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High School Biology Reviewer
High School Biology Reviewer
Cell Theory
1. All living things are structurally made up of cells. (Matthias
Scheliden, Theodor Schwann)
d. Differential-interference-contrast- contrasting
brighter or darker appearance of various organelles
through technical optical methods
Felix Dujardin- noted that all living things contain a thick jelly fluid
(sarcode)
f.
Johannes Purkinje- coined the term protoplasm, the living matter of the
cell
Rudolf Virchow- omnia cellula e cellula or cells come from preexisting cells
Louis Pasteur- proof of Virchows Theory of Biogenesis
Cell Reproduction
Reproduction- ability of an organism to increase in number and produce
their own kind; process in which living things can perpetuate their species
Sexual Reproduction- involves union of gametes
Asexual Reproduction- offspring is genetically identical with its
single parent; results in the formation of clones
Budding- buds or outgrowths from the parent cell/body grow
into new individuals
Ex. Yeast, Hydra
Spore Formation- spores (haploid) germinate into new
individuals without fertilization
Ex. Bread molds, mosses and ferns
Fission- single-celled organisms
Ex. Bacteria, some protozoans
Axial Skeleton
Skull- protects the brain
Skeletal System
Skeleton
Functions of Bones:
a) Support
Appendicular Skeleton
b) Protection
c) Calcium storage
Shoulder girdle
Shapes of Bones:
a) Flat- red marrow; scapula, skull, ribs
Joints
b) Irregular- vertebra
d) Short
3. Movable
14.Osteocytes- mature bone cells that secrete the hard bony matrix
Steps:
a) Development of ossification center
b) Calcification
Change in the Number of Bones: At birth the human body has about
350 bones, but by the time adulthood rolls around, some of our
bones have fused together to give us a total of 206 bones
c) Formation of trabeculae
Muscular System
d) Development of periosteum
Types of Muscles:
Skeletal
Smooth
Cardiac
Number of
nuclei/cell
Multinucleated
One
One or two
Presence of
striations
Striated
Few striations or
none
Striated
Cell shape
Cylindrical
Spindle
Branching
Movement
Voluntary
Involuntary
Involuntary
Structures of Muscles
1. Sarcolemma- muscle cell membrane; acts as cover
2. Sarcoplasm- muscle cytoplasm; holds organelles
3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum- muscle endoplasmic reticulum;
transport unit
Mucus membrane
Nasal cavity
Palade
Uvula
Esophagus
sarco- jelly-like
Epidymis
myo- muscle
Dymis
Ingestion
Two Phases of Ingestion
Absorption
Elimination or defecation
Three Layers:
Mouth
1. Longitudinal
Teeth (32)
2. Circular
3. Angled/Oblique
Salivary glands
B. Valves
Circulatory System- process in which blood is delivered to the capillaries
where exchange of molecules take place
Importance: transport of
b. Bicuspid (or mitral)- has two flaps at the left side of the heart
1. Food nutrients
2. Semilunar valves
2. Respiratory gases
3. Cellular wastes
Organs of Circulatory System:
A. Heart- double pumping organ/machine; right side pumps
deoxygenated blood and left side pumps oxygenated blood
Pericardium- outer covering
Septum- structure that separates right side to left side
Layers of Heart Wall
Atria
Ventricle
.15 seconds
.30 seconds
.40 seconds
S- Systole
D- Diastole
Air passages:
2. Vital capacity- total volume of air that can be moved in and out
during a single breath. It is the total sum of tidal, inspiratory
reserve and expiratory reserve volumes
5. Bronchi- two divided tubes from the trachea that are branched into
bronchioles
6. Bronchioles- smaller brances with thinner walls and terminates in
alveoli
7. Alveoli- air packets/sacs (300M, with total cross-sectional area of
50-70m2) where gasses are exchanged in its one layered squamous
epithelium surrounded by blood capillaries and lipoprotein lining
that lowers lung surface tension that prevents them from closing.
Premature babies die when lipoprotein is not present in their lungs
(Infant respiratory distress syndrome).
Lungs- coneshaped organ lying on both sides of the heart within
thoracic cavity (ribs, sternum and muscles) above the dome-shaped
horizontal muscle, diaphragm and are enclosed by the pleural
5. Residual volume- remain air in the lungs that is no longer useful for
gas exchange purposes
Factors Affecting Lung Capacity:
1. Activity
2. Health condition
3. Higher altitude
4. Gender
Dead space- air passages that are filled with air that never reaches the
lungs. Breathing through a tube increases the amount of dead space
beyond maximal inhaling capacity that can cause death to the
individual because the air inhaled never reaches the alveoli.
Components of Respiration:
Mechanism of Breathing
Inspiration
Expiration
4. Lungs expand.
4. Lungs recoil.
3. Hb + O2 HbO2
Internal Respiration Process: blood to cells/tissues
Components of Air
Inspired Air (%
volume)
Expired Air (%
volume)
1. HbO2 Hb + O2
Nitrogen
79.00
79.60
2. Hb + CO2 HbCO2
Oxygen
20.96
16.02
Carbon Dioxide
0.04
4.38
1. Pulmonary- lungs
2. Coronary- heart
3. Ephatic portal- pancreas, stomach, digestive system
4. Renal- kidney
5. Systemic- intarbody
Respiratory Infections and Diseases
1. Common cold- viral infection; scratchy throat, watery mucus
discharge from nasal cavities
2. Influenza (flu)- viral infection; fever, aches and pains in the joints
3. Bronchitis- viral infection from nasal cavities to sinuses (sinusitis),
to middle ears (otitis media), to the larynx (laryngitis), and bronchi.
