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Table of Contents
Stress, Strain, and Energy
1. Stress and Strain
2. Change in length
3. Determinate Structure - Both ends free
4. Indeterminate Structure - Both ends fixed
5. Composite Material of equal length
6. Composite Material of unequal length
7. Bolt and Nut
8. Thermal Stresses
9. Volumetric Strain
10. Three Modulii
11. Strain Energy
Shear force, Bending Moment, Bending stress, and shear stress in beams
1. Shear Force and Bending Moment diagram of beams
Cantilever beam
Simply supported beam
Over hanging beam
2. Bending stress in beams
3. Shear stress in beams
Torsion
1. Torsion in shaft
Simple Shaft
Shaft in series
Shaft in parallel
Shaft coupled with bolt
Shaft coupled with key
2. Torsion in spring
Open coil
Closed coil
Spring in series
Spring in parallel
Semi elliptical Leaf Spring, Quarter elliptical Leaf Spring
Deflection of Beams
1.
2.
3.
4.
Truss
1. Method of joint
2. Method of section
3. Graphical method
Short Questions
Exercise
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= E
P
= --------A
P - Load
A- Area of the section where the load is applied.
Stresses are three types tensile, compressive, and shear stress. Moment and torsion will
produced any of these stresses.
Strain is nothing but deformation (change in length, breadth, height, diameter, therefore
area or volume) of the body or material due to load. Therefore strain is change in dimension to
the original dimension. It may be length or volume.
L
= --------- L Change in length
L
L Original length
Therefore by substituting the value of and in the Hooks law. Change in length
is
PL
L = --------AE
4PL
L = ----------- uniformly varying circular section
Ed1d2
PL
L = -------------loge(a/b) uniformly varying rectangular section a>b
Et(a-b)
This is the fundamental equation to find change in length of any type of section or step
section using principle of superposition method of varying load, length, area, and material. The
change in length due to compressive load is taken as negative and positive for tensile load.
Types of problem
Both ends are free (to expand or shrink) or one end fixed determinate structure:
Total change in length is equal to algebraic sum of change in length of each section of its
load P, length L, Area A, and Youngs modulus E. These parameters may vary from section to
section. The material is free to expand and shrink.
L = 1 + 2+ 3+ ..+ n
P1
P2
P3
P4
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PAB
P2
PAB
PBc
PBC
PCD
PCD
PAB - PBc = P1
PBC + PCD = P2 Equations (A)
The equation shows that the section AB and BC is under tension and CD under
compression. The direction of load in each section can be chosen as we desire, but if the final
result is negative then the direction chosen is incorrect but the answer is correct. So in other
words tensile force is actually a compressive force vice versa.
Sum of change in length of each section due to expansion is equal to sum of change in
length of each section due to compression. The load P, length L, Area A, and Youngs modulus
E parameters may vary from section to section.
Expansion section = Compression section
1 + 2 +....+ n = 3+ 4+ ..+ n Equations (B)
Using equation A and B the problem can be solved.
Both ends are fixed allowed to expand until section touches both ends:
First solve the problem like both ends free or one end fixed. When the ends touch the
both the support then solve the problem like both ends fixed.
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Or
When the lengths of the composite material are equal by substituting B in A, find the
stresses in the materials.
The ratio of Es/ Ec is known as modular ratio
Composite Material of Unequal length tubular section load applied at different instances
1. Find the material or section whose length is shorter or longer than other material.
1. Calculate the load required to make the section of equal length using formula of l.
2. This will give the remaining load that will be shared by both the sections.
3. At this point onwards it is similar to composite material of equal length.
Bolt and Nut:
Load in bolt = Load in tube
bAb = tAt
Change in length is sum of change in length in bolt and change in length in
tube.
= b + t
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Equation (C)
Therefore stress is = E.
Thermal Stresses in composite bars:
Therefore load in brass is equal to load in steel because temperature is assumed to
be uniform.
sAs = bAb - (A)
Change lengths are therefore strains are equal thus,
bt - b
st + s
----=
------ ----------Equation (B)
Eb
Es
Substituting equation A in B to find the stresses in the material.
