is made between learning and acquisition. Learning of rules can be used to self-monitor, but it does not
aid acquisition. Acquisition, on the other hand, is the unconscious intake and application of knowledge. The
process of acquisition is slower than the process of learning and parallels the way in which we acquire our first
language.
Spanish instructor, Tracy Terrell, and applied linguist, Stephen Krashen, developed the Natural Approach in 1983.
They believed that communication skills are the most important element in language teaching, not the
memorization and application of grammar rules. Their writings include a number of learning theories and
hypotheses: the acquisition/learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input
hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.
Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
This hypothesis refers to the difference between acquiring a language and learning a language. Acquiring implies
an unconscious intake and application of language skills. Learning a language implies the conscious process of
memorization, referencing, and utilization of a set of rules that apply to the language. Krashen and Terrell believed
that acquisition is more natural than learning.
Monitor Hypothesis
The hypothesis relates to learned language. Students can monitor themselves and their performance by using
their set of memorized or learned rules. This is a conscious process.
Natural Order Hypothesis
This hypothesis is concerned with the order of acquisition that linguists discovered when studying the stages of
linguistic development in children learning their first language. There seems to be a predictable order of
grammatical units that children and adults acquire. Errors or backsliding occur as students try to apply general
rules to all aspects of the language. Rather than considering this a negative development, backsliding indicates a
new stage in cognitive development that should be noted as a positive factor in language learning.
Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis refers to the acquisition process. Krashen and Terrell claimed that linguistic development occurs
when the input provided by the teacher is slightly higher than the stage at which the student is currently

competent. Students become fluent by building up their input and allowing for communication to emerge naturally.
Students can generally understand meaning from context and are able to decipher meaning without extensive
explanation.
Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis takes into account the students motivation and attitude in the classroom. Stress, anxiety, and
lack of confidence can seriously impede students linguistic development. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate
those elements that can block student input. Creating a positive learning environment that is free of stress and
anxiety will improve motivation and learning.

Communicative Approach

The Communicative Approach is one of the most popular approaches in English language teaching. It
is popular because it gives a real context to the language being taught. The following are the main
aspects of this approach (also known as CLT Communicative Language Teaching):
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the language
context
4. An enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
The Communicative Approach can be used with any student, any level and for any age. The important
aspect in terms of Business English is to ensure that the lessons provide a real example of how the
student will use the English that you are teaching. This means that the teacher should be using real
situations in the classroom. For example, if you are teaching a businessman, you should have the
student practice their English skills in a real business setting by creating a meeting, having the student
create a presentation for you or by having the student report on research.
Of of the many approaches and methodologies available to the language teacher, the Communicative
Approach has proven one of the most successful in providing confident learners who are able to make
themselves effectively understood in the shortest possible time. It is therefore the teacher's
responsibility to create situations which are likely to promote communication, and provide an authentic
background for language learning.

Summary of Basic Principles

1. Second language learning is a developmental process.

Learners use their existing knowledge to make the new information comprehensible. Comprehension
precedes learning. The learners existing state of knowledge is, therefore, a vital element in the
success or failure of learning, and a good teacher will consequently try to establish and expand on
what the learners already know.
2. Language learning is an active process.
It is not only important for learners to have the necessary knowledge to make things meaningful, but
also to be able to use that knowledge. Activity should be judged in terms of how much the learners
have to think to use their cognitive capacities and knowledge of the world to make sense of the flow
of new information.
3. Language learning is a decision-making process.
In the traditional classroom, the teacher made all the decisions. It was essential for the teacher to do
so in order to avoid all possibilities of error. However, the process of developing and using a network of
knowledge relies upon decisions the learner has to make. Therefore, learners must be the decisionmakers. For example, they decide:

What knowledge is new?

How does it relate to the existing knowledge?

What is the underlying pattern?

Are all pieces of information appropriate?

Which pieces of information are relevant?

Which are insignificant?

4. Language learning is not the learners first experience with language.

Every second language learner is already communicatively competent in one language. They do not
know the specific forms, words or possibly some concepts of the target language, but they know what
communication is and how it is used. They may not be able to verbalize this knowledge, but it is there,
for without it they would not be able to operate in their own mother tongue. The learners knowledge of
communication should be actively exploited in second language learning.
5. Learning is an emotional experience. The role of a teacher is to develop positive emotions,
fostering a classroom atmosphere conducive to learning by:

using pairs and group work to build on existing social relationships

giving students time to think and generally avoiding undue pressure

putting less emphasis on the product and more on the process of getting an answer

valuing attitude as much as aptitude and ability

making interest, fun, and variety primary considerations in materials and methodology, rather
than just added extras.

6. Language learning is to a large extent incidental.

You do not have to be working with language problems in order to learn a language. You can learn a
language by chance, while you are actually thinking about something else. The problems to be solved
in a problem-solving approach do not have to be language problems. The important point is that the
problems should oblige the learners to use language and thereby to fix the language into the matrix of
knowledge in their minds (Krashen).
7. Language learning is not systematic.
We learn by systematizing knowledge, but the process itself is not systematic.
Applying Krashens Theories

Let's take a look now at how Krashen's theories might apply specifically to teaching Business English.

Acquired and Learned Systems

When teaching adults, a teacher must keep in mind that both systems are important in the classroom.
Because adults are used to learning through abstract concepts such as grammatical rules, it is
important that the teacher strike a balance between utilizing acquired and learned systems. A business
teacher cannot simply teach the language without having the students use it, nor can a teacher simply
have students use the language without teaching its purpose.
In contrast to a regular English course, a business course gives the teacher ample opportunity to
utilize the acquired system. Many opportunities exist which allow students use the language through
meaningful interaction, especially if the classroom setting takes place at the business itself.
Adults want to learn how to use the language they learn. An instructor should focus mainly on the
acquired systems and have students communicate as much as possible in every lesson. The only way
to truly acquire language skills is by using such skills for a purpose and within a real context (in this
case for a business purpose). It is important that the instructor understand the business and what the
students do in their everyday business life. For a more general business class, an instructor might use
a variety of business situations and materials to accommodate all students.
Monitor Hypothesis
Since adults have more inhibition, and perhaps because business students are often under more
pressure than "regular" English students, their monitors (conscious self-correction) can be working
overtime. Teachers may find more instances of over users since business students often equate their
learning progress with immediate financial or promotional gratification.
Culture may also play a significant role in how active a student's monitor may be. Some cultures are
more focused on perfection and achievement than others. Instructors may have to deal with students

who may hesitate more, become frustrated easily, and who are not as spontaneous as others. It is
important that such challenges be dealt with by creating an open atmosphere and reminding students
from the beginning to not be too self-judgmental.
Input Hypothesis
The input hypothesis states that a teacher should always be speaking at a level above the students so
that the students are constantly learning. However, if a teacher speaks at the same level as the
students, how are they to improve their skills? If a teacher speaks above the students level, how are
they to follow the class? Instructors must strike a balance.
In most cases, finding such a balance comes with practice and with time as you get to know your
students and their abilities. Conducting a needs analysis is important (discussed at length later in the
course) in order to understand where students are "at". Knowing will help the instructor determine the
level of grammar and vocabulary to use, as well what rate of speaking is appropriate.

Learner Centered Approach

This approach is based on the assumption that your student knows exactly what they want and how
they want to learn it. It is the teachers job to take the information and make it understandable. As
defined by www.wcer.wisc.ed, the Learner Based Approach (also known as the Student Centered
Approach) is defined as follows.
"In student centered teaching, we center our planning, our teaching, and our assessment around the
needs and abilities of our students. The main idea behind the practice is that learning is most
meaningful when topics are relevant to the students lives, needs, and interests and when the students
themselves are actively engaged in creating, understanding, and connecting to knowledge (McCombs
and Whistler 1997). Students will have a higher motivation to learn when they feel they have a real
stake in their own learning. Instead of the teacher being the sole, infallible source of information, then,
the teacher shares control of the classroom and students are allowed to explore, experiment, and
discover on their own. The students are not just memorizing information, but they are allowed to work
with and use the information alone or with peers. Their diverse thoughts and perspectives are a
necessary input to every class. The students are given choices and are included in the decisionmaking processes of the classroom. The focus in these classrooms is on options, rather than
uniformity (Papalia 1996). Essentially, "learners are treated as co-creators in the learning process, as
individuals with ideas and issues that deserve attention and consideration" (McCombs and Whistler
1997).
Some teachers feel that they cannot ask their students about how they want to learn or what they want
to learn. Some teachers feel that the teacher should provide this information to the student. In a
regular classroom, this is the case, but in a one to one or small class situation where the student has
hired you to help them achieve their goals, asking your students to help you plan is a much more
effective method than trying to do everything on your own.
This approach begins with an assessment (as any private class begins), but the assessment is the
basis of the curriculum and the lesson plans. The basis of this approach is to keep an ongoing
dialogue with the student about what they want, how they want it and how you can improve the
lessons. Each lesson should end with a discussion on whether the student needs more time on the
subject taught or if they would like to move on to a new subject and by what means they would like to
be taught.
This approach is best used with students who have a goal that needs to be accomplished in the near
future, business students or any student with a specific goal in mind. It is normally used with adult
students who are able to voice what they need and how they need it to be taught.
What if a student has suggested learning grammar strictly through reading and writing, but you feel

that they would benefit from more speaking activities or situational activities? This is where the
dialogue comes into play. It is important that you listen to your students needs, but that you also
suggest other ways of learning if you feel that it would be more beneficial. You should always suggest
these ideas with proof as to how and why it would benefit your student. If they still feel that they prefer
the way that they have suggested, it is important to remember that they are the paying customer and
that you are there to teach them in a way that is most comfortable for them.
This approach can also include having your students bring the materials that they would like to learn
from to class. For example, if your student would like to work on their reading skills, you can ask them
to bring in material or choose material together by going to a bookstore together or looking online
together. The underlying idea of this approach is that the student and teacher work as a team to create
the classes.
Here are some questions you may wish to address in order to use this approach:

What are their goals?

What skills would they like to focus on most?

What is the time frame for each goal?

Where would they like to study?

What do they expect from their teacher?

What do they find useful in a class?

What do they not find useful in a class?

Would they like to be tested and how often?

What materials would they like to use and can they bring their own materials?

Do they have real examples that they can provide for you (for example, if the student would
like to work on a presentation, do they have an example presentation to help you get an idea
of what they expect to be able to do by the end of the classes)

What activities would they find most useful in class (reading activities, writing, speaking,
pronunciation activities, etc)

What are the students interests when speaking English?

What are their overall interests?

What type of learning environment suits them (comfortable, professional, fast paced)

Would they like to work independently outside of class (homework)

What kind of materials and/or tools would the student like the teacher to provide during the
lessons (reading material, textbooks, etc)

The more specific your questions are, the more you will be able to assist your student. You dont have
to answer every question on the first day, you can slowly work towards these questions each class.
This is a general outline that you can use as a typical curriculum when using this approach:
Class One
1. Level Testing
2. Discussion and outline of goals
3. Discussion about skills to work on
4. Learning style preference
5. Discussion about where and when to have class
6. Discussion about what the student expects out of class and the teacher
Class Two
1. First lesson based on the goals and the skills outlined in Class One
2. Evaluation of first lesson and what to include in Class Three
Class Three
1. Second lesson based on goals and skills outlined by the student as well as the suggestions made
by the student from Class Two
2. Evaluation of second lesson and suggestions for Class Four
3. Discussion of materials and tools to add to the class brought either by the student (if possible) or the
teacher
Class Four
1. Third lesson based on the goals and skills outlined by the student as well as the suggestions made
in Class Two and Class Three
2. Evaluation of the third lesson and suggestions for Class Five
Note that each class ends with a discussion between the student and the teacher about suggestions
for the next class. This discussion can be based on a number of factors such as:

What did the student find useful during class?

What did the student feel was lacking from this class?

What does the student want to work on next?

What does the teacher feel that the student needs to keep practicing and should this be done
in class or as homework?

How does the student find the pacing of the class?

What should be included in the next class in order to assure that the student is achieving
his/her goals?

Is there anything that the student can suggest in terms of activities or tools that the teacher
can use in every class?

During Class One, the teacher should explain that each class will end with a discussion about the
progress of each class in order to prepare the student for this. If the student is unaware that this will be
part of every class, and if they are not informed about the reason for doing this, the student may lose
confidence in the teacher. In many cultures, this will be a very new way of teaching, so it is important
that you explain why you will be asking the student all of these questions. The student will appreciate
this type of approach especially once they see that their suggestions are being used to help them
achieve their goals.
If you find that your student is not giving you any suggestions on their own (there could be a cultural
reason, or they also may be very happy with your lessons as they are), you might want to have some
specific questions to ask such as:

Would you like to try using music in class to help with pronunciation?

Would you like to try using reading material from a magazine related to your work?

Would you like to bring in a second English speaker to practice being in a meeting?

Would you like to have grammar homework to spend less time on grammar in class?

Questions like this will help the students to open up and will not make them feel as if they are putting
you down by giving you suggestions. Involvement from your student will guarantee interest,
motivation and therefore, success!

Theories of Learning
The following reviews the two main trends in the psychology of learning theory as they relate to
language acquisition:
Behaviourism
The behaviourist theory of learning is been based on the work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union, and
Skinner in the United States. This theory suggests that learning is a mechanical process of habit
formation and proceeds by means of frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence. It is
also based on the assumption that second language learning should reflect and imitate the perceived
processes of mother tongue learning. These precepts are:

never translate

new language should always be dealt with in sequence (listen, speak, read, and write)

frequent repetition is essential to effective learning, and all errors must be corrected
immediately

The basic exercise technique of behaviourist methodology is pattern practice, particularly in the form
of language drills. Pattern practice exercises still have a useful role to play in language teaching, but
only as part of the whole process. Learning is more complex than just imitative habit formation. It
should be viewed as one kind of required activity.
Cognitive Theory
The cognitive theory views the learner as an active processor of information. Learning is a process in
which the learner actively tries to make sense of data, and learning can be said to have taken place
when the learner has managed to impose some sort of meaningful interpretation or pattern on the
data. It means that we learn by thinking about, and trying to make sense of, what we see, feel, and
hear. The technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving
task. It tells us that learners will learn when the matter to be learned is meaningful and when they
actively think about what they are learning. This cognitive factor presupposes the affective factor of
motivation. Before learners can actively think about something, they must want to think about it.
The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of the
cognitive process. How the learner perceives the learning will affect the degree of their learning
capability.
Krashen (1981) states that Learning is seen as a conscious process. Acquisition proceeds
subconsciously. The difference between ESP and General English is the awareness of the need by
the student. However, awareness is a matter of perception, and perception may vary according to
ones standpoint. As mentioned previously, this leads to an important element in ESP course
development: needs analysis (see the last topics in this unit).

Constructivism
Those that focus on the theory of constructivism feel that students should relate new
information to past experiences in order to learn most effectively. In this theory, teachers
must prove to the students that they will be able to use the new information in their everyday
life and motivate them to learn the new information. Here, the students are open to learning
the new information in a variety of ways, but the teacher must set up the lesson in a manner
in which students use their prior knowledge of a subject and correlate the new information
with the old.
A large part of this theory focuses on having students break down the information into parts
or goals. There is an order to the class in terms of what information they must learn and in
what order. As the students learn each part, the item is checked off and the students can
then move on to the next part. This is much like classes that rely on a curriculum, or have a
set of long term goals set out for the students.
The second part of this theory involves having the students apply new knowledge through
some independent activity. For example, consider teaching an EAP class where the topic is
writing an essay. You cannot teach this in one class, and you will have to break down the

parts of the essay and teach these parts in separate classes. In the first class you may want
to teach how to write a proper paragraph. In the second class you may want to teach how to
write a thesis statement, then how to write supporting statements, and apply this back to
writing these statements in a paragraph format.
For a more communicative example of this theory, lets say that your Business students have
mentioned that they often take international clients to the golf course to do business, so they
would like to know some golf terms in English. You can set up a weeks lesson by first going
over the vocabulary, then the rules of the game, then the culture of the game and any rules of
etiquette. As a final project you could either take them golfing and have them write a report
about the experience, or have them write a report after their next game of golf with an
international client.

The Humanistic Model

The Humanistic Model can be very effective when teaching adults because it focuses on their
needs only. This theory works best in situations where you are not given a text, curriculum or
set goals that you must achieve. If you do not have any preset goals, it is always best to let
your adults govern the way the classroom runs, what they are learning, and to be flexible
with what you are teaching. This model leads away from rewards, grades, or achievement
levels. It is also not effective in classes with large numbers, as there will be too many
differences among your students.
Basically, you ask all the necessary questions to understand what your students need, how
they wish to be taught it, how long it will take and what resources they want to use. Your
students make the curriculum for you, and as a teacher, you need to be flexible to change
and have the ability to think on your feet.
Many new teachers will find it easier to apply this theory during the first week and apply the
students needs and wants to the curriculum already made. This is done by conducting a
needs analysis during the first week of class. Some teachers also find this theory useful if the
class seems to have lost motivation or interest during the course of the lessons. Again, the
teacher can utilize a needs analysis to determine if the curriculum is meeting their
expectations.
In short, the Humanistic Model is used to give your adult students choice and control over
their lessons in order to ensure that the lessons are meeting their expectations. It also allows
for complete flexibility, as their needs and interests may change during the course of your
lessons. Because adult students all come to class with goals and knowledge of their own
learning needs, this method can be quite effective in helping to motivate and satisfy your
adult learners.
The Learning Cycle
Researchers have found that learning can be defined as a cyclical process which starts off with the
learner taking in the new information, leading to a point where the teacher evaluates how the student
can independently use this new information. This cycle can be applied to all learners, regardless of

their age or their educational background.

There are many varieties of the learning cycle, but all have the following four steps:
1. Experience the new information
2. Reflect on the new information
3. Conceptualize the new information
4. Apply the new information
This model of the learning cycle can be called the Basic Model because the four basic steps are
being used. The learning cycle can help you begin the organization of your lessons. By following the
natural cycle of learning in your lessons, your students will find your classes to be both organized and
easy to follow. The following defines each stage of the cycle:

Experience the new information

In this stage, the student is being introduced to the new information. The information does not yet
make sense to the student. For example, when an English student sees a new word for the first time,
they have no idea what it means. Or, when a student hears the language for the first time, like when
an English speaker says Hello, they are not completely sure of what this means yet. This first stage
(when a student encounters something new) is called the experience stage. For a moment or two, the
student may feel uncomfortable or confused, which leads to the next stage of the learning cycle. This
can be related to the pre-task of your lesson (see "Lesson Planning") where the student is given a
quick introduction to the new information.
Reflect on the new information
Here, the student is taking unfamiliar words or phrases and is trying to make sense of it. To help,
teachers can use body language, visuals, or ask students to listen to you speak using the phrase in
context. The student is now independently absorbing this new information and processing the new
information. This can be related to the teaching portion (see "Lesson Planning") of your lesson where
your students are watching you and making sense of new information on their own.
Conceptualizing the new information
The student now has an idea of what this new information could mean, and is now going to try to use

it. This is normally when the students would engage in an activity during the class. They are still not
confident with the new concepts, but as they use the language, they will now begin to better
understand. This could be accomplished using a speaking activity, an activity from a textbook, by
creating a sentence using the new information, or discussing it with other classmates. At this time, the
students are performing the tasks of your lesson.
Applying the new information
Once the student can use new information independently and in a variety of situations (tasks), they are
demonstrating retention of the new information. For example, after a student learns a new word, then
performs a task using it in a sentence, they are on their way to retaining the information. However, it is
not until the student can use this word independently by coming up with synonyms (words with similar
meaning) or antonyms (opposites), putting it into context or explaining it to another student, that they
can demonstrate that they have really learned it. This can be related to the "follow-up" portion of your
lesson plan (see "Lesson Planning") .
By having a clear progression in your lesson, and one that follows the natural learning cycle of
learning, you can reduce the amount of frustration that may occur in an adult class. You can now see
how organization and flow in your lesson will help your students to not only learn, but to retain the new
information that you are teaching.

Lets look at a possible scenario that you might encounter in a teaching Business English context.
You are the instructor for an executive who has a pre-intermediate to lower intermediate level of
English and who needs to make a presentation in six months in the United States or in Canada. How
much free time does the student have to learn English? Can you teach the student every day, or only
for two or three hours per week? Time constraints determine whether or not your student's objectives
for learning can be met within the time frame that the student is aiming for. Instructors must also
consider who the students are, where classes take place, and why the student is in the class or
session.

As shown above, any ESP course requires that an instructor know both what to teach, and how to
teach it. To determine this, a needs analysis must ask:
Who is being taught? (What level are they at? What responsibilities do they have in their profession?)

Why do they want to learn? (Are they required to do so by their employer? Do they have an important
conference approaching in an English-speaking country?)
Where will they learn? (Can you use the resources in their actual place of work in lessons? Will you be
meeting in a noisy coffee shop?)
When will they learn? (Will sessions take place after work when the student is exhausted, or over the
lunch break when he or she is in a hurry?)
Determining "who, why, when and where" allows an instructor to decide what to teach (syllabus), and
also how to teach it (methodology).

It is important to do a continuous needs analysis throughout any course, and to develop materials and
the syllabus accordingly. A needs analysis is a continuing process of outlining both target and learning
needs, and the conclusions drawn need to be repeatedly checked and reassessed. Information can be
gathered about needs in a number of ways. For example, questionnaires, interviews, observations,
data collection (gathering texts), or informal consultation with sponsors, learners and others, can all
serve as a means to assess needs.

Note: the link following this topic provides a template for a Needs Analysis that you can use to model your own, or
modify for your own purpose.

Any language-teaching course has certain evaluation requirements, but in Business English, these
requirements are emphasized because the course has specified objectives. Business English learners
and sponsors are investors in the program and they want a return on their investment of time and
money. The teacher is accountable to ensure that the course is a cost benefit to the company. This
creates a demand for evaluation procedures.
Evaluation should fulfill two functions: assessment and feedback. Assessment is a matter of
measuring what the learners already know. But any assessment should also provide positive feedback
to inform teachers and learners about what is still not known, thus providing important input to the
content and methods of future work.
There are two kinds of evaluation: learner assessment and course evaluation.
Learner Assessment: To assess student performance at strategic points in the course. Business
English is concerned with the ability to perform particular communicative tasks; therefore, the focus on
proficiency makes assessment central.
Course Evaluation: Helps to establish whether the Business English course is meeting the specific
objectives that have been designed. It should be an ongoing process of revising the course and
making adequate changes. Course evaluation plays a crucial role in both corporate and educational
settings because it shows the parties involved in the Business English program that their views have
been considered.
There are four main aspects to consider in building an evaluation: what should be evaluated, how the
results can be measured, who should be involved in the evaluation, and when and how often

evaluation should take place.

Specifically in Business English, there are three main tools for assessment:
Placement Tests: to place learners in the Business English course most suited to their needs. The
aim of the placement test is to determine the learners level of English before the course begins.
Achievement Tests: these test how well the learner is keeping up with the syllabus, and can be
administered any time throughout the course. The achievement test should reflect the nature and
content of the course itself.
Proficiency Tests: these assess whether the student can cope with the demands of a particular
situation. The aim of the proficiency test is to assess whether the students will be able to perform the
language tasks required of them.
Both learner assessment and course evaluation should be an ongoing feature of a Business
English program. The focus should always be on the learners, identifying their needs in order to
develop appropriate communicative activities and tasks. Base the evaluations and tests you carry out
on specific tasks, and make an informal assessment part of every lesson.

Tasks and Activities

Tasks and Activities
Activities planned in a class should relate directly to the students needs and the objectives
planned. They must also be relevant and useful to business students. Playing a game of
Jeopardy may be fun for your students, but this might an activity that does not relate directly
to your students needs.
Materials and activities should be authentic in terms of what your students will actually
experience in their workplace. By including realistic activities, the students will learn faster
and will feel more confident with the material being learned and your teaching style.
For example, if one of your curriculum objectives is to have students write a memo and to
improve their listening and speaking abilities, a relevant activity would be to have the
students listen to a short presentation based on a theme relevant to the students' occupation
given either by the teacher, a guest speaker, or from an audio source. The students can then
take notes from the presentation and write a short business memo to other employees based
on what they have listened to. This will give the teacher a chance to evaluate the students
listening abilities by determining whether or not their memos include the important points
made in the presentation.
The material used (the input) for such an activity this lesson should be based on what the
students might actually hear in their workplace. The presentation could be about a new
marketing strategy, or ideas of how to cut costs or future goals for the company. If you have a
class of students who all have different jobs, try to use a presentation that is more general in
nature such as a discussion on leadership, cultural differences, or time management skills.

This module provides some general ideas of what types of activities to use for practicing
various skills, and provides some of examples you may wish to use for your own classes.

Role Plays
Although teachers might feel that promoting role plays in the business classroom seems
inappropriate, it is still an excellent way to bring a real life, communicative situation into the
classroom. It is important that you explain the purpose of the role play to the students, and to
have a very clear objective of what the students will learn by performing the role play.
Role plays are basically 'acting out scenes'. They are effective in an English classroom
because the students will be able to utilize the English that they know for a specific purpose.
It is important that the role play is directly related to situations that the students might actually
encounter, and that the role pay utilizes language skills that they have been practicing.
For example, if you are teaching students who often have to meet with clients in order to sell
a product, you can have the students role play being the salesperson and the purchaser.
It is important that you give the students background information before they perform the role
play. You shouldn't just say sell this car to this woman. This is not a realistic task. You
should give the student who is acting as a salesperson information about what the product
is and why it is a good product. You should also give the purchaser information indicating
what exactly they are looking for, and perhaps an idea of why they need it.
Role plays can be especially useful for:
requesting information
vocabulary and grammar used to complain
clarifying information
telephone mannerisms
listening skills

Sample Role Plays

Consider (as a Business English student) role-playing the following situations with a partner.
One student is Partner A, and the other Partner B. In the activity you are not look at your
partners role-play instructions. In this role-play, you have a chance to practice business
telephone conversations.
Partner A
Role-play #1
You ordered a subscription to a monthly trade publication four months ago. It has not arrived
yet. You call the company to complain.

Role-play #2
You work in the order department of an office company. A customer calls to give you an
order. Make sure that you get the item information, the order number, and the name of the
company, the customers name and phone number.
Role-play #3
Your manager has just left the office to go to a dental appointment. It is three oclock and you
do not expect him to return to work today. A client calls to speak to the manager. The same
client also called this morning and left a message for your manager to return the call. Your
manager was at a meeting and did not return the call. Offer to have someone else in your
office help the client.
Partner B
Role-play #1
You receive a call from a customer about a magazine subscription order. You transfer the call
to the subscription manager, but she has gone for lunch. You want to satisfy the caller.
Role-play #2
You are responsible for ordering office supplies. You telephone a company that sells office
supplies and order five different items. Tell the order clerk the quantity of each item and ask
when you will receive the order.
Role-play #3
You recently placed an order for 5000 advertising pamphlets from a printing company. You
want to change the delivery date to a week earlier. You called the manager of the printing
company and left a message asking him to return your call. The manager did not call you.
You wonder if he received your message. It is three oclock now and you call the managers
office again.
Meetings
Meetings are an integral part of any organization. It is important that students practice their skills in
speaking, listening and fluency in order to be prepared for a meeting that takes place in English. This
type of activity is a great way to practice all of the vocabulary, grammar and listening that has been
learned.
It is important that this activity have a clear purpose, goal and content. As always, all three of these
items should relate directly to your curriculum objectives and the needs of your students.
In a meeting activity, all students should participate. You can delegate roles such as note taker,
someone to keep the focus (mediator), the meeting organizer, and someone who can ensure that all
parties understand and are in agreement.

Determine the purpose for the meeting by teaching a lesson in advance lesson that focuses on the
topic for the meeting.
You may also want to discuss cultural differences in meetings. Discuss how a regular meeting in the
students country is conducted, and then present a general outline of how meetings proceed in North
America for example.

Dialogues
Pre-written dialogues are a great tool for practicing speaking skills. They are very structured
and help the students to learn vocabulary, intonation and sentence structure without the need
to write. It is important to create dialogues that will be relevant to the students actual
employment. Here are some sample dialogues:
Dialogue: L & E Summer Soothers
Ewa and Lech sell soft drinks and fruit punch in the park. Read the following dialogue and
discuss how they did during the month of July.
Ewa: We should check and see how we did last month.
Lech: Yes, I havent looked at the records yet.
Ewa: Well, the first week of July was very hot and we did very well. Our sales soared. We
sold 600 cases of soda and fruit punch. That was the week of the fair.
Lech: Thats good news.
Ewa: Yes, Lech, but the second week the weather was cooler. It seemed that sales dropped.
We only sold 200 cases.
Lech: Ah, that is low. How did we do the following week?
Ewa: Well, sales were slow at the beginning of the week, but picked up towards the end of
the week. We sold 330 cases.
Lech: Thats right, the weather warmed up mid-week, remember? How about the last week
of July?
Ewa: We increased our sales right up to the 28th. We sold 490 cases in total that week,
even though sales decreased pretty sharply for the last three days of the week. Overall, it
was a funny month. There really wasnt a time where sales leveled out for very long, but we
exceeded our last year sales for the month of July.
Lech: Thats super, Ewa! Nowdo we need to order more pop?
This dialogue might be suitable for lower level students who are either in a general course, or
for a class of sales people. Students can practice vocabulary used to discuss productivity
and also practice intonation and stress.

Listening Activities: Dialogues

Dialogues can also assist students with their listening skills. Instead of having students read the
dialogue, have them listen to it and then answer comprehension questions to ensure that they have
understood. Below is an example of a dialogue with comprehension questions.

Sample Meeting Dialogue

Chairperson: The purpose of this part of the meeting is to learn about the new packaging design for
our product. Alan Chan will briefly describe the design and its advantages. I will then ask for your
commentsAlan?
Alan: Thank you, George. I would like to begin by passing around a sample of the package for you to
look at. I think that the advantages to this new design will immediately be clear. First, the packaging is
secure. It allows the product to be seen but not opened before purchase. Second, there is no
unnecessary packaging material that the consumer would have to put in the garbage. Third, the
packaging material is easily available from our usual suppliers. In my opinion, the packaging is perfect
for our product.
Chairperson: Thank you, Alan. Could we hear comments from the group, please? Yes, Sarah?
Sarah: I agree that the design is practical. You said that the
packaging was attractive to everyone. Would you mind explaining that?
Alan: Not at all. For example, marketing tests show that people of all ages and genders notice colour
and respond positively to it.
Carl: Excuse me. May I say that I think our main competitor has recently introduced similar
packaging. Their new packaging is also secure and brightly coloured.
Alan: I agree in general, but their product is over-packaged.
Carl: What do you mean?
Alan: Our competitor has placed their plastic-wrapped product inside a plastic container. Their outside
container isnt necessary. Our design will attract todays environmentally conscious consumers who
wont accept unnecessary packaging.
Robert: I think youre right. In addition to offering a handsome package, our advertising department
can emphasize our companys concern for the environment. May I ask how the cost of this new design
compares with that of our previous design?
Alan: The new package design is actually two-percent cheaper. The product is the same size, but the
new package is smaller and uses less material.
Chairperson: If there are no further questions or comments for Alan, well move on to the next item on
the agenda. Thank you, Alan. We look forward to seeing the new product packaging on store shelves
next month.
Comprehension
1. What is the purpose of this part of the meeting?
2. How many advantages does the presenter list when he describes the new packaging design?
3. Why does Sarah like the design?
4. What is Carl worried about?
5. What is the problem with the competitors new package?
6. How much cheaper is the new packaging design?
Language Identification
Read the conversation again. Write what each person in the meeting says in the following situations:

1.

What does the Chairperson say to begin?

2.

What does the Chairperson say to introduce the Presenter?

3.

What does the Presenter say at the start of his presentation?

4.

What words does the Presenter use to list his points in order?

5.

What does the Presenter say to indicate his opinion?

6.

What does Sarah say to indicate her agreement with Alans opinion?

7.

How does Sarah ask for more information about the colour of the packaging?

8.

What does the Presenter say to show he is willing to respond to the question beginning,
Would you mind?

9.

What does Carl say when he wants to enter the general discussion?

10. What does the Presenter say to show partial agreement with Carls comment about their

competitors packaging?
11. How does Carl ask the Presenter to explain something he doesnt understand?
12. How does Robert begin a question asking for information?
13. What does the Chairperson say to close this part of the meeting?

Answer Key: Comprehension

1. To learn about the new packaging design for the companys product.
2. Four.
3. The design is practical.
4. He thinks their main competitor has similar packaging.
5. Their product is over-packaged.
6. It is 2% cheaper.
Answer Key: Language Identification
1. The purpose of this part of the meeting is?
2. Alan Chan will briefly describe the design and its advantages.
3. I would like to begin with
4. First, second, third
5. In my opinion
6. I agree
7. Would you mind explaining that?
8. Not at all.
9. Excuse me. May I say that
10. I agree in general, but
11. What do you mean?
12. May I ask
13. If there are no further questions or comments for Alan, well move on

Presentations
Presentations are a key part of the job for many professions. Using presentations a resource
medium is a great way to help students improve their listening skills. Presentations can be
developed for the ESP classroom in the following ways:
guest speakers
web presentations
by the teacher
by the students
television
audio
When overseas, try to find other English speakers who are willing to come into your class to
make a presentation on a specific topic that meets your curriculum objectives. Or, if this is
difficult, try to plan a presentation yourself, or ask another teacher to come in with a prepared
presentation.
Many businesses include presentations about their products on the Internet. Below are some
useful websites that may have listening exercises you wish to use for Business English
students:
www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/
www.ctv.es/USERS/amiles/bcn-onlinelistening.html
www.eslpod.com/
eleaston.com/listening.html

Students Listening to Students

If finding Internet sites or guest speakers proves to be a difficult, the easiest way to create
listening exercises is by using your own students. Doing so combines listening and speaking
in one exercise! In these cases, you will need to focus on correcting the student who is
speaking while having the other students discuss what was presented, or complete
comprehension questions as the student presents his or her material.
A relevant activity for this type of listening activity might be to ask students to take notes
during a presentation and to then write a report or a memo based on the information relayed
by the student. This helps to ensure that students have understood the material, and are able
to pinpoint the main ideas or specific information.
At times, students may become frustrated with this type of listening activity because they feel
that the lack of native-English listening material will hinder their skills. Remind students that

learning a language is best achieved by making mistakes, and they we can all learn from
each other in this way.

Pronunciation
As native English speakers, our pronunciation skills are one of the main reasons we are hired to teach
overseas. Since business curriculum often focuses on listening, speaking, reading and writing skills,
teachers often forget to give their students the opportunity practice pronunciation.
Dialogues can help students with intonation and stress, as can presentations and other speaking
activities. However, sound segments need to be practiced as well. How can a teacher incorporate
these activities? Here are some suggestions:

Set aside 30 minutes once a week to practicing common problems.

Create activities to help students practice a particular sound.

Use pronunciation activities as a quick warm-up before class and spend 10-15 minutes each
class practicing one aspect of pronunciation.

When teaching new vocabulary, take a moment to go through the problems with individual
words and practice the sounds as they appear in particular words.

During your needs analysis, ask the students when and how often they would like to practice
pronunciation.

Pronunciation Activities
Online Activities
Many websites are dedicated to helping students with pronunciation. Students are able to
work at their own pace which has both advantages and disadvantages. An advantage is that
students may feel less inhibited since no one else is listening to them. Also, students who
need extra practice will be able to repeat the exercises as they see fit. A disadvantage is that
an instructor is not present to help coach the student or assess progress.
For use in the classroom or as resources you can share with students, the following are
some websites where you can find pronunciation activities:
international.ouc.bc.ca/pronunciation
iteslj.org/links/ESL/Pronunciation/
Minimal Pairs
A minimal pair compares two words that have one sound difference such as bear/pear. To
use these in a pronunciation exercise, you can create a worksheet where students listen to a

word and are asked to choose and circle the word that was actually said.
Reading Aloud
Students can also practice pronunciation by reading in class. Teachers can take an active
role in correcting the students as they read. Be sure not to ask comprehension questions
during this type of activity, as the point is to focus on pronunciation, not understanding.

Vocabulary
Vocabulary is extremely important in communication. In your Business English class you will often find
students struggling because they do not know the word they need to express themselves. The main
goal for the teacher is to demonstrate vocabulary clearly and in a meaningful way, and to help
students remember previously taught vocabulary.

New vocabulary can arise at any point in the lesson, which is why you want to keep your TTT low. Try
to think of ways to illustrate the meaning of new vocabulary without long, wordy explanations.
Remember: Demonstrate, dont explain. Depending on your adult students' level, you will want to
teach about five new vocabulary words per lesson. These words must have some context and a
theme. Teach words that are associated and relevant to the rest of the lesson. Always start by
teaching the meaning of the word.

Students have different ways of learning. Some will need to write down the vocabulary, others need to
visualize, and some need to see it in written form. Generally, all students will need to repeat the
vocabulary a minimum of ten times in order to internalize it. However, this does not mean that you ask
your students to repeat the word dog ten times right off the bat. It means that throughout the lesson
you will want your students to use the new vocabulary as often as possible.

Be careful when using dictionaries in class. You do not want your

students constantly looking up words during class time since it takes
the focus off the lesson and what you are teaching. There are two
types of dictionaries from which your students can choose, English
English or Englishtheir native language.
There are advantages and disadvantages to using dictionaries. Advantages include
the fact that dictionaries provide meaning, spelling, a pronunciation guide,
information about the part of speech, and sometimes, examples. Disadvantages
include the fact that all meanings will be given, which may be confusing to your
students; definitions may be too complex; students may not know how to use a
dictionary effectively and/or students will become too reliant on the dictionary. It is
better to teach vocabulary through demonstration (a flashcard for example) than
through translation.

Writing: The Active Voice

Whether it be an email or a formal letter, business writing is characterized as being concise. It is important to
remind students to remember to use the active voice when writing.
Active and Passive Sentences
In active sentences, the subject is the doer of the action of the verb. In a passive sentence, the subject receives
the action.
Active sentences tend to be shorter than passive ones and feel more energetic (i.e. stimulate a feeling in the
listener/reader). Passive sentences have a more relaxed feeling. A specific pattern exists in the active and
passive sentences.
Active:
John ate the apple.
NP + VP (Verb + Determiner + Noun)
Passive:
The apple was eaten by John.
Det + Noun + Aux. V + PP + Noun
Passive:
The newspaper was read by the accountant.
NP + Aux. V + VP (PP + Determiner + NP)

Soft Skills for Business English

What are Soft Skills?

Not normally found on a CV, soft (or social) skills are those personal values and interpersonal
skills that determine a persons ability to fit into a particular structure, such as a project team,
a rock group, or a company. These skills include personality traits such as emotional
maturity, eagerness to learn, and willingness to share and embrace new ideas.
In relation to the future of work, soft skills are fast becoming the deal breaker in many of
todays hiring decisions. Executives, after all, are rarely measured according to how well they
can reiterate the technical specifications of their products and services, but rather on their
ability to motivate an organization, to assess the performance of their staff, to make clear and
well-balanced decisions and, first and foremost, their ability to develop and communicate
ideas and visions. A list of the most crucial skills would look something like this chart:

Note: (1) above refers to references listed in the topic "Notes and References" at the end of this module.

Even though twenty skills are grouped under four headings, they are all closely interrelated:
e.g., learning willingness is difficult to manifest if your time management does not work.
Soft skills are not exactly easy; if they were, it would be easy to teach everybody to be a
Managing Director. In what follows, I will try to show that soft skills are gaining in importance
in two contexts which are relevant to English in Adult Education, in native, but even more in
non-native contexts: Doing Business and Doing Business English both feature soft or social
skills as objects, effects, and prerequisites.
The skills are of growing importance in a world where business is marked by hot buzzwords
such as globalization; decentralization; and lean management. Of course, it is a truism that in
real life soft and hard skills (such as subject competence, resource handling, and market
knowledge) go hand in hand. Hence, the selection instrument of an Assessment Centre is
gaining in significance especially for high potential recruitment. Through its exercises in
strategy development and strategy implementation, many companies and employment
agencies argue, this two- to three-day intensive group performance session brings to light
candidates abilities in conflict handling, co-operation and stress management. Admittedly,
a traditional job interview or an old-fashioned IQ-test hardly warrants these results.
Thus, though it is certainly helpful to know what technical terms such as benchmarking, B2B
vs. B2C, business process re-engineering, customization, downsizing, outsourcing, and
empowerment stand for, a mere word-list knowledge ignores the complex interpersonal
problems these terms carry. If we want to teach learners of Business English how to deal
with these problems interpersonally, soft skills handling is indispensable.
The Ability to Teach Soft Skills
Though the skills would be difficult if not impossible to teach straightforwardly in any course,
teaching can create contextualized tasks, and thus provide skills-related learning
experience. Collateral learningseems to be the key word here, that is, the notion of a
learner learning more than merely the subject that he or she is studying at a given time. If
attitude awareness and problem solving are what count in the future, then, ideally, teaching
should have a share in attitude formation and comparison.

A soft skills framework should permit Business English to emphasize the interpersonal forces
of language-use in a work-oriented context, and teachers should keep a sharp eye on the
function of any language item, which they want to highlight. In other words, they must teach
the pragmatic force along with the words, evidenced, by textual (= structure-giving),
propositional (= intention-determining) and interpersonal (= status-fixing) functions. Any
mismatch of linguistic form and speakers intention leads to confusion, annoyance and
misunderstanding, that is, causes havoc: Im not prepared to show my homework, e.g., can
signal unwillingness, inability, criticism of unclear homework assignment, simply forgetting,
and other things.
Social theorist Erving Goffman (1955) made this very clear with his theory of face and its
twofold workings: In human interaction, Goffman argues, people strive for a positive social
value, i.e., the approval of others (= a positive face, PF), while at the same time they also
want to avoid other peoples impediment (= a negative face, NF). Criticism, negative
comments and disapproval of an interlocutors personality or performance usually endanger
his/her PF; requests, offers and compliments may threaten his/her NF: An invitation to golf
causes offence (for the inviting party) if refused, debt (for the invited party) if accepted. Thus,
what we normally tend to think of as plain and straightforward communicative exchange, in
fact is a very thin layer of ice on which successful skating can be dangerous. If we take some
very ordinary English sentences like the ones in Figure 2, it is apparent that they are not
harmless and ordinary at all if we consider what might be implied for the involved peoples
faces: (2)

These sentences turn into downright traps if understood as a demand for action, an
allegation of stealing tea, a request for assistance, and so on and so forth. Rather than
teaching students only how to construct and employ phrases like these, we should try to
heighten their awareness of the inherent power relationship, trust and intimacy levels of the
interlocutors; in short, the sentences challenges to the category of face. Language
coaching, in turn, should adapt to the constantly changing face of English, and keep in mind
the cognition-based concept of KAL (Knowledge About Language), which Ronald Carter has
been promoting since the early 90s. The flexible character of this concept is meant to go
beyond older ones, such as grammaticality, formal correctness and linguistic awareness.

