WATER RESOURCES AND TREATMENT, WASTEWATER AND WATER QUALITY

PARAMETERS
Introduction to Environmental Engineering

WATER SUPPLY AND WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES:

WATER
it is intricately involved in just about every process on this
planet in one way or another.
composed merely of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom. (polar molecule)

PROPERTIES OF WATER:
1. colorless, odorless and tasteless
2. it dissolves nearly everything
3. it exists in three forms: liquid, solid, gas
4. it can absorb a large amount of heat
WATER AS AN ENVIRONMETAL STABILIZER:
Water as a medium on this planet also serves a role environmentally. It is very
stable as temperature change because the hydrogen bonds between the water
molecules themselves. When water absorbs heat, the molecules do faster but the
glue of the hydrogen bonds slows the process. Heat is transmitted slowly though
water and large bodies of water take a long time to heat up. That energy does not
quickly come back out if the temperature around the water drops, either, so masses
of water cool more slowly than other liquids would.
Masses of water also are stable in that individual molecules that have picked
up heat / motion have hard time getting free into the atmosphere, or evaporating.
There are 2 reasons for this: (1) the heat is passed around fairly evenly and so the
number of molecules going fast enough to zip free rises slowly and (2) hydrogen
bonding at the water-atmosphere surface pulls molecules at the surface more tightly
together (this produces the surface tension) and leaves less room for potential
evaporating molecules to squeeze through (this explains why evaporation is a cooling
process). There is also a wide range of temperature in which water is liquid; although
life is tricky at extremes near freezing and boiling, it is possible as long as water
remains liquid.
Another fairly unique property of water is how it solidifies: if water cools, its
molecules move more slowly and tend to pack more closely together. Like more
substances, water gets more dense at it cools. However, when too crowded, at about
4oC, the tightly-packed bipolar molecules begin to repel each other and slip into the
arrangement which, as the temperature drops, actually pushes them further apart
into kind of crystal arrangement. Thats why water is in solid form is less dense that
water in its liquid form. If ice did not float, it would freeze, sink, and expose more
surfaces to freeze and sink, and frozen bodies of water would be frozen solid from
bottom to the surface, a very poor environment for living thins and a difficult task to
thaw. In fact, ice acts as an insulator to the water underneath it. The thicker the ice,
the harder it is for the water to lose heat and freeze, so very few deep bodies of
water, even in the coldest climates, are totally frozen.

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Solid Water

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE:

Precipitation condensed water vapor that falls to the Earths surface. It includes
rain, snow, hail, fog drip, graupel and sleet.
Evaporation and Transpiration processes by which water reenters the
atmosphere. Evaporation is loss from free water surfaces. Transpiration is loss by
plants.
Percolation the surface water (especially during a precipitation event) percolates
into the ground and becomes ground water.
Runoff includes the variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This
includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may infiltrate
into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or can
be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Zone of aeration soil pore spaces contain both air and water. This zone may have
zero thickness in swamplands and be several hundred feet in arid regions. Moisture
from the zone of aeration cannot be tapped as water supply source because this
water is held on the soil particles by capillary forces and is not readily released.
Zone of saturation pores are filled with water. It referred as ground water. A
stratum containing substantial amount of ground water is called an aquifer.
SOURCES OF WATER:
1. Ground Water water that has percolated downward from the
ground surface through the soil pores.
2. Surface Water waters from rivers and lakes.
3. Sea Water
4. Reclaimed Wastewater water that has been treated sufficiently
for direct reuse in industry and agriculture and for limited municipal
applications.

WATER RESOURCES AND TREATMENT, WASTEWATER AND WATER QUALITY

PARAMETERS
Introduction to Environmental Engineering

WORLDS WATER SUPPLY:

Surface Area (sq
miles)
Salt Water
The Oceans
139,500,000
Inland Seas and
270,000
Saline Lakes
Fresh Water
Fresh Water Lakes
330,000
All Rivers
Antarctic Icecap
6,000,000
Arctic Icecap and
900,000
Glaciers
Water in the
197,000,000
Atmosphere
Ground Water
(Frozen)
Ground Water (Notfrozen)
Total

Volume
(cu mi)

% of Total

317,524,000
247,760

97.4
0.076

29,340
326
6,194,000
684,600

0.009
0.0001
1.9
0.21

3,260

0.001

1,343,120

0.412

652

0.0002

326,000,000

100

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

WATER USAGE AND CLASSIFICATION: (DAO 34-1990)

I.

Fresh Surface Waters (Rivers, Lakes, Resrvoirs, etc)

Classification
Beneficial Use
Class AA
Public Water Supply Class I. This class
is intended primarily for waters having
watersheds which are inhabited and
otherwise protected and which require
only approved disinfection in order to
meet the National Standards for Drinking
Water (NSDW) of the Philippines.
Class A
Public Water Supply Class II. For
sources of water supply that will require
complete treatment (coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection)
in order to meet the NSDW.
Class B
Recreation Water Class I. For primary
contact recreation such as bathing,
swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly
those designed for tourism purposes).
Class C
1) Fishery Water for propagation
and growth of fish and other
aquatic resources
2) Recreational Water Class II
(For boating, etc.)
3) Industrial Water Supply Class
II (For Manufacturing processes
after treatment)
Class D
1) For agriculture, irrigation,
livestock watering, etc.
2) Industrial Water Supply Class
II (for cooling, etc)
3) Other inland waters, by their
quality, belongs to this
classification
II.
Class SA

Coastal and Marine Waters

Classification

Beneficial Use
1) Waters suitable for the
propagation, survival and
harvesting of shellfish for
commercial purposes
2) Tourism zones and national
marine parks and reserves
established under Presidential
Proclamation No. 1801; existing
laws and/or declared as such by
appropriate government agency
3) Coral reef parks and reserves
designated by law and concerned
authorities

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Class SB

1) Recreational Water Class I

(Areas regularly used by the
public for bathing, swimming, skin
diving, etc.)
2) Fishery Water Class I
(Spawning areas for chanoschanos or bangus and similar
species)
1) Recreational Water Class II
(boating, etc.)
2) Fishery Water Class II
(Commercial and sustenance
fishing)
3) Marshy and/or mangrove areas
declared as fish and wildlife
sanctuaries)
1) Industrial Water Supply II
(cooling, etc.)
2) Other coastal and marine waters,
by their quality, belong to this
classification

Class SC

Class SD

USES OF WATER:
1. Irrigation
2. Public Water Supply
3. Industry
4. Transportation
5. Recreation

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES:

1. Removal of Particulate Substances:
a. Screening to remove large solids such as logs, branches,
rags, and small fish.
b. Sedimentation (Gravity Settling) the oldest and most
widely used form of water and wastewater treatment, uses
gravity settling to remove particles from water.

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Typical Settling Tank used in water treatment plants

c. Coagulation is the chemical process used to destabilize

colloidal particles.
d. Flocculation is the gentle mixing of the suspension,
which undertaken to promote particle contact.

Effect of macromolecules (polymers) in flocculating colloidal particles by

the mechanism of bridging
e. Filtration is a process in which water passes through a
filter bed made up of fine sand over a layer of supporting
gravel.

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

A rapid sand filter used in water treatment

2. Removal of Dissolved Substances:
a. Aeration use to remove excessive amount of iron and
manganese from groundwater and odor caused by H2S.

Typical Aeration Reactor

b. Softening process that removes hardness caused by Ca
and Mg ions.
Water Softening Processes:
*For Temporary Hardness (caused by Ca and Mg
Bicarbonates):
i. Boiling
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
ii. Addition of Ca(OH)2
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
*For Permanent Hardness (caused by Ca and Mg sulfates
and chlorides):
i. Addition of Na2CO3
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 + 2NaCl
c. Adsorption removal of organic contaminants using an
adsorbing material (activated carbon).

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

d. Reversed Osmosis water is forced through a semi

permeable membrane.

Reverse Osmosis
3. Removal of Pathogenic Bacteria and Viruses
a. Chlorination the most common method of disinfecting
public water supplies. The principal chlorine compounds
used in water treatment plants are chlorine (Cl2), chlorine
dioxide (ClO2), calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)2] and sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl).
b. Ozonation the disinfection of water using ozone.
c. UV

PHILIPPINE DRINKING WATER STANDARD (DOH Administrative Order 20070012

CONSTITUTENTS
MAXIMUM LEVEL OR
CHARACTERISTIC
Antimony
0.02 mg/L
Arsenic
0.05 mg/L
Barium
0.7 mg/L
Boron
0.5 mg/L
Cadmium
0.003 mg/L
Chromium (Total)
0.05 mg/L
Cyanide (Total)
0.07 mg/L
Fluoride
1 mg/L
Lead
0.01 mg/L
Mercury (Total)
0.001 mg/L
Nickel
0.02 mg/L

WATER RESOURCES AND TREATMENT, WASTEWATER AND WATER QUALITY

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Nitrate
Nitrite
Selenium
Benzene
Carbon Tetrachloride
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
Toluene
Vinyl Chloride
Xylene
Chlordane
Aldrin and Dieldrin
DDT
Lindane
Taste
Odor
Color
Turbidity
Aluminum
Chloride
Copper
Hardness
Hydrogen Sulfide
Iron
Manganese
pH
Sodium
Sulfate
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Zinc

50 mg/L
3 mg/L
0.01 mg/L
0.01 mg/L
0.004 mg/L
0.0007 mg/L
0.7 mg/L
0.0003 mg/L
0.5 mg/L
0.2 g/L
0.03 g/L
1 g/L
2 g/L
No objectionable taste
No objectionable odor
Apparent (10 Color Units)
True (5 Color Units)
5 NTU
0.2 mg/L
250 mg/L
1 mg/L
300 mg/L as CaCO3
0.05 mg/L
1 mg/L
0.4 mg/L
6.5 8.5
5 7 (for product water that undergone
reverse osmosis or distillation process)
200 mg/L
250 mg/L
500 mg/L
<10 mg/L (for product water that
undergone reverse osmosis or distillation
process)
5 mg/L

WASTE WATER (SEWAGE) a complex of mixture containing water (over 99%)

together with organic and inorganic contaminants, both suspended or dissolved.
SOURCES OF WASTEWATER:
1. Point direct sources (sewers outfalls or industrial discharges.
2. Non Point indirect sources (urban or agricultural runoff or air pollution)
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTEWATER
1. Municipal Wastewater wastewater from humans, residential areas,
industrial and commercial establishments.
Sanitary Sewage excreted waste from humans
Domestic Sewage wastewater from residential areas
2. Industrial Wastewater wastewater from industries
3. Stormwater runoff from rainfall, snowmelt, and street washing

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

CONSTITUTENTS OF WASTE WATER:

1. Microorganisms
2. Solids
a. Suspended Solids (SS)
b. Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)
c. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
3. Inorganic Constituents
a. Chlorides and Sulfates normally present in water and in
wastes from humans
b. Nitrogen and Phosphorus forms in wastes from
humans, with additional phosphorus detergents
c. Carbonates and Bicarbonates normally present in
water and wastes as calcium and magnesium salts
d. Toxic Substances arsenic, cyanide, and heavy metals
found in industrial wastes
4. Organic Matter
Measurement of Organic Strength of Wastewater:
1. TOC (Total Organic Carbon) determined by measuring
the amount of CO2 produced when the organic carbon in the
sample is oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent and
comparing with the amount in a standard of known TOC.
2. COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) the measured
amount of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize the organics
present.
3. BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) the measured
amount of oxygen required by acclimated microorganisms to
biologically degrade the organic matter in the wastewater.

WATER POLLUTION occurs when the discharge of waste impairs water quality or
disturbs the natural ecological balance.
Effects of Pollutants:
1. Pathogens agent that causes infection in a living host
Pathogens
Health Effects
Salmonella
Salmonellasis - acute gastroenteritis,
blood poisoning, typhoid fever
Shigella
Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)
abdominal cramps, diarrhea and fever
Vibrio Cholarae
Cholera abdominal cramps, nausea,
vomiting and profuse diarrhea that may
lead to dehydration, shock and death
Viruses
Infectious Hepatitis fever, loss of
appetite and energy, headache, backpain
and jaundice
Entamoeba Histolyca
Amebiasis (Amebic Dysentery) stomach

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Giardia Lamblia
Cryptodporodium
Schistosoma

cramps and diarrhea

Giardiasis abdominal cramps, diarrhea,
fatigue, anorexia and nausea
Cryptoporidiosis diarrhea, abdominal
pain, nausea and vomiting.
Schistosomiasis caused by blood flukes
(parasitic worm)

2. Organic Matter increase BOD

3. Solids unsightly deposits, odorous sludge banks, reduced penetration of
sunlight through water
4. Nutrients algae boom, it can cause eutrophication
5. Color and Foam limitation of light penetration and reduction of DO
levels
6. Heat thermal pollution
WASTEWATER COLLECTION:
1. Sanitary Sewers carry domestic sewage, liquid commercial and
industrial wastes, and undesirable contributions from infiltration and storm
water.
2. Storm Sewers receive stormwater runoff from roads, roofs, lawns, and
other sources
3. Combine Sewers perform the functions of sanitary and storm sewers

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES:

I. PRIMARY TREATMENT
1. Screening to remove large floating material
2. Communition the process of grinding up the course solids without
removing them from the flow.

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

A typical communitor

3. Grit removal sand, small stones and grit are removed

Grit Chamber
4. Primary Gravity Settling where particulate matter settles out to form
sludge

Circular Settling Tank

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Rectangular Settling Tank

5. Anaerobic Digestion biological decomposition of concentration solids
(raw sludge)
II. SECONDARY TREATMENT
1. Activated Sludge System (Suspended Growth Reactors)
biochemical process that converts the organic contaminants into CO 2,
water, some stable compounds and more microorganism.

Activates Sludge System

2. Trickling Filter it consists of a bed of highly permeable medium to

which microorganisms are attached and through which the wastewater is
percolated or trickled.

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Trickling Filter
3. Gas Transfer the process of allowing any gas to dissolve in a fluid or the
opposite of that, promoting the release of a dissolved gas from a liquid.
III. ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT
- removal of nutrients such as phosphates, nitrates organic chemicals
and heavy metals
1. Rapid Sand Filter similar to those in drinking-water treatment plants
can be used to remove residual suspended solids and to polish the water.
2. Oxidation Ponds are commonly used for BOD removal. The oxidation or
polishing pond is essentially a hole in the ground, a large pond used to
confine the plant effluent before it is discharged into the natural
watercourse.
3. Activated Carbon Adsorption another method of BOD removal, and
this process has added advantage that inorganics as well as organics are
removed.
4. Nitrogen Removal - bacteria such as nitrobacter and nitrosomonas
convert ammonia nitrogen to NO3-, a process called nitrification.
5. Phosphorous Removal is accomplished by either chemical or biological
means.

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EFFLUENTS REQUIREMENTS:
1. Water Quality Criteria acceptable kind of contaminants in water body
that is tested to be tolerated by the aquatic life in it or the humans who
consume it.
2. Water Quality Standards water quality criteria that are implemented
after considering political, social, economic, environmental, public health.
And other aspects that may hinder implementing it.

WATER QUALITY:
Water Quality Parameters:
1. Dissolved Oxygen
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
3. Solids
4. Nitrogen
5. Bacteriological measurements
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO):
Measurement of DO:
1. Dissolved Oxygen Meter:

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Reaction at the lead electrode (anode):

Pb + 2OH- PbO + H2O + 2eReaction at the silver electrode (cathode):
2e- + O2 + H2O 2OH* the current is proportional to the DO level
2. Winkler Method
- is considered the "gold standard" for measuring the concentration of
dissolved oxygen in a sample of water.
Chemical
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reagents Needed:
manganese sulfate
NaOH-KI solution
sulfuric acid
starch solution (indicator)
sodium thiosulfate (titrant)

This method involves the following steps:

1. Manganese sulfate is introduced into the water sample made alkaline by
NaOH.
MnSO4 + NaOH Mn(OH)2 + Na2SO4
2. The oxygen dissolved in the water reacts with the precipitate according to
the following equation.
2Mn(OH)2 + O2 2MnO(OH)2
3. The resulting precipitate is dissolved by adding sulfuric acid in the
presence of KI.
2MnO(OH)2 + 4H+ + 2I- Mn2+ + I2 + 3H2O
4. The evolved I2 is then titrated with standard sodium thiosulfate solution
according to the equation:
I2 + 2Na2S2O3 2NaI + Na2S4O6

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

(M x V) thiosulfate

mg O2

1 mmole O2

4 mmole Na2S2O3

mmole O2
mg/L

32
1

Volume Sample (L)

mg/L = concentration of O2 in water sample (ppm)

Sample Problem:
A DO content of 500 mL of water sample was determined using Winkler method.
During the analysis, 200 mL of the aliquot portion of the sample was titrated with
0.025M Na2S2O3. Calculate the DO of the water sample if the volume of thiosulfate
consumed in the process was 8.3 mL.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD):
BOD = I F
Where :

I initial DO, mg/L

F final DO, mg/L

BOD5 = (DOi DOt) x D = (I F) x D

Where :

DOi = the initial DO of the diluted water

(blank)
DOt = the final DO of the diluted wastewater,
(5 days later)
D = dilution factor

D=
=
=

total vol of bottle

vol of sample
vol of diluted water
vol of undiluted water
100
sample size (%)

Where : sample size = vol of undiluted sample

X 100%
vol of diluted water
Saturation Values of DO in water under a pressure of 101.325 kPa (1atm):
Temp (oC)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

DO (mg/L)
14.60
14.19
13.81
13.44
13.09
12.75
12.43
12.12
11.83

Temp (oC)
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

DO (mg/L)
8.56
8.40
8.24
8.09
7.95
7.81
7.67
7.54
7.41

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

11.55
11.27
11.01
10.76
10.52
10.29
10.07
9.85
9.65
9.45
9.26
9.07
8.90
8.72

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

7.28
7.16
7.05
6.93
6.82
6.71
6.61
6.51
6.41
6.31
6.22
6.13
6.04
5.95

BOD BOTTLE:

Sample Problems:
1. Three BOD bottles were prepared with sample and dilution water as shown in
the following table:
Bottle #
Sample, mL
Dilution Water,
mL
1
3
297
2
1.5
298.5
3
0.75
299.25
Calculate the dilution (D) for each.
2. The BOD of a wastewater sample is estimated to be 180 mg/L at 25 oC. What
volume of undiluted sample should be added to a 300 mL bottle if the initial
DO is the saturation? What is the sample size and dilution factor using this

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

volume? Assume that 2 mg/L can be consumed in the bottle. What is the BOD 5
of the wastewater if the DO of the DO values for the blank and diluted sample
are 8.7 and 4.2 mg/L, respectively?
3. A test bottle containing dilution water has its DO level drop by 1.0 mg/L in a
five-day test. A 300-mL BOD bottle filled with 15 mL wateswater experiences a
drop of 7.2 mg/L in the same time period. What would be the BOD 5 of the
wastewater?
THE EFFECT OF OXYGEN-DEMANDING WASTE ON RIVERS OR STREAMS:
A stream acting like a plug-flow reactor:

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Mass Balance:

mass of DO in wastewater

SYSTEM
mass of DO in river

mass of DO in river
after mixing

mass of DO in wastewater = QpCp

mass of DO in river = QsCs
where :

Qp volumetric flow rate of wastewater

Qs volumetric flow rate of the river
Cp DO of wastewater
Cs DO of the river
QpCp + QsCs

DOaftermixing

Qp + Qs

for ultimate BOD:

LsQs + LpQp
Lo

Where:

Q s + Qp
Ls = ultimate BOD of the river
Lp = ultimate BOD of wastewater

L (Ultimate BOD) the maximum oxygen consumption possible when the waste
has been completely degraded.
L=

BODt
(1 e-kt)

Where :

BODt = BOD at time t

k = reaction rate constant
t = time in days

DO SAG CURVE:

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SOLIDS:
Total Solids is the residue on evaporation at 103oC (slightly higher than the boiling
point of water)

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

Wds - Wd
TS =

Where:TS = total solids, mg/L

Wds = weight of dish plus dry solids after evaporation, mg
Wd = weight of the clean dish, mg
V = volume of sample, L
Wds - Wd
TS =

X 106

Where:TS = total solids, mg/L

Wds = weight of dish plus dry solids after evaporation, g
Wd = weight of the clean dish, g
V = volume of sample, mL

Suspended Solids:
SS =

Wdf - Wd

X 10 6

V
Where:SS = suspended solids, mg/L
Wdf = weight of dish plus dry filtered solids, g
Wd = weight of clean crucible, g
V = volume of sample, ml
Fixed Solids:
Wdu - Wd
FS =

X 106

Where:FS = fixed solids, mg/L

Wdu = weight of dish plus unburned solids, g
Wd = weight of clean crucible, g
V = volume of sample, ml
Volatile Solids:
VS = TS FS
Sample Problem:
1. Given the following date: The weight of a dish = 48.7123 grams. A 200-mL
sample is placed in the dish and the water is evaporated. The weight of the

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Introduction to Environmental Engineering

dish and dry solids = 48.7267 grams. The dish is placed in a 600oC furnace for
24 hours and then cooled in a desiccator. The weight of the cooled dish and
residue or unburned solids, = 48.7227 grams. Find the total, volatile and fixed
solids.

24