When the thermal coefficient of one material is larger than the other then that material
will be under compression and the other material will be under tension. Thus brass is under
compression and steel is under tension in our example.
Volumetric Strain:
Change in volume to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.
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Change in volume due to axial load in all three directions for a cube or cuboids
v
1 (x + y + z)(1-2 )
------ = --V
E
This equation is valid only when all the loads are applied as tensile load. The same
equation can be used for the following loads,
1. Compressive load change to minus sign to that direction only for the above formula.
2. Load only in one direction the remaining stresses are zero.
3. Load in two directions the remaining stress is zero.
Change in volume due to axial load for a cylindrical rod
Change in diameter in cylinder is c = d /d
Change in length in cylinder is l = l /l
Therefore change in volume of cylindrical rod;
v
------ = l - 2c (Minus sign lateral strain are compressive forces) OR
V
v
1 (x)(1-2 )
------ = --Where, y and z are zero because load in one direction only.
V
E = -------
PL
from l = ----------AE
K = ---------(v/V)
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U=
PL
L = ----------------AE
2V
---------- =
2E
P x L
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U=
2 V
--------2E
1 + 1+2Eh(PL)
Strain energy due to impact load is found by substituting the stress due to impact load
in the following equation.
U=
2 V
--------2E
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SF -ve
Any sign convention can be followed but it should be uniform throughout the problem.
We have chosen upward load or shear force as positive and downward load or shear force as
negative. Similarly take clockwise moment as negative and anticlockwise moment as positive.
Cantilever Beam:
1. Simply add the load from right to find the shear force at various points. Upward SF
minus downward SF will give SF at a point it may be +ve or ve SF.
2. Multiply the load with distance to find the moment at various points. Anti clockwise
BM minus clockwise BM will BM at a point it may be +ve or ve SF.
3. Shear force maximum at the support.
4. Moment maximum at the support and zero at free end.
Simply supported Beam:
1. Find the reactions at the supports.
2. When taking moment to find the reactions consider even the pure moment in the beam,
be careful with the direction of the moment. Then follow the SF and BM diagram procedure to
complete the figure.
3. Simply add the load from right to find the shear force at various points. Upward SF
minus downward SF will give SF at a point it may be +ve or ve SF.
4. Multiply the load with distance to find the moment at various points. Anti clockwise
BM minus clockwise BM will BM at a point it may be +ve or ve SF.
5. Moment is maximum where SF is zero for pure load only.
6. To find the maximum moment, find section where SF is zero equate upward load to
downward load to distance x from a support. Take that distance to find the maximum moment.
7. Moments are zero at the supports.
.
Over hanging Beam:
1. Find the reactions at the supports.
2. When taking moment to find the reactions consider even the pure moment in the beam,
be careful with the direction of the moment. Then follow the SF and BM diagram procedure to
complete the figure.
3. Simply add the load from right to find the shear force at various points. Upward SF
minus downward SF will give SF at a point it may be +ve or ve SF.
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SF Diagram
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E
--------- = --------- = --------I
y
R
M Bending moment or Moment may vary depending on the load example
I Moment of Inertia.
Stress due to bending moment. To find c then y = yc and to find t then y = yt
y - Centroid of the section about xx axis (NA). To find c then y = yc and to find t then y = yt
E Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs modulus.
R- Radius of curvature due to bending.
For symmetric section value of c = t because yc = yt example, rectangle, circular, and
symmetric I section. That is N.A will be at mid point.
The value yc = y from the bottom to NA for beam under compression and yt = y from the
top to NA for beam under tension. To find the safe Load or moment find the value of c/yc and
t/yt and take the least value for safe design.
I = bd3/12
Rectangular section and y = d/2
I = (Do Di)/64 for hollow pipe and solid rod y = Do/2 for solid pipe D i = 0
Centroid (NA) of total section y = sum of (area of each section x centroid of each section from
xx axis) divided by sum of (area of each section) Ref: figure
a1y1 + a2y2 + .. anyn
y = -------------------------------a1 + a2 + .. an
Substitute the value y in the moment of inertia equation.
b1d13 + a1 (y1- y)2 + b2d23 + a2 (y2- y)2 + bndn3 + an (yn- y)2
I = ---------------------12
12
12
Solving the problem:
1. Identify the type of beam and load if the moment is not given.
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max
NA
yt
t
Bending Stress Diagram
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B
D
Yt
D/2 + d1
d1
NA
d
Yc
xx -axis
b
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Deflection of Beams
Sign rules followed for Shear Force and Moment from right side:
SF +ve
M -ve
M +ve
x
x xx is Beam
SF -ve
Note: Convert all loads to KN and length to Metre. Substitute the value of EI at the end. These
will minimize the error during calculation. It is same as SF and BM in unit II. But only general
BM equation is found at distance x by considering all loads and moments and equating it to the
general equation EI d2y/ dx2 = Mx.
Double Integration or Macaulay Method:
Cantilever:
1. Take moment Mx. for a distance x from free end.
2. While taking the moment all loads should be considered.
3. The concentrated moment should be taken as it is. Ex 150(x-5)0. Clockwise or anti
clockwise watch the moment direction.
4. The point load moment is, load x distance. Ex 20(x-1) clock wise.
5. The udl load moment for top load is, load x distance. Ex 10(x)(x)/2. This is for load
distributed through out the span. Some times it may be required to counter the downward
load. It is clock wise moment.
6. The udl load moment for counter load is load x distance. Ex 10(x-2)(x-2)/2. This is for
load distributed from x-2 distance from one end to the other end of the support. Some
times it may be required to counter the upward load. It is anti clock wise moment.
7. Clockwise is negative (-) and anti-clockwise is positive (+).
8. Equate the moment to the general equation EI d2y/ dx2 = Mx.
9. Integrate once the equation will be slope equation.
10. Integrate once again the equation will be deflection.
11. Constants are found by boundary conditions, slope dy/dx and deflection y is zero at
support for cantilever.
12. Substitute the constant to the slope equation that would be final equation of the slope. It
is used to find slope anywhere along the length of beam.
13. Substitute the constant to the deflection equation that would be final equation of the
deflection. It is used to find deflection anywhere along the length of beam.
14. While substituting the value of x to the equations ignore the negative number section of
the equation.
x
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G
--- = ---- = ------- is general equation to stress and twist due to torsion.
Ip
r
L
T = Torque or Torsion or Angular Velocity obtained from power
Ip = Polar moment of inertia is sum of I xx and Iyy
= Shear stress in shaft
r = radius of shaft
L = Length of shaft
= Angle of twist in radian.
G or C = Modulus of rigidity
Convert to radian 1800 = radian.
P =
2NTmean
--------60
N - rpm
When P is in watt T will be N-m
and when P is in Kw T will be KN-m
Hollow shaft
(D4 - d4)
Ip = ----------------Ip = I/2 only for circular section
32
D - External dia and d internal dia
Solid shaft d = 0
Therefore,
Ip =
D4
------------32
T =
D3
------------16
32 TL
------------G D4
Shafts in parallel:
Conditions:
Total Torque T = T1 + T2
Twist is same in both shaft 1 = 2
The shafts may be of same material or different material, which is known as composite
shaft.
Strain energy or Torsional resilience in shaft:
It is the amount of energy stored when the shaft is in twisted position.
Torsional energy U = Average Torque x angle of twist
Tx
U = ------------ --------(A)
2
L
= ---- substitute equation in (A)
Gr
and
Ip
T = ---- substitute T equation in (A)
r
2 V
U = -----------4G
When U is divided by the volume of the shaft, is known as strain energy per unit volume.
Therefore,
Shaft coupled:
The shaft is joined together when the length is not sufficient this is known as coupling of
shaft. It is done in two methods.
1. Using bolts
2. Using key
Bolt method
T can be obtained from shaft expression for bolt and keyed shaft.
Ip
2NT
T = ------ or from Power expression P = ---------------r
60
T is torque in shaft which is transmitted to the coupled shaft through bolts or key.
Therefore torque in bolts or key is equal to torque in shaft.
T = no. of bolts x area of bolt x stress in bolt x radius of bolt circle
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G
--- = ---- = ------Ip
r
L
P or W - Load to spring
R Mean radius of coil
T - Torque or Torsion T = P x R
n Number of coils or turns
L Length of spring L = 2Rn
- Shear stress in spring
C or G - Modulus of rigidity
- Angle of twist in radian
Ip = Polar moment of inertia is sum of Ixx and Iyy
d - Diameter of spring
Spring index = D/d
Solid length = nd
Stiffness k = P/
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and
Tr
= ----------Ip
and
TL
= -----------G Ip
Therefore,
16PR
= ----------d3
64PR3n
= -----------------d4G
WAHL'S FACTOR :
In order to take into account the effect of direct shear and change in coil curvature a stress factor
is defined, which is known as Wahl's factor
K = Wahl' s factor and is defined as
Where C = spring index
= D/d
if we take into account the Wahl's factor than the formula for the shear stress
becomes
Spring frequency of vibration:
g/
f = ---------------- unit Hz (Hertz)
2
Springs in series:
Conditions:
2V
U = -----------4G
When U is divided by the volume of spring, is known as strain energy per unit volume.
Therefore
Moment M = PRsin
2 Rn
L = --------------------- = 2 Rn sec
cos
Angle of twist due to torsion, by substituting L and T in the equation below
T
G
--- = ------Ip
L
We get,
64PR2n cos sec
= -------------------------------- This is the angle of twist due to torsion
G d4
Angle of deflection due to moment by substituting the value of M, L and in the equation
below
M
E
--- = ------I
L
We know, Moment M = PRsin
= ML/EI Slope equation for the moment.
We get,
128 PR2 nsin sec
= ---------------------------------------- This is the angle due to bending moment
E d4
Work done is due to torsion and moment for open coiled spring. Work done or strain
energy U = Average load x distance = P /2
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P
T
M
-------- = ----------- + -------------2
2
2
Substituting the value of and is
64PR3n sec
cos2
2sin2
= --------------------------- --------- + -----------d4
G
E
Therefore stress in coil is due to torsion and moment therefore,
16PRcos
32PRsin
t = --------------- and m = -----------------d3
d3
Total stress in the coil is = t + m
When, = 0 it is same as closed coil spring.
Strain energy of open coiled spring is
P
U = ------------2
Angular rotation of open coiled spring:
= sin cos (Substituting the value of and )
64PR2n sin
= -------------------------d4
1
--------G
2
- -----------E
E Modulus of elasticity
Leaf Spring:
The reaction is like simply supported beam with concentrated load at mid span. Leaf
springs do not develop any torsional stress. General equation is
M
E
--------- = --------- = --------I
y
R
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Since leaf spring consist of layer of plates of thickness t and breadth b. Therefore I for a plate is
nbt3
I = ------therefore,
12
n Number of leaves or plates
I for n plates is I x n
y = t/2 N.A of plate
We know to find stress,
M
--------- = --------I
y
R
R-
3PL
= ----------- equation (A)
2nbt2
L/2
Deflection
Deflection equation:
theorem.
L/2
from
pythagros
L2
= ----------- equation (B) ignoring small values.
8R
Where, L is Length of plate and R radius of curvature due to bending of spring.
Substituting B in the following equation
E
--------- = --------y
R
L2
= --------- substitute for from equation (A)
4Et
3P L3
= ---------
or
8nEbt3
P = -----------
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3L3
Stiffness
P
k = --------
Derivation of Quarter elliptical Leaf Spring:
M = PL
--------- = --------I
y
6PL
= ----------- equation (A)
nbt2
R-
E
--------- = --------y
R
L2
= --------- substitute for from equation (A)
Et
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Department of Civil Engineering
or
nEbt3
P = ----------6L 3
Stiffness
P
k = --------
Thin Cylinder
A cylinder whose thickness is 20 times less than the diameter is known as thin cylinder.