Carter wants language learning and teaching to (re-) start from scratch, e.g., to acknowledge
insight into the new view:
A view which recognizes Englishes as well as English and which stresses variable rules
accords with a multilingual, culturally diverse view of society. [...] A critical language
pedagogy does not so much aim simply to produce competence in use of a standard
language, vitally important though that is, as to enable learners to reflect on the kind of
English they use and how far it allows them to express their own personal voice as language
users. (Carter. 1997: 9, 226)
This notion is closely related to the new standard of ISSE (International Standard Spoken
English), which David Crystal (2000: 57) forecasts to emerge as the result of the increasing
global use of and diversified influence on the language. He cannot be far from the truth, as it
so happens that English is an immensely (and increasingly?) flexible language, crammed
with idiom and slang, unusually hospitable to new words. It is not only the language of
business and international politics, but also that of travel, sports and science, computer
software and the music industry. Moreover, in times of boundless globalization, the idea of
face is gaining particular importance in business contexts that involve cross-cultural
aspects: In a business world where a German marketing officer is sent to Japan by her
employer, a Finnish telecommunication corporate, in order to negotiate joint ventures for the
emerging markets of Eastern Europe, it is certainly good to know about the main differences
between British and American English, but what this person is very likely to encounter (and to
use) herself, corresponds to neither variety (3). Given these conditions, English tuition should
ideally proceed from linguistic competence => linguistic awareness => cultural awareness =>
cultural competence.

Implications for Learning

Phraseology, lexis, and collocation are of primary importance in this approach in which
grammatical accuracy is no longer the be-all and end-all. Our syllabus will have to pursue
complex aims besides those of planting words and structures in students heads. This will, of
course, remain the precondition of all attempts at soft and social skills. But whichever way
the basics of structural grammar are brought to a learner, the techniques of drill patterning,
total immersion or suggestopedia even, will not do when handling English aptly rather than
using English correctly is at stake.
Ideally, learners in the new position do not experience themselves as voiceless, and subject
to external authority, not only as passive receivers, but also rather as active discoverers,
communicators and most significant creators of knowledge. The objectives of this idea of
teaching become visible as improving learners active and passive knowledge of styles,
registers and functions of language items (4); furthering their knowledge of the working
mechanisms of business; involving them as far as possible in tasks of teacher-guided
learning; and encouraging them to set up, implement and realize their individual learning
strategies. These objectives, in turn, ask for a learning process that is fundamentally social,
interactive, and self-directed. If we want to encourage our learners to take home more than
Business English from a lesson in Business English, manifested in topics like Negotiating
with Foreign Business Partners, Defying the Angry Customer or Serving International

Markets, we must select, prepare, and set tasks that involve reflective assessment and
active training of one or more of the soft skills. Some general guidelines to make the upperintermediate to advanced English class more learner-centred will be suggested now.
When venturing on a new topic, teachers might start with a brainstorming session and elicit
what students already know. Thus, they will give the students a chance to start from their true
personal vantage points; any accompanying material will then be taken not as a spoon- and
force-fed medicine, not as the final word, but as one of many possible options. Space and
room allocation permitting, one could also ask students to write upon notice boards, flip
charts or whiteboards those aspects of a topic which they would most like to learn about.
Tasks that are suitable for pairs or groups should tend to be open rather than closed, i.e.,
they should permit a variety of possible answers or solutions, or in any case, they should
provide room for choice. In this way, they transport respect for any students individual
attitude, and ask the student to balance rather than venture his or her arguments. Two short
examples might help to outline possible ways of realizing insights from soft skills training in
the classroom.
The first example is from the realm of Financial English and could run like this: For the topic
of Takeovers and Buy-Outs we might begin with a list of relevant technical terms, strategies,
model cases, pros and cons, etc. But students will only experience the position-dependent
forms of emotional involvement (e.g., enthusiasm, greed, pride, low vs. high self-esteem,
sense of failure, satisfaction of winning), if we can get them to approximate the atmosphere
in which talks about the takeover process are likely to be conducted. So any group of four
advanced students could be assigned the roles of the CEO of a failed start-up company
under threat (also its founder and main shareholder); the potential buyer (i.e., the
representative of the bigger fish trying to swallow the smaller one); the white knight
(senior business expert or other company backing the threatened companys case); and,
especially in the case of leveraged buy-outs, i.e., buy-outs financed by third parties, the
bank expert or financial organizer who supports the buyers interest. We could then ask
students to prepare and simulate preliminary or final negotiations, arguing their individual
cases, taking into account the other, hostile viewpoints at that time.
The second example stems from the very crucial, and frequently requested, topic of The Job
Market/The Application Process. Very often, teachers confront students with real job ads
and ask them to sketch an application, a cover letter, or a CV. Though this is certainly good
training, it seems a rather lonely task in class, apart from the exchange of technical terms.
These, I think, should be pre-taught for a lesson, which uses job ads as a trigger for more
group-oriented exercises. Referring to the well-known study, The Human Side of Enterprise
(1960) of American sociologist Douglas McGregor, we might outline his theory of two distinct
types of work motivation and work performance: In what McGregor calls Theory X, people
are considered lazy by nature, disliking work, and in permanent need of supervision and
control through a threats-and-rewards system. Theory Y, by contrast, treats people as
inherently self-motivated, committed to their workplace, willing to take responsibility and to
make personal achievements, in short it assumes a psychological disposition to work within a
framework of structures. Obviously, Theory X provides a high degree of certainty and ability
to plan, and is, therefore, easier to put into practice on the workshop floor, or in mass and
largely automated production than Theory Y. This, however, is good for managing staff
promotions, salary negotiations, and for effective management. In class, we could then make

further sub classifications by conceiving two representatives of each of McGregors theories

(Y1: The entrepreneur; Y2: The leader; X1: The team worker; X2: The backroom
worker). Then, an authentic job ad could be scrutinized as to which of these types the
profiles of which should be established in class or in teams best fit the job description.(5)
Similarly, we could use the model that social psychologist Frederick Hertzberg puts forward
in his study, Work and the Nature of Man, i.e., the crucial difference between satisfiers and
motivators as determining factors of peoples job performance. Satisfiers, as guards of
average potential, concern the working conditions and environment, the wages, the benefits,
and the degree of job security; whereas motivators, as stimulators of high potential, comprise
challenging and creative tasks, recognition by peers and seniors, personal responsibility,
possibilities for promotion, and the subjective feeling of forming part of corporate culture. It is
easy to see that some basic questions such as, Which type do you think you are?; Which
type is your boss/your spouse/your best friend?; Which type would you (not) hire? etc., can
lead to intense discussions or team listings and, especially, will put all of the soft skills to the
test in unforeseen ways.
A lesson model with the benefit of reducing TTT (Teacher Talking Time) and increasing STT
(Student Talking Time) is shown in Figure 3. As we see, a lot has happened in teaching
methodology since the days when PPP (Present, Practice, Produce) was the answer to all
questions (6):

New Media and Soft Skills

Regarding the overkill of media and new media development directed at the teaching
professions, any teaching materials qualities in featuring any number of the soft skills is what
should guide our selection, preparation, and employment. It is certainly true that a wellproduced CD-ROM can work miracles for the beginners faltering steps towards listening
comprehension, and can make word learning less tedious. Also, e-mail-controlled homework
or even teamwork tasks solve a number of logistical and organizational problems. But most
of the training forms that focus on attitude awareness and conflict handling are probably not
really cyber worthy, not least because their teachers would not embody these skills
themselves if they were only cyber educators.
And though Newsweek recently painted a glorious picture of the future of online-learning,
[by] the end of 2000, 75% of all US universities will offer online course work to a logged-on
student body of about 5.8 million, in most cases as supportive to personal teaching (McGinn
2000: 60), I do not fear the future of print-based and classroom-located teaching, if it is
understood as a common enterprise for both the teaching and learning personalities

involved.
Moreover, if communication theorists are only halfway right in claiming that up to 70% of any
information is communicated not via language, but by other systems, such as personal
appearance and body language, we are still a long way from the moment when personal
teaching can be fully discarded. Machines can do the drilling and controlling of drilled
patterns, but they do not reach beyond that stage. Many of the greatest benefits of training,
after all, are unintentional. When you come out of a training program, you often perform
better. But is it the training thats critical or the interaction during the training?
Now, it might be replied that with the growing significance of e-commerce, the use of
internet and e-mail will become standard features of business that we cannot afford to ignore
when teaching people who will go on to do, or are already using e-commerce in their jobs.
Even learners in internet-related fields are in need of communicative, self-managing and
problem-solving skills: If, say, 20 years ago students learned the conventions of business
writing through letters and telexes, this may now have changed to faxes and e-mails, yet the
obstacles to winning your addressee for your ideas, or the dangers of striking a false note
have remained very much the same. So, instead of saying: Heres a new piece of technology
lets see if we can think of some way of using it, in soft skills teaching we should steer a
more relaxed course and begin with: Here is an educational need lets see which
technology we can best apply to it.

Implications for Teaching

A soft skills-centred agenda in Business English has to emphasize the personal, the
subjective, and the constructivist; it must challenge the expected, the usual, the traditional,
and the positivist. An authoritarian and teacher-dominated style of teaching will certainly not
come to terms with the objective of conveying this armada of extra-linguistic skills through
language teaching. Only a co-operative and learner-centred style, it appears, will do justice
to the newly defined roles of both teacher (who becomes more of a facilitator, and less of an
instructor) and student (who is upgraded to a discussion partner and ideas generator):
Language is an immensely democratizing institution. To have learned a language is to have
rights in it (Crystal 2000: 56).
This does not mean that teachers let go of their right and duty to monitor and organize the
goings-on in the classroom. Rather, their interventions especially in tasks of an open,
multidimensional nature should be a careful, situation-adopted combination of facilitative and
authoritative contributions. They must hold the balance between releasing tension,
encouraging self-exploration, and providing both challenges and strategies. You need
competence and experience to do this job, but you need commitment, enthusiasm, patience
and role-consciousness to do it well. In short, you need the soft skills; not only, but quite
urgently if you would like to teach them to others. To reiterate the old saying that Teachers
are the ones who understand, know, and can, is certainly not enough here. You need a
healthy ego to teach, but you also need to be strong enough to check it at the door. Teaching
interpersonal skills is not about making yourself more powerful. It is about making your
students more powerful. And you will only earn their trust and respect when you know who
you are, convey a strong sense of mission - and when you walk your talk (7).

What counts in soft-skills-framing, obviously, are the qualities of intellectual and interaction
stimulation: Teachers should get students to use reasoning and evidence; they should
encourage them to think about old problems in new ways, and to rethink ideas that they had
not questioned before. Ideally, teachers trigger off conversations, even among groups of
students who do not normally interact with each other, e.g., in a class on Business
Correspondence where future engineers and architects sit next to economists and IT
specialists. Thus, teachers should see those patterns, which allow innovations and
improvements for both the teaching and the learning process.

Conclusion
For the teacher, the framework of soft skills confirms the ideas that good English teachers
will always remain diligent English learners and also that students learn best from what
their teachers enjoy teaching. The two qualities inherent to all of the above-mentioned
requirements of teachers, e.g., their essential soft skills, are the notion of holistic, situational
problem solving, and the willingness to continuously revise ones own sense of meaning.
It is not a closed shop we want to provide access to; it is not a finalized book we have to
work through and press home on the learners. Rather, we should try to do our best in
achieving two results simultaneously that are vital in view of the ever-changing face of
English: to enhance our students linguistic competence; and to pave ways towards
(inter)cultural competence, i.e., prepare them for the extra-linguistic demands that handling
language aptly via soft skills will undoubtedly put on them in their careers.

Notes below refer to numerical references in the text of the article.

(1) This is a list comprising those skills that form the focus of a number of relevant recent
sources, it is assimilated from Campbell 1996; Conrad 1997; Harrison et al. 1995; Leigh et al.
1998; and Murnane & Levy 1996. In addition, the listed skills are those that are named most
often by my own adult students of Business English in Germany.
(2) My argument in this article owes a lot to Hollett (1998: 18), who first brought my intention
to the integrability of Goffmans work into the more recent notion of soft skills training.
(3) This also surpasses older notions of a rudimentary and somehow simplified version of
English as a means of international communication in business, such as CCE (Common
Core English), ESP (English for Specific Purposes), PEL (Polyethnic Englishes), or Working
English.
(4) Established frameworks in linguistics might be successfully integrated into these
attempts, such as Speech Act Theory (J.L. Austin, J.R. Searle), Discourse Analysis (D.
Burton, D. Schiffrin), Pragmatics (G. Brown, G. Leech, S.C. Levinson, G. Yule), or Relevance
Theory (D. Blakemore, D. Sperber, D. Wilson).

(5) Some guidelines might be found in these rough, and deliberately stereotyped,
characteristics: Y1: adventurous type who enjoys new challenges and is always on the go;
looks forward to taking risks, and actively seeks new paths and manners; wants success in
fields that rate personal drive and congeniality highly. (Examples: stock market dealing
rooms, inventor, software marketing, e-commerce); Y2: confident in personal abilities, prefers
to be in charge rather than to take orders and work to rule; sets objectives, develops and
decides on strategies to achieve them; enjoys a big audience or following. (Examples:
selling, servicing, managerial and organizational work); X1: works well with others but
dislikes shouldering responsibility alone; prefers to implement other peoples plans rather
than his or her own; does not bear disagreement easily, but strives for co-operative solutions.
(Examples: civil service, clerical and secretarial work, military); X2: a little shy, or even timid,
may have difficulty mixing with other people; does not like facing new challenges all too
often, but is good at the behind-the-scenes job marked by routine tasks and regular duties;
might be tempted to pass the buck to someone else in case of problems. (Examples:
laboratory, research, library).
(6) This is taken, with minor alterations, from Rogers (1998: 29).
(7) Adopting the theory of the American educational psychologist Carl Rogers, we could
argue that the teachers primary tasks in this model would not be to instruct and control, but
to permit the students to learn and to feed their curiosity in the subject and in people (Rogers
1983). For an interesting poll on recent images of teachers, ranging from actor to sales rep.
and sports coach, cf. Weber and Mitchell (1996).
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Carter, R. (1997). Investigating English discourse. Language, literacy and literature. London:
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Conrad, C.A. (1997). Soft skills: An annotated bibliography prepared for the Annie Casey
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Studies.
Crystal, D. (2000). English Which way know? SPOTLIGHT, 4/2000, 54-58.
Goffman, E. (1955). On face-work: An analysis of ritual elements in social interaction.
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Harrison, B., Weiss, M. & Gant, J. (1995). Building bridges: community development,
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Hollett, V. (1998). Effective communication. English Teaching Professional, 8, 18-19.
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