Bio4.Evolution Aust BiotaU PDF

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Preliminary Biology Topic 4
EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN BIOTA
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. PLATE TECTONICS & THE FORMATION OF AUSTRALIA
2. EVOLUTION IN AUSTRALIA
3. ADAPTATIONS FOR REPRODUCTION
4. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY
but first, an introduction...

More on Evolution...
Plate Tectonics &

Moving Continents
You may already be aware that a map of the world would not
always have looked as it does today.
In the previous topic you learned some of the

Facts of Evolution... the evidence that life on
Earth has changed over millions of years.
The science of Plate Tectonics has revealed that the

Earths crust is made up of a number of separate
plates which slowly move the continents about,
splitting up and colliding over millions of years.
In this topic you will learn about the process of

Natural Selection which is believed to be the
driving force that causes evolution to happen
Nature
chooses
the
survivors
In this topic you will consider some of the evidence for

the moving continents, and learn how Australia came
to be the island continent.
Australias Unique Biota

Biota means all the plants (Flora) and animals
(Fauna) of a particular region.
You already know that Australias native plants
and animals are sometimes cute, sometimes
deadly dangerous and always interesting for their
unique appearance and habits.
In this topic you will find out a little about some of
the earlier inhabitants of Australia, and what
happened to them.
You will also study some of the ways that our
biota is superbly adapted to Australias harsh and
unpredictable climate.
Preliminary Biology Topic 4 Evolution Aust.Biota
copyright 2005-2
2008 keep it simple science
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
... and the

losers!
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember
the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back
to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
Evidence
for
Plate
Tectonics
Changing
Ideas about
Australian
Animals
The Evidence
for Climate
Change
Structure
of the Earth
Natural
Selection,
Variation
and Evolution
Plate Tectonics
& the
Formation of Australia
Evolution of
Aust. Plants
Evolution
in Australia
EVOLUTION
of
AUSTRALIAN BIOTA
Megafauna
&
Extinction
Asexual v Sexual
Mitosis v Meiosis
External v Internal
Fertilization
Adaptations
for
Reproduction
Maintaining
Biodiversity
Case Study:
Extinction of
the Thylacine
When Asexual
Reproduction
is Useful
Value of
Biodiversity
How
Palaeontology
Can Help
copyright 2005-2
Reproductive
Adaptations
of
Australian
Animals
Reproductive
Adaptations
of
Australian
Plants
1. PLATE TECTONICS & THE FORMATION OF AUSTRALIA

The Structure of the Earth
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and the behaviour of the shock waves they produce.
During the 20th century, seismology revealed that the Earth is not a solid ball of rock,
but made up of a number of layers.
CROSS-S
SECTION of the EARTH
CRUST
of lower
density rocks
OUTER
CORE
Liquid iron
& nickel
Furthermore, we have come to realize that the

crust is not a single solid skin on the outside
of the Earth. Rather, it has fractured into about a
dozen plates which slide around as the mantle
currents push from below. Since they are all
touching on the surface of a sphere, as the plates
move they must:
move apart from each other
or,
slide sideways past each other
or,
collide with each other.
SEA-F
FLOOR SPREADING
As plates move apart, new
MANTLE
of higher
density rock
rock fills the gap, creating a

mid-o
ocean ridge
Ocean
INNER
CORE
Solid iron
& nickel
Con
tine
nt
ent
Contin
Convection Currents in
Mantle
We now know that the outer layer, the

crust is not tightly attached to the
mantle below it. Also, the mantle is not
rigid and solid, but plastic, and can
slowly flow in huge convection currents
that are bringing heat energy outward
from the Earths core. These convection
currents push against the crust.
push crust plates apart
As the plates move, they carry the continents,

and the crust under the oceans, with them.
Australia wasnt always the

island continent of today.
The Evidence for Plate Tectonics

THE ANCIENT SOUTHERN CONTINENT
GONDWANA
The Shape of the Continents
Edge of
continental
shelf
Africa
The continental shelf is the true edge

of each continent. In most cases it is
under water today.
Antarctica
South America
The evidence suggests that about 130

million years ago all the southern
continents (plus India, New Zealand
and New Guinea) were joined together
in a single super-continent called
Gondwana. Forces under the crust,
however, caused Gondwana to begin to
break apart.
copyright 2005-2
India
Modern
coastlines
Au
st
ra
lia
The continents of the Earth are like jigsaw puzzle pieces... they fit together
quite well, especially along the lines of
the continental shelf rather than the
actual coastline.
Moving at a rate of a few cm per year,

Gondwana broke apart and the
fragments moved gradually to their
modern-day positions.
3
The Mid-Ocean Ridges

Its not just the shapes of the continents that convince scientists of Continental
Drift. On the ocean floors, under several kilometers of water, the mid-ocean ridges
show strong evidence of sea-floor spreading where plates are moving apart.
The rocks of the parallel ridges are
youngest in the middle and get
progressively older as you move
outward.
Parallel undersea
ridges
Older
rocks
Central Rift
Youngest
rocks
New molten
rock fills the
rift
In a few places on Earth, spreading

zones are visible on dry land too. The
Great African Rift Valley is a
spreading zone which will one day make
most of east Africa into an island.
Symmetrical patterns of
magnetism on either
side of central rift
The Rift Valley contains many deep

lakes between parallel escarpments.
There are several active volcanoes, and
the area is an active earthquake zone.
Older
rocks
Mantle
Convection
Currents
push plates apart
Great Rift
Valley
The residual magnetism in the rocks

(which was aligned as the rock
hardened from molten lava) shows a
symmetry on either side of the central
ridge. Each matching band of
magnetism represents a line of new rock
formed as the crust plates moved apart.
Later, these bands were separated by
even newer rock injected from below as
the crust plates continued to move.
East Africa is
splitting away
from the rest
of the
continent
Fossil Evidence for Moving Continents

The distribution of certain fossils gives us more evidence of the moving continents.
One particular fossil is a plant called
Glossopteris. It has been discovered in rocks in
many parts of the southern hemisphere,
including Antarctica.
GONDWANA
Africa
A number of animal fossils, dating from 100-200

million years ago, have been found only in
S.America & Africa, or in Africa, India &
Australia. The crocodile-like Mesosaurus is
known from fossils in Africa & South America.
Glossopteris
Oz
South
America
These places are now widely separated, and it is

very unlikely that these plants or animals could
cross an ocean. The explanation is that these
organisms lived in a united Gondwana, and their
fossils have been separated by later continental
movement.
copyright 2005-2
India
Mesosaurus
Evidence from Distribution of Modern Species

There are some living species which
show the same pattern of distribution as
the fossils such as Glossopteris.
Marsupial mammals which are found

only in Australia, New Guinea &
America. (Fossils are found in Africa)
Antarctic Beech trees found only in
Australia & South America (& fossils in
Antarctica).
Lungfish
Flightless birds
Marsupials
Large flightless birds; emu, ostrich,

rhea & the recently extinct moa (New
Zealand) & elephant bird (Madagascar).
Antarctic beech
The explanation is that these groups

evolved in Gondwana, and then were
carried to their current locations by the
drifting continents.
Freshwater lungfish in Australia, Africa

& S.America.
The Break-up of Gondwana

Is Australia Still Moving?
India split off early, and bulldozed its way

towards Asia. That collision produced the
Himalayas, with some seafloor sediments now
9km above sea level! Africa also moved north and
is still colliding with Europe.
Apparently so! The ocean floors have now been

well mapped so we know where the mid-ocean
ridges are. The positions of frequent
earthquakes and active volcanoes identify the
plate boundaries.
India
The volcanic islands to our north indicate that

this is a collision zone between the IndoAustralian plate and the Asian plate.
Africa
How fast is the movement?

Australia
South America
GONDWANA
Fragments
It averages between 2-5 cm per year. This

means about 50km per million years. As
volcanoes add to the islands, and the plate
slides north, it is likely you will be able to walk
to China in 5-10 million years... but youll have
to climb over some serious mountains!
Japan joined
to Asian
mainland
Antarctica
South America separated about 50mya. It

went west, and north, and rotated. About 20
mya, it made contact with
North America.
Australia and Antarctica (still joined) initially moved
east. Then Antarctica separated and went seriously
south. By 40mya, Australia was isolated from other land
masses, but connected to India by the
oceanic crust of the Indian Ocean.
Since then, Australia has been moving north. Our plate
is colliding with Asia, and the Pacific Plate.
copyright 2005-2
Indonesian
islands become
mountainous
land bridge
connecting
Australia to Asia
Future Map of East Asia?
NZ islands
further apart
and larger
Changing Ideas About Australian Animals

When the first specimen of a platypus was sent back to England after the
European settlement of Australia, it was thought to be a hoax.
The platypus seemed an impossible animal, with a duck-like bill, fur like an otter,
webbed feet and a sharp, poisonous spur on its leg.
That perception is changing. Fossil
discoveries in South America of
platypus-like animals prove that
monotremes did not just evolve in
Australia, but in wider Gondwana.
It was eventually accepted as real, but

when it became known that it
reproduced by laying eggs, it and the
echidna were classified into a separate
sub-class
of
mammals...
the
Monotremes.
For more than

Poisonous
spur
a century, the
monotremes
were
considered as
living fossils
and thought to
be extremely
primitive and
therefore,
Lays eggs, yet
somehow
produces milk to
inferior to
feed its babies
mainstream
placental mammals.
Webbed feet
with claws
Duckbill
Furthermore, the
more research is
done on the platypus and
other native Australians animals, the
more scientists realize that these are not
primitive creatures. Yes, they have an
ancient lineage, but they are highly
adapted to the unpredictable Australian
climate, and have thrived through
millions of years of ecological changes
in one of the harshest environments on
Earth.
The marsupials were thought to be only

slightly more advanced, and the
consensus was that Australian fauna,
like the nation itself, was a bit
backward.
It was thought that the only reason such

primitives had survived into the
modern era, was because Australia had
been isolated so that they faced no
competition from superior, more
advanced mammals.

copyright 2005-2
They had
already faced
competition from
advanced
placental
mammals before
Australia became
isolated... and
they won!
Australian native plants and animals are

now being seen as ancient, but highly
sophisticated life forms.
Worksheet 1
Plate Tectonics & Australias Formation
Fill in the blank spaces

The study of earthquakes is called
a).................................. This science has
revealed that the Earth has a number of
layers. On the outside is a thin
b)....................... and under it is the thick
c)........................ The crust is fractured
into a number of d)...................... which
can
slide
around,
driven
by
e).................... currents in the mantle.
This whole concept is referred to as
Plate f)...............................
More evidence for plate movement

comes from fossils such as the plant
r).............................. Its fossils are found
on all southern continents and India.
The explanation is that it lived in areas
right across s).....................................,
and the fossils have been separated by
plate movement.
The distribution of some modern
species can also be explained by
continental drift. Marsupials are found
in Australia and t).................................
Lungfish
are
in
Australia,
u)........................ and ................................
Other
examples
are
the
v)................................ (e.g. emu, ostrich)
and the w)..................... ................... tree.
The continents fit together like jig-saw

pieces, especially if you fit them along
their g)........................... shelf rather than
coastline. The continents of Australia,
Africa, h)....................., ..........................
and .................................... were once
connected forming the super-continent
i)...............................
The ancestors of each of these groups

are thought to have lived throughout
Gondwana, and the various populations
were separated when the plates moved.
From about 75 MYA i).............................

began to break up forming the separate
continents of today. Australia separated
from j).......................... about 40 MYA and
spent k)................ million years totally
isolated. It was in this time that many of
Australias plants and animals evolved
from Gondwanan ancestors.
Australia is currently being carried

x)........................ (direction) on the
y)................................................. plate at a
speed of about z)................ cm per year.
Australian native animals are mainly
aa).................................. (pouched) plus
the platypus and ab)...............................
which are egg-laying ac)..........................
Evidence for Continental Drift

includes the l)..................................
ridges, found along the ocean floors all
around the Earth. These are zones
where
crustal
plates
are
m).................................. The ocean-floor
crust shows a series of ridges which are
youngest n)........................... and get
older as you go further in each
direction. The rocks show matching
patterns of o).......................... on either
side of the central rift. As the plates
move apart, new crust is formed from
p)............................... coming up from
the q).............................
copyright 2005-2
They were considered ad)........................

and inferior to placentals, but are now
being seen as ancient, but highly
ae)..................................
WHEN COMPLETED,
WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Worksheet 2 Practice Questions section 1

Multiple Choice
Longer Response Questions
Mark values given are suggestions only, and are
to give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
appropriate. Answer in the spaces provided.
1.
The movement of the Tectonic Plates is
driven by:
A. the plates pushing on each other.
B. movements of the liquid core.
C. thrusting of earthquakes at plate
boundaries.
D. convection currents in the mantle.
5. (4 marks)
Indentify and describe TWO pieces of evidence
that support the assertion that Australia was
once part of a larger landmass called
Gondwana.
2.
Which present-day landmass was NOT part of
Gondwana?
A. India
B. Europe
C. New Zealand
D. Africa
6. (3 marks)
Outline how the ideas of scientists about
Australian species, such as the platypus, have
changed over the past 200 years.
3.
Of the following, the youngest rocks would be
found:
A. near the centre of a mid-ocean ridge.
B. at the continental shelf.
C. on the ocean floor, well away from the
mid-ocean ridge.
D. under folded continental mountains.
4.
The distribution of fossils of the plant
Glossopteris provide evidence that:
A. plant seeds can drift across an ocean
and survive.
B. the southern continents were once all
joined together.
C. dinosaurs were widespread in Gondwana.
D. modern Australian plants evolved from
Glossopteris.

copyright 2005-2
7. (3 marks)
The ratites are a family of flightless birds such
as the emu, ostrich and kiwi. None of this group
are native to the northern hemisphere, but are
found throughout the south. Being flightless,
and poor swimmers, it is impossible that they
spread by crossing the oceans.
Account for their presence on all the major
landmasses of the southern hemisphere.
2. EVOLUTION IN AUSTRALIA
Natural Selection & Evolution
How Natural Selection Works

A population of a species with a lot of variations
The fact that life on Earth has

undergone a sequence of changes was
dealt with in the previous topic.
hairy
The scientific theory to explain how and

why evolution occurs all hinges on the
concept of Natural Selection, and the
key to this is the variation within each
species... the simple fact that
individuals are not the same as each
other.
long
legs
light
colour
Then, the climate changes...
big
ears
squat
body
winters get colder
Many die in the harsh winters
hairy survives
Natural Selection refers to the way

that the conditions of nature constantly
select who survives and who dies. If
survival depends on speed to run from a
predator, then the faster individuals
survive and the slower ones get eaten.
In a drought those plants with slightly
thicker cuticle on their leaves conserve
water and survive, while others die.
Squat survives
Survivors breed
over many generations
The survivors pass on their characteristics.

Soon most of the population are squat and hairy.
No single animal changed, but the population has
changed because of which animals
survived and reproduced.
The Importance of Variation

It is vital for the on-going survival of a
species that it has variation among the
individuals of the population.
It may seem as if Evolution is an

intelligent
force
which
directs
organisms in an appropriate direction.
In our fictitious population of animals,
the climate became colder and it would
seem that some evolutionary force
caused an appropriate change in the
population... they became squat & hairy
to conserve body heat better.
When
changes
occur
in
the
environment, a species with a lot of
variation has more chance to survive,
because out of all the different types
there is a good chance that at least
some will survive to breed and continue
the species.
But of course squat and hairy were

already in the population. They simply
became more common, and finally
predominant, because these types
survived in greater numbers and
reproduced
to
pass
on
their
characteristics to their offspring.
A species with little variation within it,

might have no survivors from an
environmental change, and become
extinct.
What constitutes an environmental
change? It could be...
a change of climate.
a new disease, predator or competitor
in the ecosystem.
a change in availability of a food
resource, or any other factor.
copyright 2005-2
long
neck
Evolution is not intelligent. Nature

selects the survivors from the different
types available. Survivors breed... if
youre dead, you cant reproduce!
9
Evolution of Australian Biota

Over the past 100 million years
Australia has gone from being
part of Gondwana to a
separate island continent...
The Sclerophyll Plants

Scleropylls are those plants which are
adapted to dry climates. They are
characterized by thin, small leaves with
a very thick waxy cuticle and are very
resistant to drying out. In drought, when
other leaves would wilt and wither,
scleropyll leaves maintain their shape,
and when water is available again they
quickly regain their normal functioning.
India
Africa
Australia
South America
Australian flora today is dominated by

three main sclerophyll types:
Eucalypt (Gum trees)
Banksia (Bottle brush and Grevillia)
Acacia (Wattle & mulga)
GONDWANA
Fragments
Antarctica
... so there has been a lot of

environmental change,
... and a lot of evolution!
The Evidence for Climate Change

Fossils dated between 50-100 million
years old show that most of central
Australia was once covered by lush
forests. Some of the common plants
included the seed-fern Glossopteris and
the rainforest species Antarctic
Beech.
Typical
Gum Forest
This proves that at that time much of

Australia (and much of Gondwana) had
a much wetter climate than today. When
sea-levels rose about 40 million years
ago, parts of central Australia were
covered by an inland sea.
Fossils of leaves and pollen in New

Zealand and South America show that
the Eucalypts and Banksias were
already Gondwana inhabitants before 50
million years ago, but must have been
relatively rare and unimportant during
the time of the great rainforests in
Australia.
Animal fossils include those of

crocodiles, flamingos and tortoises
which
indicate
extensive
water
environments.
However, as the climate dried the

rainforest plants (like Antarctic Beech)
struggled and the sclerophylls thrived.
About 25 million years ago sclerophyll
pollens suddenly become very common
in the fossil record.
As Gondwana split up, and Australia

moved north, the climate gradually
became drier. The evidence is the
appearance in the fossil record, at about
25 million years ago, of sclerophyll
plants beoming very common.
copyright 2005-2
10
From 2 MYA to Today
Adaptations of Banksias to Fire
By about 2 million years ago, the

rainforests had lost the battle west of
the Great Dividing Range. Central
Australia
was
partly
desert
environment, with open grasslands and
sclerophyll forests surrounding the
deserts. The rainforests still dominated
the mountains and many valleys along
the east coast.
The Banksia plants of Western Australia

are more primitive and resemble the
fossils and their modern day Gondwana
relatives in South Africa and New
Zealand.
In Eastern Australia the Banksias are
more distantly related and there are
many different species, with many
different ways of dealing with fire in
their environment. This seems to be the
result of natural selection acting on the
variations that were present in ancestral
Banksia populations.
The sclerophyll forests contained

eucalypts, banksia and acacia and a
number of other types such as
Casuarinas.
Then about 100,000 years ago another
environmental factor changed... fire
became more common. We find layers
of charcoal and ash in the sediments
from these times. Presumably, the fires
were initially caused by lightning strikes
in the dry bushland, but after about
40,000 years ago the evidence for fire
becomes even more noticeable.
Some adaptations to cope with fire are:

Thick, corky bark with epicormic buds
underneath.
The buds are stimulated by fire, and so
the blackened trunk soon sprouts new
shoots after a fire.
Lignotubers - thickened roots, from
which new shoots sprout after fire
destroys everything above ground.
We think the Aboriginal people had

arrived by then, and part of their culture
was to deliberately set fires. They knew
that fire encouraged the growth of more
open grassland, which attracted more
grazing animals (e.g. large kangaroos)
and this meant better hunting for the
people.
Hard, woody seed pods (Banksia

men) which split open after being
scorched by fire, dropping seeds into
the fertile ashes and germinate rapidly
after any slight rain.
Fire also altered the composition of the

sclerophyll woodlands. Some of the
sclerophyll plants (especially Banksia)
can survive and regenerate quickly after
fire. They became more common.
Others, such as Casuarina do not
survive fire as well, and became less
common. Today, the Casuarinas (sheoaks) are common in swampy areas,
and along creek margins where fires
have less impact, but they are no longer
a dominant type in the bush as they
once were.
copyright 2005-2
Banksia showing a seed pod

11
Meanwhile, the Animals...

When Australia became isolated from other
Gondwana fragments about 40 million years ago
its fauna was dominated by the marsupials
(pouched mammals) and reptiles.
There were also many other species of huge

kangaroos, wombats, snakes and crocodiles,
but it seems that Australias megafauna were
not as big as in other parts of the world, possibly
because the developing sclerophyll flora, and
the ancient, poor soils could not support as
much biomass as (say) Europe.
As happened in many parts of the world in the

past 20-30 million years, some animals evolved
to be very, very large... the megafauna. In the
Northern Hemisphere it was species like
mammoth, sabre-tooth cats and huge
rhinoceros species. In Australia, the megafauna
included:
It is also notable that the top predators seemed

to be reptiles rather than mammals. One
plausible theory is that reptiles, which do not
need to constantly burn food to maintain body
temperature, need less food and can eat less
often. Reptiles can survive as top predators in
food pyramids that contain less total biomass. A
mammal predator needs to eat more often and
needs a food pyramid containing more biomass.
Diprotodon - a 2 tonne wombat relative.

Procoptodon - a 3 metre tall kangaroo.
Megalania - a 7 metre, 1,000 kg goanna.
PROCOPTODON
EXAMPLES OF AUSTRALIAS
EXTINCT MEGAFAUNA
DIPROTODON
Human
figure
gives
scale
What Happened to the Megafauna?

In Europe, Asia and North & South America there is convincing evidence that
humans contributed to the extinction of the large mammals. Climate change at the
end of the last Ice-Age probably helped too, but there is no doubt that early
humans hunted large mammals, like the mammoth, in large numbers.
Human-Caused Extinction?
Climate Change Extinction?
In Australia, most of the megafauna species

disappeared between 35,000 and 10,000
years ago. Aborigines were well established
by those times and undoubtably lived at the
same time as these mega-species. However,
there is no evidence of them hunting these
species... no animal bones in human camp
sites, no tool cuts on the animal bones.
Perhaps the megafauna just could not cope with

the climate changes, including the severe
cooling and drying during the last ice-age?
But then, these animals, and their forebears had
survived many previous ice-ages over 25 million
years. The most recent ice-age was not as
severe as some previous.
We await more evidence to settle this debate!

copyright 2005-2
12
A Timeline of Australian Evolutionary History

Mega fauna extinct
35,000 - 10,000
years ago
Aboriginal people arrive from

S.E. Asia, approx 40,000 years ago.
Introduce the dingo, and use fire to
promote grasslands. Fire alters the
balance of sclerophyll plant types.
10
Sclerophyll pollens become

very common in fossil record.
Australian climate begins to get

drier... rainforests come under
pressure... sclerophylls
become more common.
Marsupial & Reptile Megafauna
dominate the continent.
30
40
South America
separates.
Major Extinction
Event.
Ag
o
20
Australia makes
contact with Asia. Bats
& various birds come
in by island hopping.
Acacia plants arrive,
and being sclerophylls,
they thrive.
Australia separates from Antarctica

and begins 25 million years
of complete isolation.
Australian Flora dominated

by rainforest species
70
e.g. Antarctic Beech.

Fauna dominated by mammals
and birds.
80
Gondwana begins breaking up.

Africa & India separate.
Australia still joined to
Antarctica & S.America
90
10
0
11
0
Sclerophyll
dominance
complete
2 MYA
60
Dinosaurs extinct.
Mammals begin evolving
to fill ecological niches
left vacant.
Mi
llio
ns
of
Ye
ar
s
50
Australia part of Gondwana super-c

continent.
Glossopteris plants common.
Dinosaurs are the dominant animals.
Mammals exist, but are minor players.

copyright 2005-2
13
Charles Darwin and Evolutionary Theory

In the 1830s a young English naturalist, Charles Darwin, sailed
around the world on board the navy survey ship HMS Beagle.
He studied the plants and animals, and rocks and fossils
in many places, especially in South America.
He became convinced that life on Earth had changed,
and was capable of evolving by Natural Selection.
He devoted his life to developing his theory, and collecting
more evidence to support his ideas. He knew that his
theory would not be readily accepted by the
conservative society of the time.
The Huxley - Wilberforce

Debate of 1860
Darwin in Australia
On its journey around the world, the
Beagle called into Sydney, and Darwin
spent time ashore, travelling overland to
Bathurst and collecting and studying
Australias flora and fauna.
Darwin published his evidence and

ideas on evolution in 1859, but it took
some time for people to become aware
of them. On first reading, Darwins ideas
are not easy to absorb and fully
understand, so it took time for the
theory to sink-in. To this day, it
remains one of the least understood of
all the major theories of Science.
He noted how well suited the plants were

to the dry Australian climate. He was later
to link this to his idea of Natural Selection,
explaining the sclerophyll characteristics
as adaptations to the climate.
He also noticed similarities between
some Australian plants and species he
had seen in S.America and in Africa. He
could not explain this except by seeds
drifting across oceans, and he carried
out many experiments immersing plant
seeds in sea-water to test if it was
possible.
One of the events that focused attention

on this new theory was a famous debate
at Oxford University in 1860.
The main speakers were Thomas
Huxley, who argued the case for
Darwins theory, and Archbishop
Samuel
Willberforce
who
was
vehemently opposed to it, on both
scientific and religious grounds.
(He had no knowledge of Continental Drift.)
He was fascinated by the marsupial

fauna, but considered them as inferior
to the placental mammals of other
continents, and believed they had only
survived because of lack of competition
from real mammals.
It has generally been considered that

Huxley got the better of the debate and
this event helped establish the Theory
of Evolution as a credible scientific idea.
Probably what was more important was
that the debate sparked interest in
evolution among scientists and led to
much more study, experiment and
debate over the following years. 150
years later we are still researching and
learning about the evolution of life on
Earth.
In terms of evolution he believed the

marsupials were bound to lose the
Survival of the Fittest competition and
would eventually become extinct.
The city of Darwin, Northern Territory,
was named in his his honour.
copyright 2005-2
14
Worksheet 3 Evolution in Australia