When a liquid or gas flows through a pipe it cause stress to the pipe. There are three types of
stresses induced.
Circumferential stress which will cause stress along the length of the cylinder. This will
split the cylinder along the length. This is known as Hoop stress.
Longitudinal stress which will cause stress along the diameter of the cylinder. This will
split the cylinder into two pieces along the diameter.
Radial stress is negligible so it is ignored.
Both the circumferential and longitudinal stresses are tensile. This is an important point
to be remembered to find the change in volume.
Circumferential stress:
Resisting force by cylinder along length of pipe = force due to fluid pressure along length
of pipe.
pd
c 2tL = pdL Thus c= -----------2t
Longitudinal stress:
Resisting force by cylinder along diameter of pipe = force due to fluid pressure along
diameter of pipe.
L Dt = p ( D2/4)
pD
Thus L = ---------4t
Thus Hoop stress is two times greater than longitudinal stress. To find the thickness
Hoop stress should be used.
Some times cylinders will have joints this will reduce the strength at the joint. Therefore
and efficiency of joint () is included in the above expressions.
pD
pD
c = ------------ and l = -----------2tc
4tL
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pD
-----2tE
1
1 - ---2m
c
-----E
(OR)
c =
L
----mE
pD 1
1
------ ----- - ---2tE 2
m
c =
L
-----E
(OR)
c
----mE
pD
-------2tE
5
2
--- - ----2
m
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pD
-----------4t
pd
= ------------ Stress due efficiency in joints
4t
1
---m
(OR)
=
-----E
-----mE
Thus
c1
w1 2 dw2
L
-------------- ------ (2 because of two sides n=L/d w)
4
dw
=
dw w1
----------------
4t
Stress due to internal pressure p = Stress in cylinder + Stress in wire
pDL = c2 2tL + w2 2 dw2 L
--------- ---4
dw
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1 (w2 - w1)
-----Ew
w = c
1 (c2 - c1 L/m)
------Ec
Since the initial strain in the wire w1 /Ew and the strain in cylinder c1 /Ec are the same,
they are nullified, therefore the above equation is written as;
w2
-------- =
Ew
1(c2 L /m)
----------------Ec
x - y 2
---------- + 2
2
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(x , xy)
P
2
x
C
(y , xy)
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Unit V - Question 15
1. Torsion in shaft T/Ip= /r = G/L
OR
1. Torsion in Spring T/Ip= /r = G/L
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Modulus of Rigidity
mE
C = ----------2(m + 1)
Open coil
It is used for
compressive load
both
tensile
and
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100KN
400mm
500 mm
4. A mild steel rod of 20mm diameter and 300mm long is enclosed centrally inside a hollow
copper tube of external diameter 30mm and internal diameter of 25mm. The ends of the tube
and rods are brazed together and the composite bar is subjected to an axial pull of 40kN. E for
steel and copper is 200 GN/m2 and 100 GN/m2 respectively. Find the stresses developed in the
rod and the tube. Also find the extension of the rod.
5. A reinforced concrete column 500 mm x 500 mm in section is reinforced with 4 steel bars of
20 mm diameter, one in each corner. The column is carrying a load of 750 kN. Determine the
stresses in concrete and steel bars. Take E S = 210 GPa and E c = 14 GPa. Also, calculate load
carried by steel and concrete.
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150mm
Copper Rod
Steel Rod
Copper Rod
100mm
(OR)
8. A steel tube of 20 mm internal diameter and 30 mm external diameter encases a copper rod of
15 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. If the temperature of the assembly is
raised
by
800C
calculate
the
stresses
produced
in
the
tube.
Ex = 2 x 105 N/mm2 Ec = 1 x 105 N/mm2. Coefficient of linear expansion of steel and copper are
11 x 10-6 per 0C and 18 x 10-6 per 0C.
9. A steel flat 24 mm x 6 mm in section riveted between two aluminum flats of same size at a
temperature of 288 K is shown in fig. If this assembly is subjected to a compressive force of
35kN, find the stresses developed in each material. To what temperature the assembly can be
raised that the stresses in the materials due to the load are nullified. Es = EA1 = 210 GPa. s =
12x10-6/K and Al = 23 x 10-6/K.
35kN
35kN
200mm
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300kN
100mm
50mm
100kN
200kN
500 mm
12. A bar of 30mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60kN. The measured extension on gauge
length of 200mm is 0.09mm and the change in diameter is 0.0039mm. Calculate and the
values of the three module.
13. A tensile load of 60kN is gradually applied to a circular bar of 4cm diameter and 5m long. If
the value of E = 2 x 105 N/mm2, determine
a. stretch in the rod
b. stress in the rod
c. strain energy absorbed by the rod
Find the above, if the same load is applied suddenly.
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram, Bending Stress, and Shear Stress
1. Draw SFD and BMD with all the salient features.
20 kN
10 kN/m
2m
3m
2m
1m
1.5m
2m
10 kN
100 kNm
2m
2m
2m
(OR)
2m
4. The shear force acting on a T section of a beam is 50 kN as shown in fig. Calculate the shear
stress at the neutral axis and at the junction of the web and the flange.
100mm
(1)
20mm
100mm
A
80mm
N
(2)
5. A simply supported beam of span 6m and of I section has the top flange 40 mm x 5 mm,
bottom flange of 60 mm x 5 mm, total depth of 100 mm, and web thickness 5 mm. It carries an
UDL of 2kN/m over the full span.20mm
Calculate the maximum tensile stress and Maximum
compressive stress produced.
6. Three planks of each 50 x 200 m timber are built up to symmetrical I section for a beam. The
maximum shear force over the beam is 4 kN. Propose an alternate rectangular section of the
same material so that the width of the section to be 2/3 of the depth.
7. Determine the dimensions of a timber beam of span 8m, which carries a brick wall of 200 mm
thick and 5 m high and whose density is 18.5 kN/m3. The maximum permissible stress is limited
to 7.5 N/mm2. Assume depth of beam as twice its width.
4m
2m
2. Find the maximum deflection of the beam at point load and slope at mid spam in terms of EI.
20 kN
10 kN/m
2m
3m
1m
1m
3, Find the maximum deflection of the beam at the free end and slope at 30kN in terms of EI.
30 kN
10 kN
2m
4m
2m
(OR)
4. A 1.2 m long column has a circular cross section of 45 mm diameter one of the ends of the
column is fixed in direction and position and other end is free. Taking factor of safety as 3,
calculate the safe load using
(i)
Rankines formula, take yield stress = 560 N/mm2 and = 1/1600 for pinned ends.
(ii)
Eulers formula, Youngs modulus for cast iron = 1.2 x 10 5 N/mm2.
5. Find Euler critical load for a symmetric I section of width 300mm x total depth 1100mm with
web thickness 20mm and flange thickness 50mm, if it is 6m long, both ends fixed. Assume
Youngs Modulus for cast iron as 80 KN/mm2. Compare this load with that given by Rankines
formula, = 1/1600, = 567 N/mm2. Find the maximum stress in the column if the column is
allowed to bend 15mm at the middle.
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Solve
Truss
1. (a) Find the forces in the members of the truss shown in fig.
U1
W=100kN
L0
U2
U3
6m
L1
W
L2
L3
L4
W
W
4 @ 6 m = 24m
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B
2m
2m
6kN
3. Find the forces in the members AB, BF, BC and FE of the truss shown in Fig.
C
B
3.6m
2.4m
A
D
2.4m F
2.4m
2.4m
Page 54 of 54
Einstein College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering