2.

2 Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Fields

2.2.1 Field Lines, Flux, and Gausss Law
Tools for avoiding integral

Field Lines:
Connect vectors to form field lines.
The magnitude of the field is indicated by the density of the field.
Field lines begin on positive charge and end on negative ones.
Field lines cannot simply terminate in midair.
Field lines can never cross.
Electric Flux:
It is a measure of the number of field lines passing through a surface.
r r
E = E da
S

The flux through any closed surface is a measure of the total charge.
Equipotential surface:
It is easy to understand the image method that introduced in Chapter 3 by
equipotential surface.
Gausss Law:

r
For a point charge q at the origin, the flux of E through a sphere of radius r is:
2
r
1 q
1 q
q
2

r
n
da
E

n
da
=

4 0 r 2
0 0 4 0 r 2 r rr sin dd = 0

The closed surface didnt have to be a sphere.

The flux through any surface enclosing the charge is

According to the principle of superposition:

r r
r
r
Ei da = Etotal da =
S

Qenc

By applying the vector calculus:

r
r r
r
Qenc 1

E
=
E da = Ed = = d
0

corollary?

(Do you believe this crude

You might have to prove it in the next section.)

Gausss Law:

r r Qenc
E
da =
S

r
Gausss law in differential form: E =

Example: A charge q sits at the back corner of a cube.

r
the flux of E through the shaded area?
Guess it from the consideration of symmetry.
q 11
E =
0 8 3

What is

Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole

r dr r dr
r r +
r r
2
2
q

E (r ) =

r3
r
4 0 r d 3
r d
r+
r

2
2

r
r

r
d +q

-q

r 3
r
3
3 / 2
r r
3 r d
r d d 2
r d
d2 r r
3
3
2

r
~ r 1 +
= r +
r d = r 1
+ 2
2
2
4
r
r
r
4
2

r
r
r
r
r d 3 rr d r d 3 rr d

r + 1
r 1 +
2 2 r 2
4 0 r 3
2 2 r 2
r r
q r d r r
=
r d
3
4 0 r 3 r 2

r r
E (r )

2.2.2 The Divergence of E

To find out the Gausss law in differential form, we start from the electric field from a
volume charge.

 rr rr '

= '

(
)

'
'

r
d

since
rr rr ' 3

4 0 2

r
r r
r r
r
1
(r )
E (r ) =
4 3 (r r ') (r ')d ' =

4 0
0

r r
E (r ) =

r r
r
r r '
3 r
r r 3 = 4 (r r ')
r r'

Derive the integral form by using vector analysis:

r
r
r r Q
(r )

E
d
=

d E da = enc
V

2.2.3 Applications of Gausss Law

All is to find the space symmetry.
1. Spherical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a concentric sphere.
2. Cylindrical symmetry. A coaxial cylinder.
3. Plane symmetry.
Example: Find the field of a solid sphere of radius R and of total charge q with
uniform volume charge inside.
4 3
R
r r
q
=
r > R : 4r 2 E = 3
E (r ) =

4 3
4 3
r
r
r < R : 4r 2 E = 3
= 3

4 3
R
3

q
r
4 0 r 2

r r
E (r ) =

qr
r
4 0 R 3

Example: A long cylinder carries a charge density that is proportional to the distance
from the axis: = kr , for some constant k. Find the electric field.

r < R : 2rLE =

r 2

L (kr ')r ' ddr ' =

0 0

L 2k

r
r3
kr 2
E (r , , z ) =
r
3 0
3

Example: An infinite plane carries a uniform surface charge .

r
A

2 AE =
n
E ( x, y , z ) =
2 0
0
Example: Two infinite planes carries equal but opposite charge
densities .
Apply superposition rule:
r

E = x

Example: Two spheres

Apply superposition rule and vector addition.

2.2.4 The Curl of E

For a point charge q placing at the origin, the electric field is:
r r
1 q
E (r ) =
r
4 0 r 2
The curl calculation by integration:

r
r
r
r r r
rd + r sin d , E (rr ) dl =

(
)
E
r

d
l
,
d
l
=
r
dr
+

rb

ra

q
dr
4 0 r 2

q
q
1 1 1
ra 4 0 r 2 dr = 4 0r = 4 0 rb ra

ra
rb

rb

r r
E

da =

surface

r r rb r r ra r r
E dl = E dl + E dl =

bounding _ loop

ra

rb

1 1 1
1 1 1
+
=0
4 0 ra rb 4 0 rb ra

r r
r E (r ) = 0
r
r r
r
r
r
r
By superposition rule: Etotal = E1 + E2 + E3 + ... , Etotal = E1 + E2 + ... = 0

The curl calculation by differentiation:

r
r

1
E = 2
r sin r
Er

rE

1
= 2

r sin
r sin E

r
1
4 0 r 2

=0

General form:

r r
E (r ) =

(r ')

4 0 V 2

(rr rr ')
d ' , r r 3 = ? r + ? + ? , Its difficult to calculate and we
r r'

r
need to simplify the problem. Every time we have a source point at r ' , we can
r
r
reorient the coordinates to relocate the r ' at the z axis. Let r '= r ' z to do simple
calculation.

(rr rr ') = (rr rr ') r r + (rr rr ') + (rr rr ')

r r3
r r'

r r3
r r'

r r3
r r'

r r3
r r'

Remember that r = sin cos x + sin sin y + cosz ,

 = cos cos x + cos sin y sin z , = sin x + cos y

(rr rr ') =
r r3
r r'

(r

r r ' cos
2

+ r ' 2rr ' cos

2

r +

(r

r ' sin
2

+ r ' 2rr ' cos

2

r
r r ' cos

r r
(
1
r r ')
r r 3 = 2
r sin
r r'

(r

3/ 2

+ r '2 2rr ' cos )

Exercise: 11, 12, 16, 18

3/ 2

(r

3/ 2

+ 0

r ' sin

r sin

=0

+ r '2 2rr ' cos )

3/ 2