Fill in the blanks spaces.
When
the
natural
environment
chooses which organisms survive to
reproduce, and which do not, we say
that a)................................................ is at
work. The more b)...................................
among the members of a species, the
better chance the species has to survive
when c)......................................... .............
About 100,000 years ago a new

environmental factor became important...
s).................... At first it was probably
started by t)........................... but later the
Aboriginal people set it deliberately in
order to u)....................................................
which improved hunting. Regular fires
altered the balance of the different plant
types: the v)................................. became
less common, while fire resistant types
became predominant.
We know that Australia was largely

covered by rainforest between 50-100
MYA,
because
of
fossils
of
d)....................................... (seed fern) and
e)...................................... Beech. At one
time central Australia was covered by an
inland f)...................... Animal fossils,
including
g)........................................
indicate many water environments.
Some of the adaptations shown by

Banksias to cope with fire include
w).............................. which are thickened
roots which sprout new shoots after fire,
and x)............................. seed pods which
release seeds only after fire.
The animal life, or y)......................, was
dominated
by
reptiles
and
z).................................. (type of mammal).
Some very large animals, collectively
known as aa)................................ evolved.
The largest was a 2-tonne relative of the
wombat called ab)......................................
All the megafauna became extinct
between 35,000-10,000 years ago. It may
be their extinction was caused by
ac)........................ .............................. or
simply that they could not cope with
ad)..............................................................
Australia
separated
from
h)................................... about i)................
MYA, and became totally isolated. As it
drifted north the climate gradually
became j).................................... By about
k).................. MYA the fossil pollen from
l)....................................... plants becomes
common.
Sclerophylls are characterized by
m)............................ leaves with a thick
n)............................ which resists water
loss. The main three types are
o)............................, ............................ and
.................................. Two of these types
evolved in Gondwana, but the
p)........................ probably came from
Asia.
Charles Darwin studied the Australian

biota during his voyage on HMS
ae)........................... in the 1830s. He
noted how well adapted to the climate
the af)................................. were and
linked that to his theory of evolution by
ag)........................... ............................
However, he thought the animals were
ah).................................... and believed
they
would
soon
become
ai)....................................... in competition
with aj)....................................... mammals.
By 2 MYA, most of Australia was

dominated by q)........................................
forest with rainforest only remaining
along
the
mountains
and
the
r)........................ coast.
WHEN COMPLETED,
copyright 2005-2
15
Worksheet 4 Practice Questions section 2

Multiple Choice

Answer on back, if insufficient space.
1. Natural Selection is the process when:

A. living things change to suit their
environment.
B. the organisms with better
characteristics live longer.
C. the conditions of the environment
determine which variations survive.
D. the surviving individuals are the ones
which breeed.
9. (2 marks)
Identify the relationship between variations
within a species and the chances of survival of
the species, when the environment changes.
2. For long-term survival of a species, it is an

advantage to have:
A. a lot of genetic variations in the population.
B. a lot of individuals who are very similar.
C. a lot of very large and strong individuals
D. a fast-changing environment.
10. (5 marks)
Discuss the changes that occurred to the
Australian
climate, and to the flora over the
past 50 million years.
In your answer, describe the evidence for the
changes you describe.
3. The fossil evidence shows that 50-100 MYA

most of Australia was covered by:
A. desert
B. ocean
C. rainforest
D. sclerophyll forests
4.Which of the following would NOT be
considered a sclerophyll plant?
A. Red gum
B. Golden wattle
C. Bottle-brush
D. Morton Bay fig
11. (5 marks)
a) How would you identify a plant as a
sclerophyll?
b) Identify two common types of sclerophylls in

the modern Australian flora.
5. According to the fossil evidence, the

sclerophyll plants became significant members
of Australian flora about:
A. 2 MYA
B. 25 MYA
C. 40 MYA
D. 100 MYA
12. (4 marks)
a) Identify a member of Australias extinct
megafauna known from its fossils.
6.
A significant factor in the Australian
environment for the past 100,000 years has been:
A. widespread rainforest.
B. fire.
C. an inland sea.
D. heavy rain and flooding.
b) List similarities and differences between the

named example in (a) and any related living
species.
7. A lignotuber is an adaptation of the Banksia

plants to help them:
A. reproduce asexually
B. attract pollinating animals
C. survive a bushfire
D. achieve internal fertilization.
13. (4 marks)
Discuss Charles Darwins observations of
Australian biota and relate these to his theory
of evolution.
8. Australias megafauna were not as large as

the megafauna that evolved in other parts of the
world. One possible explanation for this is:
A. humans hunted and killed the largest ones.
B. the larger animals could not outrun fires.
C. being marsupials, they grew more slowly.
D. the soils and plant life could not support
so much biomass.
copyright 2005-2
16
3. ADAPTATIONS FOR REPRODUCTION

Asexual Reproduction
Unicellular Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
in Multicellular Life
Single-celled
organisms
such as
bacteria
reproduce by
simply
dividing in
two by
mitosis. The offspring cells are genetically
identical to each other, and to the parent cell.
Many multi-cellular organisms are able to

reproduce asexually.
Fungi, such as
mushrooms, reproduce by
releasing spores. Each
spore is a single cell which
can grow into a new fungus.
The spore cells are
produced by mitosis, and
released from a single parent.
Regardless of the details,

asexual reproduction always:
Many Plants can reproduce asexually by

sending out runners.
requires only one parent.

involves mitosis cell division.
produces offspring which are genetically
identical to the parent and to each other.
offspring
plant
Advantage
Asexual reproduction can produce large
numbers of offspring quickly, to take advantage
of a sudden or temporary increase in some
environmental resource such as food.
The runner is an
outgrowth stem
which grows into
a new plant.
Parent
Plant
Disadvantage
By producing genetically identical offspring, there
is less variation in the population. If an
environmental change occurs, a low-variation
species is at risk of extinction.
These same plants can

also reproduce sexually with their flowers.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction always involves 2 parents who combine part of their genetic
information to produce offspring which are different to both parents.
Male
Parent
meiosis
The key to sexual reproduction is the

production of the reproductiv
ve cells
(egg and sperm).
This inv
volv
ves a special cell div
vision
called
meiosis.
Egg cell
Sperm cell
meiosis
Female
Parent
Fertilisation
Zygote
(first cell of
the offspring)
Advantage
Embryo
(developing
offspring)
Disadvantage
Sexual reproduction produces more variation in

a population, by mixing genes in new
combinations. This helps a species survive
when environments change.
copyright 2005-2
Grows by mitosis
Sexual reproduction is more complex, and often

takes more time and energy to achieve.
17
External and Internal Fertilisation

Sexual reproduction always involves the process of fertilisation...
when egg and sperm fuse together forming one new cell (the zygote)
which contains genetic information from both parents.
For fertilisation to occur, the sperm cells must swim to the egg.
External Fertilisation
Each species may have some strategy to ensure

that male and female parents release their
gametes at the same time and in the same place:
Organisms
such as corals
and sponges
release
gametes when
a certain
environmental
trigger occurs,
such as a full
Moon, or an
especially high tide.
Most fish species have mating rituals and

visual signals which stimulate a mating pair to
release gametes together.
Either way, external fertilisation is to some

extent a hit-and-miss strategy, often involving
millions of gametes, many of which are wasted.
For organisms that live in water, fertilisation is

generally achieved by both parents simply
releasing eggs and sperm into the water
environment. Since fertilisation occurs outside
the organisms bodies, this is external
fertilisation.
Internal Fertilisation
For organisms which live on land, an unprotected egg or sperm cell would rapidly dry out and die.
Also, the sperm cells cannot swim through the air, or across the ground surface... they need
water to swim through. To solve these problems, terrestrial organisms use internal fertilisation.
Terrestrial Animals
Terrestrial Plants
The male uses his penis (or similar structure) to

deposit sperm inside the females reproductive
tract. The sperm cells are never exposed to the
drying outside environment.
produce their male gametes wrapped in a

protective capsule to prevent drying...
a pollen grain.
The female system is lined with tissue with a

film of moisture always present, so the sperm
cells can swim to find and fertilise the egg(s)
inside the females body.
use either the wind, or animal pollinators

(e.g. bees) to carry the pollen to a flower.
the pollen grain then releases its sperm cell
into a fluid-filled tube (the pollen tube).
The sperm can swim down to reach the egg,
inside the ovary of the flower.
Internal Fertilization
in a Flowering Plant
There are a number of strategies for

development of the zygote after fertilisation:
Birds & Most Reptiles

The female lays eggs and the embryos develop
outside her body and hatch from the eggs.
Pollen grain on
stigma of flower
Pollen releases
sperm cell which
swims through
pollen tube to
fertilize an egg
Some Reptiles
The female keeps the fertilized eggs within her
body. When they hatch, the babies emerge from
her body vent as if being born.
Marsupial Mammals
Many species
use brightly
coloured petals to
attract animal
pollinators
After a very short gestation, the foetus is born

and crawls into a pouch. It feeds on milk, while
developing fully in the pouch.
Eggs, inside
ovary

copyright 2005-2
Placental Mammals
The foetus develops for a relatively long time inside
the females body, nourished via the placenta.
When fully developed, the baby is born.
18
As part of your studies in this section,

the syllabus requires you to compare
the 2 cell divisions, Mitosis & Meiosis.
The syllabus also requires you to

compare & contrast internal and
external fertilisation. This means to find
similarities and differences.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Internal & External Fertilisation
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
Single cell-division,
Double division, produces
produces 2 daughter 4 egg or sperm cells
cells
Similarities
Both involve sperm fertilising the egg in sexual
reproduction. The sperm must swim to the egg
in both cases.
Chromosomes line up Chromosomes line up in

singly during division pairs during division
Differences
Daughter cells identical Gamete cells are all

to parent cell, and to
different to each other
each other
Number of
chromosomes
is maintained
Number of chromosomes
halved (so that chromos.
number is restored at
fertilisation)
Occurs in asexual
reproduction and in
growth and repair
Occurs only to make

gametes for sexual
reproduction
External
Internal
Sperm & eggs

both released into
outside environment.
Sperm released inside

female body.
Sperm swim in the

water of the
environment.
Sperm swim in fluid

in female reproductive
tract.
Usually many eggs

produced to improve
chance of fertilisation.
Usually fewer eggs

because fertilisation
is more likely.
How Fertilisation Method Relates to Habitat

The great success of sexual reproduction is that it greatly increases the amount of
variation in a species. This gives Natural Selection more opportunity when the
environment changes, and more chance for species survival and evolution.
The big problem with sexual reproduction is achieving fertilisation.
The Evolution of Sex

In the previous topic it was shown that sexual
reproduction was invented by living things
about 1 billion years ago, in the aquatic
environment. The process evolved in a watery
environment where the cells could not dry out,
and where one gamete cell, if equipped with a
flagellum tail, could actively swim to seek out
the other gamete. The result is that external
fertilisation is totally suited to the aquatic
environment where it first evolved.
The first land vertebrates were the amphibians.

They never really
mastered the terrestrial
environment and 300
million years later, their
descendants still return
to water to breed so
that their external
fertilisation will work.
The true colonisation of
the terrestrial
environment came only when internal
fertilisation was first invented:
The first land plants to evolve were mosses and

later ferns. To this day, both these types rely on
very moist conditions for the sexual stage of
their complicated reproductive cycles. Both
types are confined to relatively wet habitats, or
to places where there is a wet season during
which their male gametes can swim to find the
eggs.
in plants by the cone-bearing conifers

in animals by the reptiles, and later birds
and mammals.
Internal fertilisation is an adaptation to the terrestrial environment

copyright 2005-2
19
Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Flora

For a terrestrial plant the first step toward achieving fertilisation is to successfully
transfer pollen from one plant to the flowers of another. After fertilisation, the big
problem is to disperse the seeds so they can germinate and grow.
Adaptations for Pollination
Adaptations for Seed Dispersal
Some Australian plants, such as the Acacia

(wattles) rely on the wind to achieve pollination.
Once again, some Australian plants have

adapted to use the wind, while others enlist the
help of animals to disperse their seeds.
They produce large amounts of fine, light pollen

which blows easily on the breeze.
Some of the desert grasses, such as feather

spear grass, produce tiny seeds which have fine
hairs attached. Being so light and fluffy they
can be picked up on the slightest breeze. In
stronger winds they can be transported
hundreds of kilometres.
Their flowers have protruding stigmas, which

catch any incoming, wind-blown pollen.
Many other plants rely on animals to carry
pollen from plant to plant. Unlike the northern
hemisphere, where the honey bee is the major
pollinator, many Australian plants rely on
vertebrate animals such as birds, bats and
possums.
The familiar bindii plant relies on animals. Its

seeds have a sharp point which penetrates any
foot that steps on them, (or shoe or bicycle tyre)
so they are carried some distance away before
falling out or being picked out. The dispersed
seed lies dormant in the soil until it germinates
in the following season.
The Callistemons (Bottle brushes) and

Grevillias mainly depend on the many honeyeaters and parrots which feed on nectar.
In the burr plants, such as sheeps burr, the

seed is covered in small spikes and hooks.
These will stick to the fur of any passing animal
and be carried off to a new location. Eventually
the animal will groom itself or shed its fur, thus
depositing the seed possibly many kilometres
from the parent plant.
They produce flowers which lack petals, but

have masses of stamens to produce pollen, and
stigmas to receive pollen from another flower.
They have brightly coloured flowers, producing
huge quantities of sugary nectar, to attract birds.
Many of Australias rainforest plants, such as

native rasberry, produce their seeds inside a
fleshy fruit which is highly attractive as food for
the fruit bats and various birds. The seeds are
eaten too, but are not digested and pass through
the digestive system intact. Eventually the
seeds are deposited in a new location, and with
the added bonus of a rich manure fertilizer.
Their pollen grains are sticky, or covered with

tiny hooks, so they cling to bird feathers.
As the birds move from plant to plant feeding,
they accidentally pick up masses of pollen
grains and later deposit some on receptive
flowers of the same species.
Many of the Melaleucas
(paperbarks) rely on flying-foxes
for pollination. Since these fruit
bats are nocturnal, and relatively
heavy animals, the paperbark
flowers:
are carried on strong branches,
to support feeding bats.
Flying Fox bats

are important
pollinators and
seed dispersers
in Australian
rainforests
grow in large clusters, so at

least some will survive being
eaten by the bats.
are white or pale yellow to be
seen better in moonlight.
copyright 2005-2
20
Some plants
have a tough
seed coat
which only
allows
germination
after being
softened by
an animals
digestive
system.
Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Fauna

Adaptations to Ensure Fertilisation
Australia is the only continent where the

mammal
fauna
is
almost
exclusively
marsupials... the pouched mammals. For over a
century the opinion of most biologists was that
marsupials were primitive.
Like mammals in many other parts of the world,

in many Australian species the males compete
with each other for the right to mate with the
females.
However, we now realize that the marsupials

dominate the Australian scene because they are
superbly adapted to survive in the harsh and
unpredictable climate. One of the major aspects
of their adaptation to the environment is their
method of reproduction.
All the larger

kangaroo and wallaby
species compete with
boxing matches
among the males.
This competition
ensures that only the
strongest and
healthiest males get
to father the babies.
This behaviour helps
to ensure successful
fertilisation and
healthy, robust offspring.
Short Gestation
Marsupials have a very short gestation period and
the baby is born in a very undeveloped state. This
can be an advantage under conditions of drought
and severe food shortage. If the baby dies, then at
least the mother has
not wasted a lot of
her own body
resources as a
placental mammal
would in a much
longer gestation. This
gives the adult a
greater chance to
survive until
conditions improve,
and breeding can
recommence.
Among native rodents, such as the spinifex

hopping mouse, a male secretes a plug of
mucous into the females vagina after his sperm
has been deposited. This helps ensure
fertilisation of the eggs, and prevents other
males mating with the female.
In many parts of the world, where the seasons
are highly predictable, many species have a
breeding season so that the young will be
born in spring when food is plentiful. In
Australia this technique is used (e.g. the many
Christmas beetles) but many amphibians,
reptiles and mammals breed not by the seasons,
but by the rains.
High Birth Rate

Under good conditions, when there is plenty of
food, a marsupial can breed rapidly and
increase the population more quickly. For
example, the red kangaroo can have an older
joey at foot, but still feeding from the milk
glands in the pouch, while having a younger one
in the pouch, and another embryo in the womb
awaiting its turn.
They might not breed for several years during

drought, but when rain falls in the desert there is
a sudden burst of plant growth and animal
matings. Females ovulate and become receptive
and the males become sexually active and seek
out their mates.
Suspended Development
The development of a marsupial embryo can
also be suspended (embryonic diapause) if
times are tough. When conditions improve, the
embryo continues its development and is born
when conditions are better for its survival.
This instinctive behaviour helps to ensure

successful fertilisation, and that the offspring
will be born while there is ample food. An
example is the water-holding desert frog,
which lies dormant for years, buried deep in
sandy soil, surounded by a waterproof layer of
mucous. Within hours of heavy rain, thousands
of frogs emerge to mate and lay eggs in the
short-lived desert pools.
Under extreme conditions, it has been known

for the lone female survivor from a kangaroo
mob to raise her male joey, who was in
suspended animation for 2 years, then mate
with him and re-establish the population.
No placental mammal could ever do that.
copyright 2005-2
21
Adaptations to Ensure Offspring Survival

Many of the examples already given not
only
help
ensure
successful
fertilisation, but also that the offspring
will have a better chance of survival.
Another adaptation that helps ensure

survival of offspring is the territorial and
family behaviours in many Australian
species such as kookaburras and
magpies.
For example:
By living in family groups which hold

and defend a territory against others of
the same species, they ensure that the
offspring can be well fed from the
resources within the territory, as well as
being protected and nurtured by a
supportive family group.
males competing to mate ensures that

offspring get genes from strong and
healthy fathers.
timing reproduction to the conditions
ensures that babies are born at
times of good food supply.
When Asexual Reproduction is Useful

Asexual Animals
Sexual reproduction has the advantage of

producing genetic variation in the population.
The disadvantage is that it costs more, in energy
and time, to make all that pollen, or the nectar to
attract pollinators, or for animals to find their
mates, compete with others or defend a
territory.
A few simple animals can do something

similar. Among the insects, the aphids
can reproduce asexually to produce
enormous numbers of offspring in a
short time, to take advantage of a shortterm abundance of food. The female
aphids are able to produce hundreds of
unfertilised eggs which develop into a
clone of identical female offspring.
Sometimes it is an advantage to be able to

reproduce asexually. Many Australian plants are
able to reproduce by both methods.
Sturts Desert Pea

This plant grows in arid
areas of central Australia.
It reproduces sexually,
producing seeds which
can lie dormant in the
soil for many years
waiting for suitable
conditions to germinate.
It can also reproduce
asexually by sending out
runners. In the
occasional periods of
good rain in the desert, a single plant can send
out many runners and rapidly produce dozens
of offspring, which cover large areas of
ground.
Magnified view of of
aphids on a plant leaf.
The smaller ones are
asexual offspring of
the larger ones.
By using both methods, the desert pea gains the

advantages of both... the ability to reproduce
cheaply and rapidly to take advantage of good
conditions, and achieve the genetic variations
which help a species survive when the
environment changes.
copyright 2005-2
At other times, the females mate

sexually with males to produce
offspring with greater genetic variety.
22
Worksheet 5
General Adaptations for Reproduction

In n).......................... environments, fertilisation
often occurs outside the organisms body. This is
called o).................................. fertilisation. In
terrestrial environments, most organisms have
evolved to use p)................................ fertilisation.
Fill in the blank spaces.

Asexual reproduction involves a)................
parent(s). The offspring are genetically
b)....................... to their c).......................... and to
each other. They are a d)........................... The
advantage of asexual reproduction is that it
allows e)..................................................................
to take advantage of good conditions. The
disadvantage is lack of f).................................,
which helps a species survive when
g)...........................................................................
Land plants have adapted to have the male

gamete, called q)............................., enclosed in a
capsule. This can be transported by the
r)........................... or carried by various animals.
Once it reaches a receptive flower, the sperm
cell is released to swim along the
s)........................ tube to the t)............................. of
the flower where the eggs are.
All forms of asexual reproduction involve the

cell division called h).......................................
In animals, the female reproductive system is

kept u)......................... so that sperm can swim to
the eggs. In most cases of internal fertilisation,
v)...................... (more/less) eggs are produced
compared to external fertilisation.
Sexual reproduction involves the cell division

i)............................. to produce the reproductive
cells or j)........................ Each gamete is
genetically k)........................... and the number of
l)..................................... has been halved, so that
the correct number is restored when
m)..................................................... occurs.
WHEN COMPLETED,
Worksheet 6 Australian Adaptations for Reproduction

Plants
Animals
Among Australian flora there are a variety of

adaptations to achieve pollination and seed
dispersal.. Wind pollination is used by the
a)............................ plant group. The pollen
grains are b)................................. and the flowers
have stigmas which c)..................................... so
as to catch pollen better.
The marsupials all give birth to babies that are

very t)............................ This is an advantage in
time of drought because u)..........................
..................................................................................
Many marsupials are able to suspend the
development of the embryo in the uterus, and
delay the birth until v)...................................
......................................
The bottle-brushes and Grevillias rely on

d)................... to carry pollen. They produce
large amounts of e)................. to attract birds,
and the pollen is f).................. so that it
g)...................... to the feathers. Many of the
Melaleuca plants rely on h)...................... for
pollination. Their flowers are light coloured so
that i)................................. They grow in large
masses so that j)...................................... and
they grow on strong branches so k)......................
....................
In many species the males w)......................... for

the right to x)..................... with the females. This
helps ensure that the healthiest, strongest males
pass on y)........................ to the next generation.
Rather than having a regular breeding season,
many Australian animals are stimulated to breed
when z)............................... ..................................
For seed-dispersal, the feather spear grass

relies on l).......................... Its seeds have many
m)............................ attached which means it can
be n)........................ even on a light breeze. Other
plants such as o)................. and p)......................
have seeds covered in spikes or hooks so they
will be q).......................... by animals. Many
rainforest plants produce fruit which are eaten
by r)................ and ................ The seeds survive
digestion and are deposited elsewhere. Some
seeds will only germinate after s).......................
..................................................
Many plants, such as ac).........................................

can reproduce both ad)................................. and
sexually. When conditions are good, the plants
send out ae)............................... to rapidly build
up the population. When conditions are tough,
the sexually produced seeds survive until
af)............................ By using both reproductive
strategies, the plant gains the advantages of
both. It can ag)........................... when conditions
are good, and has genetic ah)........................
which helps a species survive when
ai)............................................................................

copyright 2005-2
Many species such as aa)..................................

live in family groups and hold a territory. This
helps ensure that offspring ab).............................
23
4. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY
The Value of Biodiversity
How Palaeontology Can Help
Biodiversity refers to the variety of different

species of plants and animals. In all
ecosystems, the greater the biodiversity, the
more stable and resilient the system is... the
better able it is to survive and adjust when
changes occur or disasters happen.
Palaeontology, the study of fossils, provides

information about plants and animals of the
past, how they evolved and in some cases how
they became extinct.
This can give us pointers about modern plants
and animals, and allow us to make predictions
about how they may evolve in the future, and
what factors might threaten them with
extinction.
The greatest threat to biodiversity is human

activities. Humans: destroy habitats to create space for
agriculture, roads, etc.
introduce exotic species to habitats where they
have no natural predators or diseases. They
over-populate and out-compete the natives.
pollute environments with industrial
chemicals or pesticides which kill species and
upset the balance of the ecosystem.
For example, recent research on the fossil teeth

of kangaroos gives some evidence that some of
the modern, living species seem to have
become smaller over the past 30,000 years or
so. One explanation is that the aborigines have
tended to take the larger individuals when
hunting, thereby leaving more smaller
individuals to breed the next generation.
We need to maintain biodiversity in order to

help the natural ecosystems survive in a
sustainable form.
Over thousands of years this selective hunting

has acted just like Natural Selection, causing
changes in the populations... in this case a
shrinking of the average size of the animals.
Current Efforts to Monitor Biodiversity
Check out www.earthwatch.org to see current volunteer projects.
To have any chance of maintaining biodiversity

we first need information about things like:
This helps us to predict the effects of human

activities on species. For example, when we
catch fish we tend to keep the largest, and
release the smaller ones. Will this cause the fish
populations to evolve to be smaller? Fisheries
scientists are already finding evidence for this
occurring in some fish species.
how many species live in each ecosystem.

the abundance of species, especially those
thought to be rare or endangered.
how the abundance changes over time.
This sort of information can only be gathered by
people setting out to observe, measure and
count organisms in their natural habitats.
Palaeontology has revealed how the flora and

fauna of Australia changed in its relative
abundance and in its distribution as the continent
underwent climate change over the past 50 million
years. For example, we understand reasonably
well how, as the climate dried, the rainforests
contracted to the mountains and east coast and
rainforest species, such as the antarctic beech
declined from being a dominant species to near
extinction.
At any given moment there are dozens of

projects running all over NSW. These projects
are organized and run by government agencies,
NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service,
Universities and wildlife organizations.
Many projects are not just done by professional
scientists, but rely on amateur volunteers. A
couple of interesting projects running at the
time of writing are:
Meanwhile, the sclerophyll plants expanded

their distribution to become the dominant flora.
NSW Fisheries Dept. are tagging grey nurse

sharks, and asking for any sightings to be
reported. They hope to build up information about
shark movements and population size.
We now face a major climate change in the form

of Global Warming. The knowledge gained
from palaeontology allows scientists to make
predictions about the future changes to
distribution of our modern plants and animals
as climate changes occurs.
The NSW Wader Study Group are seeking

volunteers to adopt an estuary and carry out
regular counts of shorebirds.
copyright 2005-2
24
Reasons for Thylacine Survival
Case Study: the Thylacine
The Thylacine possessed a number of

adaptations which may have allowed it to thrive
as top predator for tens of millions of years.
Evolution, Survival & Extinction

of a Species
It had an enormously wide and powerful bite.

The Thylacine jaw could open to almost 180o,
and it possessed powerful jaw muscles. This
allowed it to deliver skull-crushing bites to its
prey, so this relatively small animal could take
relatively large prey. It could also eat every part
of its prey, including large bones. This was a
major advantage in the tough Australian
conditions.
The Thylacine or Tasmanian Tiger was once

one of the major marsupial carnivores in
Australia. It became extinct on the mainland
about 3,000 years ago, but survived in Tasmania
until about 70 years ago. The last known
individual died in Hobart Zoo in 1936. There
have been a number of unconfirmed reported
sightings since then, but it is generally believed
to be extinct.
It was also a solitary animal. The Thylacine

could not afford to hunt in packs because the
low productivity of the sclerophyll forests and
poor soils could not support herds of grazing
prey animals which a hunter group need.
Thylacines kept a solitary existence, coming
together only to mate. This helped this small but
deadly predator to thrive in the low-productivity
Australian bush.
Reasons for Thylacine Extinction

The Thylacine died out on the Australian
mainland about 3,000 years ago. This was
probably due to the introduction of the dingo
from Asia, possibly by Malay fishermen who
visited the northern coasts by boat.
Reasons for Thylacine Evolution
The dingos abundance rose as that of the

Thylacine declined... a classic example of what
happens when 2 species compete.
Population Size (ABUNDANCE)
According to the fossil record (admittedly rather

sparse) ancestral Thylacines evolved about 50
million years ago. Related to the quolls, the
successful evolution of the species can
probably be attributed to:
The extinction of the dinosaurs left an

ecological vacuum which allowed mammals
and birds to undergo a huge diversification and
radiation of different types
The general success of marsupials on
DINGO OUT-C
COMPETES THYLACINE
Dingo
Thylacine
Original population
reasonably stable
Dingo
introduced
Thylacine
Extinct
TIME
the Australian continent, especially after it

became isolated from other parts of Gondwana.
The dingo never got to Tasmania, and there the

Thylacline survived. However, when the
European settlers arrived, the Thylacines
quickly learned to hunt sheep. This prompted
the government to place a bounty on them in
1888. Thousands were shot, and an epidemic of
an introduced disease killed even more.
Aspects of this success have already been

discussed, but certainly the marsupial
reproductive method seems especially well
suited to the uncertainties of an irregular
climate like Australias.
Ironically, in the year that the last Thylacine

died, the species was given protected status.
copyright 2005-2
25
Worksheet 7 Practice Questions
sections 3 & 4
Multiple Choice
1. Which statement about mitosis is
INCORRECT?
A. the chromosome number is halved.
B. the daughter cells are genetically identical
C. is the basis for all asexual reproduction.
D. produces 2 daughter cells from a single
division.
Answer on back if insufficient space.

9. (4 marks)
Distinguish between the processes of Mitosis
and Meiosis in terms of the daughter cells
produced.
2. A pollen grain can be thought of as:

A. an egg in a shell.
B. a plant seed.
C. a sperm cell in a waterproof capsule.
D. an asexual spore
10. (6 marks)
a) Compare and contrast internal and external
fertilization.
3. Internal fertilization, when compared to

external fertilization, usually:
A. involves fewer eggs being produced.
B. is less likely to be successful.
C. wastes a lot of gametes.
D. occurs in the aquatic environment.
b) Discuss the relative success of these forms

of fertilization in relation to the colonization of
the terrestrial and aquatic environments.
4. A plant which relies on the wind for

pollination is likely to produce:
A. large sticky pollen grains.
B. small flowers with protruding stigmas.
C. large, colourful flowers.
D. large amounts of nectar.
11. (4 marks) Describe the conditions under

which asexual reproduction is advantageous,
with reference to a specific Australian example.
5. A plant which produces masses of white

flowers supported on strong branches may be
relying on which pollinator?
A. an insect
B. a bird
C. the wind
D. a fruit bat
12. (5 marks)
For many years Australian marsupials were
considered primitive and inferior to
placental mammals. Explain how the marsupial
method of reproduction is actually an
advantage under Australian conditions.
6. The sharp prickles of the bindii plant is

an adaptation for
A. pollination
B. seed dispersal
C. internal fertilization D. fire resistance
7. Many Australian animals improve the
chances of survival of their offspring by:
A. reproducing rapidly by asexual means
when conditions are tough.
B. holding them in a pouch during
development.
C. timing reproduction to rain and good
food suppy
D. competing with each other for the
right to mate.
13. (6 marks)
Describe, with named examples, TWO different
mechanisms found in Australian flora for
pollination.
14. (3 marks)
Outline the reasons for the extinction of a
named Australian animal.
8.
Which of the following is NOT an adaptation
possessed by the extinct Thylacine?
A. Camouflage stripes and colouration.
B. Extremely powerful bite.
C. Solitary habits.
D. Gave birth to highly developed offspring.
15. (4 marks)
a) Explain the need to maintain Biodiversity.
b) Discuss a current effort to monitor
biodiversity.

copyright 2005-2
26
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
EVOLUTION
of
AUSTRALIAN BIOTA

copyright 2005-2
27
Answer Section
Worksheet 3
a) seismology
b) crust
c) mantle
d) plates
e) convection
f) Tectonics
g) continental
h) South America, Antarctica & India
i) Gondwana
j) Antarctica
k) 25
l) mid-ocean
m) moving apart/spreading
/growing
n) in the middle
o) (residual) magnetism
p) molten rock / lava / magma
q) mantle
r) Glossopteris
s) Gondwana
t) America
u) Africa & S.America v)flightless birds (ratites)
w) antarctic beech
x) northwards
y) Indo-Australian
z) 2-5 cm
aa) marsupials
ab) echidna
ac) Monotremes
ad) primitive
ae) adapted / sophisticated
a) Natural Selection b) variation

c) the environment changes
d) Glossopteris
e) Antarctic
f) sea
g) crocodiles/flamingos
h) Antarctica
i) 40
j) drier
k) 25
l) sclerophyll
m) thin, small
n) cuticle (waxy covering)
o) Eucalypts, Banksia, Acacia
p) Acacia
q) sclerophyll forest
r) east
s) fire
t) lightning
u) encouraged growth of grasslands
v) Casuarina
w) lignotubers
x) hard, woody
y) fauna
z) marsupials
aa) megafauna
ab) Diprotodon
ac) hunting by humans
ad) climate change
ae) Beagle
af) plants
ag) natural selection
ah) primitive
ai) extinct
aj) placental
Worksheet 2
Worksheet 4
Worksheet 1
1. C
5. B
1. D
2. B
3. A
4. B
5.
(1) The shapes of the continents are like jig-saw
pieces. They fit together almost perfectly if the
continental shelf is used as the actual edge of
each continent. Such fitting together suggests
strongly that Australia was once joined to
Antarctica & India.
3. C
7. C
4. D
8. D
9.
The greater the amount of variation in a species,
the better the chance of the species surviving
when the environment changes. If all the
members of a species are very similar (little
variation) then there is a good chance there
would be no survivors of an environmental
change, and the species would become extinct.
(2) Fossils & rock layers match up perfectly on

different continents. For example, fossils of the
extinct seed fern Glossopteris are found
across S.America, Africa, India, Antarctica and
Australia. The explanation is that this plant once
lived right across Gondwana, and its fossils
have been carried to their current locations by
the drifting of the continents.
6.
Initially specimens of the platypus were thought
to be fakes. Later it came to be considered as
primitive and inferior to real (placental)
mammals. As more evidence and knowledge
accumulates, it is now realized that the
platypus, and other Australian animals, are
ancient, but highly adapted to the unpredictable
Aust. environment.
7.
It is thought that the ancestors of the ratites
evolved in Gondwana when it was still one
continent. As Gondwana split up, populations of
flightless birds were carried away on each
fragment. Each population, now isolated from
others, evolved into the modern species on the
separate continents... ostrich in Africa, emu in
Australia etc.
copyright 2005-2
2. A
6. B
10.
Between 50-100 MYA much of Australia was
covered with rainforest, wetland environments,
and partly by an inland sea at one time. The
evidence is the fossil record, which shows that
rainforest species, such as Antarctic Beech
were widespread, and the animal life included
many crocodiles, flamingos and turtles... all
evidence of a wet climate.
About 25 MYA the fossils show a marked
increase in pollens from sclerophyll plants.
These are adapted to survive drought, and show
that the climate must have become drier. A
decrease in pollens from rainforest species
shows that these habitats were shrinking.
By 2 MYA, the rainforests had disappeared from
most of Australia. After about 100,000 years ago,
a lot of ash and charcoal in the sediments
indicates the increasing occurrence of fire in the
environment, indicating that the modern, dry &
drought-prone climate was in place.
28
Worksheet 4 (cont)
Worksheet 6
11.
a) Sclerophylls are characterized by small, thin
leaves with a thick, waxy cuticle. Unlike nonsclerophylls, their leaves do not wither under
dry conditions. They retain their shape, and
simply resume normal operations when water
becomes available again.
b) Eucalypts (gum trees) & Acacias (wattles)
a) Acacia (wattle)
b) fine or light
c) protrude from the flower
d) animals / birds
e) nectar
f) sticky / have hooks g) sticks / clings
h) bats/flying foxes
i) they can be seen at night / in moonlight
j) some survive being eaten
k) the weight of the bat can be supported
l) wind
m) fine hairs
n) picked up / carried o) bindii
p) burrs
q) carried away
r) birds & bats
s) passing through an animal gut
t) undeveloped/immature
u) if the baby dies, little has been wasted, and
the adult can survive until conditions improve.
v) conditions get better / more food & water is
available
w) fight / compete
x) mate
y) their characteristics / their genes
z) rains occur / food is available
aa) kookaburra/magpie ab) well fed
ac) Sturts desert pea ad) asexually
ae) runners
af) conditions improve
ag) increase numbers quickly
ah) variations
ai) the environment changes
12.
a) Diprotodon was a giant wombat, weighing
about 3 tonnes. Several fossil part-skeletons
have been discovered, allowing accurate
reconstruction.
b) Diprotodon was similar to living wombats.
both were/are marsupials, with same body plan.
both were herbivorous... plant eaters.
D. was different to living wombats in
body size being approx 50 times bigger.
modern wombats burrow and spend a lot of
time underground. Ds size may have made this
impossible.
D was probably a browser of leaves and
vegetation, while modern wombats eat a lot of
plant roots and tubers.
13.
Darwin noted that many Australian plants
seemed well-suited to the dry climate. He later
linked this to his Theory of Evolution by arguing
that the ancestors of modern sclerophylls were
selected by nature because they had
characteristics that helped survival in the dry
climate. By this natural selection the plants
had evolved to thrive in the harsh climate.
Worksheet 7
1. A
5. D
3. A
7. C
4. B
8. D
9.
Mitosis involves a single cell division which
produces 2 daughter cells which:
are identical to each other.
are identical to the parent cell.
have the same number of chromosomes.
Meiosis is a double division which produces 4
cells which:
are all different genetically to each other.
are different to the parent cell.
have only half the number of chromosomes.
He noted that the animals too, were well suited

to the environment, but never fully understood
just how well. He thought the marsupials and
monotremes were primitive and would not
survive if faced with competition from more
advanced mammals. In line with his theory,
Darwin assumed that the marsupials would
eventually become extinct, just as the dinosaurs
had, as more advanced types took over.
10.
a) External fertilization is when the egg & sperm
unite in the outside environment. Internal
fertilization occurs inside the body of the female
parent.
b) External fertilization evolved in the aquatic
environment and still works well there. Since the
environment is water, the gamete cells cannot
dry out, and the sperm cells can swim to find the
eggs.
Worksheet 5
a) one
b) identical
c) parent
d) clone
e) rapid increase in the population/ rapid
reproduction
f) genetic variation
g) the environment changes
h) mitosis
i) meiosis
j) gametes
k) different / unique
l) chromosomes
m) fertilisation
n) aquatic
o) external
p) internal
q) pollen
r) wind
s) pollen tube
t) ovary
u) moist
v) less (fewer)
copyright 2005-2
2. C
6. B
Internal fertilization evolved to suit the

terrestrial environment where gametes could
rapidly dry out, and sperm would not be able to
swim to the egg. The inside of the female
reproductive system is kept moist (simulating
the aquatic environment) to keep sperm alive
and swimming towards the eggs.
29
Worksheet 7 (cont)
11.
Asexual reproduction is an advantage when
conditions suit a rapid increase in numbers, to
take advantage of a temporary increase in food
supply or other resources. It allows rapid
reproduction of many offspring without the
expenditure of energy and resources that
sexual reproduction requires.
14.
The Thylacine, or Tasmanian Tiger, was once
the top predator across much of the continent. It
became extinct on the mainland approximately
3,000 years ago probably due to the arrival of a
new competitor, the dingo. Dingos were
probably introduced by humans, became feral
and spread over most of the continent.
An example is Sturts desert pea which can

rapidly send out runners to populate an area
after the occasional desert rain. This allows the
plants to take advantage of temporary good
conditions. Under normal dry conditions it
reproduces sexually, producing seeds which lie
dormant for years awaiting suitable conditions
for germination.
Dingos never reached Tasmania, so there the

Thylacine survived. When the European settlers
arrived, the Thylacines began taking sheep, so
the government put a bounty on them, and many
were shot. Many others died from a disease
epidemic in the 1890s. The last nown specimen
died in the Hobart Zoo in 1936.
12.
Marsupials have a very brief gestation and give
birth to a partly developed embryo which
matures inside the pouch. This can be an
advantage under extreme drought. If the baby
dies, which may well happen, then at least the
mother has not wasted much of her body
resources. This gives her more chance to
survive, and she can rapidly begin breeding
again when conditions improve.
15.
a) It has been found that the greater the variety
of different species in any ecosystem, the more
stable the system is, and the more able it is to
cope with changes. Maintaining biodiversity is
important in order to help natural ecosystems to
survive in a sustainable form.
b) The NSW Wader Study Group is enlisting the
support of interested amateurs to adopt an
estuary and carry out regular counts of shore
bird populations. The data will help monitor the
biodiversity of these ecosystems, and keep
track of changes to various species
populations.
Some marsupials, such as the red kangaroo,

can even suspend the development of an
embryo in the uterus and hold it there for many
months until conditions improve.
13.
(1) The Acacias (wattles) rely on the wind for
pollination. The plants produce large quantities
of fine, light-weight pollen which can be carried
long distances by any breeze. The flowers have
a number of stigmas which protrude from the
flowers to catch any incoming pollen.
(2) The bottle brushes and Grevillias rely on
honey-eater birds and lorikeet parrots for
pollination. The flowers lack petals, but produce
large amounts of nectar for the birds to feed on.
They have many stamens producing large
pollen grains which are sticky, or covered with
small hooks, so the grains adhere to the
feathers of the feeding birds and are carried on
to other receptive flowers for pollination.

copyright 2005-2
30
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Preliminary Biology Topic 4

EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN BIOTA

What is this topic about?

but first, an introduction...

Plate Tectonics &

In the previous topic you learned some of the

The science of Plate Tectonics has revealed that the

In this topic you will learn about the process of

In this topic you will consider some of the evidence for

Australias Unique Biota

... and the

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

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1. PLATE TECTONICS & THE FORMATION OF AUSTRALIA

Furthermore, we have come to realize that the

rock fills the gap, creating a

We now know that the outer layer, the

push crust plates apart

As the plates move, they carry the continents,

Australia wasnt always the

The Evidence for Plate Tectonics

The Shape of the Continents

The continental shelf is the true edge

The evidence suggests that about 130

Moving at a rate of a few cm per year,

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The Mid-Ocean Ridges

In a few places on Earth, spreading

The Rift Valley contains many deep

The residual magnetism in the rocks

Fossil Evidence for Moving Continents

A number of animal fossils, dating from 100-200

These places are now widely separated, and it is

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Evidence from Distribution of Modern Species

Marsupial mammals which are found

Large flightless birds; emu, ostrich,

The explanation is that these groups

Freshwater lungfish in Australia, Africa

The Break-up of Gondwana

India split off early, and bulldozed its way

Apparently so! The ocean floors have now been

The volcanic islands to our north indicate that

How fast is the movement?

It averages between 2-5 cm per year. This

South America separated about 50mya. It

Future Map of East Asia?

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Changing Ideas About Australian Animals

It was eventually accepted as real, but

For more than

The marsupials were thought to be only

It was thought that the only reason such

Preliminary Biology Topic 4 Evolution Aust.Biota

Australian native plants and animals are