Acute bronchitis is caused by secondary bacterial infection with
heavy mucus discharge and coughing and responds to antibiotic
therapy. Chronic bronchitis is caused by constant irritation of
bronchi lining resulting to loss of cilia and normal cleansing action;
caused by smoking
4. Strep throat- bacterium streptococcus pyogenes infection; difficulty
swallowing and fever; can lead to rheumatic fever if not treated
with antibiotics
5. Pneumonia- bacterial/viral infection; lobes of lungs are filled with
mucus and pus
6. Tuberculosis- tubercle bacillus infection
5. Large Intestine excrete salts, iron and calcium directly into its cavity
by the epithelial cells lining it
Urinary System (Path):
1. Kidneys 2 bean-shaped reddish brown organ at fist size that forms
urine compound of metabolic waste products. Its external structure
features a depression where renal blood vessels and ureters enter.
Internal structure involves:
o Cortex outer granulated layer which dips down in between
Loop of Henle cells are flat and tubes become narrow making a Uturn located at the medulla
2. Ureters muscular tubes that convey urine from the kidneys toward the
bladder by peristaltic action
3. Urinary bladder hollow, muscular organ that holds 600 mL of urine. In
males, it lies ventral to the rectum, the seminal vesicles, and the vas
deferens. In females, it is ventral to the uterus and the upper vagina
4. Urethra extends from urinary bladder to the external opening. In
males, its length averages 15 cm when penis is relaxed. In females, it is
only about 2.5 cm long making bacterial invasion possible
Steps in Urine formation
1. Pressure filtration blood pressure forces small molecules (water,
glucose, amino acids, salts, urea, uric acid, creatine) form the
glomerulus into Bowmans capsule
2. Selective absorption diffusion and active transport return
molecules (water, glucose, amino acids, salts) to blood at proximal
convoluted tubule
3. Tubular excretion active transport moves molecules (uric acid,
creatine, hydrogen ions, ammonia, penicillin) from blood into the
distal convoluted tubule
4. Reabsorption of water along the length of the nephron and
notably at loop of Henle and collecting duct, water returns by
osmosis following active reabsoprtion of salt
5. Excretion urine formation rids body of metabolic wastes (water,
salts, urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatinine)
Problems with kidney functions:
1. Urethritis infection of the urethra
2. Cystisis infection of the urinary bladder
Functions:
c. Hindbrain
c1. Pons and medulla oblongata
2. Traditional Endocrine Hormones & Secretions of Neurosecretory cells act a distance within the individual.
Types of Hormones
1. Peptide/Polypeptide/Protein/Amino acid hormones- coded by genes &
synthesized at the ribosomes; activates exciting enzyme in the cell
(combines with receptors, produces cAMP, activates a certain cell and so
on); acts on the target cell with a lesser period of effect
2. Steroid Hormones- produced by adrenal cortex, testes, ovaries
(combines with receptors, enters the nucleus, binds with chromatin,
activates a particular gene and synthesis of certain enzymes), ex.
Anabolic/Synthetic Steroids (1930); prevents muscle atrophy to burn
victims and surgery patients; prolonged use leads to stunted growth, high
blood cholesterol, liver cancer and mood swings.
a) Cortex
Glucocorticoids/Cortisol- Amino acid to glucose; raises
blood glucose level
Mineralocorticoids/Aldosterone- regulates level of sodium &
potassium
Sex hormones
b) Medulla
Norepinephrine- responses associated with fight or flight
response; blood glucose level and metabolic rate increases.
a) Heart
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone
b) Stomach
Gastric juice (HCL & Pepsin )
c) Small Intestine
Intestinal Juices
Diseases Related to the Endocrine System
Diabetes Insipidus - inability to produce ADH
Giantism - associated with GH (too much)
Dwarfism - associated with GH (too little)
Reproductive System
Importance
Primary Follicles
Follicles
Secondary
Primary Oocytes
Oocytes
Secondary
2,000,000
puberty,
before
Graafian Follicles
Corpus Luteum
-contains mature
-produces progesterone
300,000400,000
Meiosis I
uterus; disintegrates if
no fertilization occurs;
3-6 months in mother
Meiosis II
5. Neurula
- (3rd Week) appearance of the nerve cord and heart; development of the
Nervous System
- (4th-5th weeks) formation of the 4th extraembryonic embrane (allantois)
that later becomes the umbilical cord connecting the developing embryo
to the placenta; human features appear (head, arms, legs)
- (6th-8th weeks) brain development; neck formation; NS development for
reflex actions; all organ systems are established; placenta is mature and
fully functioning; 1 1/2 inches long and weighs like an aspirin tablet
B. Fetal Development
2-4 mos.
- large head, flat nose, eyes apart and ears distinctively present, sex are
determined; heart beat is felt; skeleton ossified; 6 1/2 inches long and 1/2
lb
5-7 mos.
- movement, eye lids open, pink-colored skin, have lanugs covered with
greasy cheese like substance (vernix caseosa) for protection from
amniotic fluid, 12 inches long and 3 lbs.
8-9 mos.
- fetus rotates so head is towards the cervix- 21 inches long and 7lbs
Gestation- period of pregnancy, normally lasts for 38 weeks (266 days)
Parturition- labor and expulsion of the fetus; contraction of the uterine wall
every 15-20 minutes for every 20-30 seconds or 15 minutes for 40
seconds or more.
Stages of Labor:
1.) Dilation of the cervix- expulsion of the mucus plug from the cervical
canal which prevents bacteria and sperm from entering the uterus during
pregnancy
Molecular Genetics
Mendelian Genetics
Mutations
Types of Mutations: