Battery Management System (BMS) for a Solar Powered Racer

Revision 1
ECE 4007 Senior Design Project
Section L01, Solar Jackets Battery Management Team

Project Advisor: Dr. Whit Smith

Prepared by:
Mark Slade
Daniel Christopher
Daniel Paul Martin
Ali Bibonge
Taverishima Tsegha

Submitted
September, 26 2011

Table of Contents
Executive Summary.............................................................................................................4
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................5
1.1 Objective............................................................................................................5
1.2 Motivation..........................................................................................................5
1.3 Background........................................................................................................6
2. Project Description and Goals..........................................................................................7
2.1 Description.........................................................................................................7
2.2 Goals...................................................................................................................8
3. Technical Specification....................................................................................................8
3.1 Physical Specifications.......................................................................................8
3.2 Lithium-Ion Battery Specifications...................................................................10
3.3 Microcontroller Specifications..........................................................................10
3.4 MOSFET Specifications....................................................................................11
3.5 LTC Specifications............................................................................................11
3.6 Temperature Sensor IC Specifications..............................................................12
4. Design Approach and Details..........................................................................................13
4.1 Design Approach...............................................................................................13
4.2 Codes and Standards..........................................................................................16
4.3 Constraints, Alternatives, and Tradeoffs............................................................17
5. Schedule, Tasks, and Milestones......................................................................................18
6. Project Demonstration......................................................................................................18
7. Marketing and Cost Analysis............................................................................................19

7.1 Marketing Analysis.............................................................................................19

7.2 Cost Analysis......................................................................................................20
8. Summary...........................................................................................................................21
9. References.........................................................................................................................23
Appendix A...........................................................................................................................25

Executive Summary
The Solar Jackets club at Georgia Tech is building a solar powered racer to compete in a
1200-1800 mile cross-country American Solar Challenge in summer 2012. The battery
management system (BMS) project is a continuation of the design that began in January 2011 by
the previous ECE 4007 senior design class. The BMS system proposed will be designed to
monitor, regulate, and maintain the solar powered lithium-ion (Li-ion) rechargeable batteries that
power the Solar Jackets racer. The racer will be powered by three battery packs connected in
parallel containing 30 Li-ion cells each. The battery packs will supply the 96V required for the
motor and a 12V bus to power all peripheral equipment such as microcontrollers. During the
race, it is required that an active method of circuitry protection be utilized to continually monitor
and regulate the over-voltage, under-voltage, over-current, and over-temperature of the Li-ion
battery cells. Communication with other systems in the racer will be achieved via a RS-485
network being designed by another Solar Jackets team.

1.

Introduction
The Solar Jackets team at Georgia Tech is building a solar powered racer to compete in

the 2012 American Solar Challenge. This is an ongoing project with a new design team to
continue from where the spring 2011 team stopped. The Solar Jackets battery monitoring system
(BMS) team has a $410 budget from Georgia Tech to develop and build a custom BMS, a
subsystem of the solar power system in the racer.
1.1

Objective
The spring 2011 BMS group left a semi-functional battery management system that could

successfully measure individual cell voltages in a controlled environment. This semi-functional

BMS could also communicate via the RS-485 network and determine whether to turn on or off
each battery pack. The objective this semester is to get the current and temperature monitoring
components of the BMS functional as well as potentially polishing the voltage monitoring aspect
of the BMS [1]. The RS-485 communication protocol will be designed and managed by another
Solar Jackets design group; the BMS will only provide the data acquired from the battery packs.
1.2

Motivation
The Solar Jackets want to have a fully functional car by December 9, 2011. A working

prototype must be produced as well as being integrated into the BMS system with the other
aspects of the car by this date. There will be a total of 90 lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells in the car and
safety is critical. These Li-ion cells are capable of exploding if the temperature exceeds 85C and
be damaged if the voltage drops below a certain threshold. A BMS system is necessary to ensure
that the batteries are maintained within the desired operating conditions. Without a battery
management system, the driver would need to repeatedly check on the batterys health himself
5

[1]. A custom design BMS will produce a more cost effective means for monitoring and
managing the batteries for the Solar Jackets. It will also allow the Solar Jackets to better
understand how to deal with large currents and other various characteristics that are expected
from the system.
1.3

Background
Every battery management system does three things. It should monitor how the battery is

doing via current, voltage, and temperature. The BMS should balance the charge among the
various battery packs. Also, it should protect the batteries with warning stages and even go as far
as to manually shut off if the batteries reach a critical state in which they could be permanently
damaged or combust [1]. Due to the fact that this will be the second group to work on this
specific design, much of the background research deals primarily with the aspects not
successfully dealt with in the previous term. Specifically, the process of circuit breaking the
battery packs in case of reaching a critical state, the specific batteries that will be implemented,
and the LTC chip used to measure various characteristics of the Li-ion batteries have all been
examined.
Li-ion batteries will be implemented for this design of the BMS. These batteries are the
most popular batteries on the market. They are a rechargeable battery type in which lithium ions
move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and the process is
reverse when charging [2]. The use of Li-ion batteries has increased in the past decade due to
their ability charge quickly, great energy density, and relatively slow loss of charge [3].
MOSFETs will be used as circuit breakers to isolate certain battery packs when some
aspect of the pack is not within the allowable range for temperature, voltage, or current.
MOSFETs are voltage driven devices constructed with four major sections: source, drain, gate,

and body. They are comprised of semi conductor, insulator (silicon dioxide) and a metallic
component. When the voltage between the gate and source terminals is below a specified
threshold (typically 27mV), there is no channel for conduction which is how we will switch the
battery packs on and off [4]. In order to properly use MOSFETs as switches, the digital output
from a microcontroller to push the MOSFETs through an amplifying gate driver will be used.
Embedded microcontrollers can be found in technologies and items such as televisions,
cell phones, automobiles, or any high-end computer. The underlying software used to produce
functionality with microcontrollers is the C/C++ programming language [5]. A gate driver at its
most basic definition is a power amplifier. Its purpose is to take a low current value that is often
coming from a digital source and output a high current value capable of driving FETs into a
different state for initializing circuit breaking [6].
The LTC6802 that will be used in the BMS is a complete battery monitoring IC that
includes a 12-bit analog-to-digital converter, a precision voltage reference, a high voltage input
multiplexer, and a serial interface. Each of the 12 cell inputs has an associated MOSFET switch
that can discharge any cell that becomes overcharged [3]. The BMS will be using this LTC chip
to measure both voltage and current in the battery packs.

2.

Project Description and Goals

2.1

Description
The BMS will be designed to provide measurements of the voltage of individual batteries

in each pack, the current flowing in or out of the battery pack, and the temperature of the battery
pack. Predetermined limits will be selected in order to provide safe operating conditions for the
batteries. If any of these limits are exceeded, a system shutdown will occur. The battery packs
7

will consist of thirty 3.2V cells that will be provided by the Solar Jackets. A source of 96V will
be attained by connecting each of the thirty cells in series. A battery pack containing the 30 cells
has been assembled and will be implemented with the BMS.
Identical printed circuit boards will be designed and will contain components for
measuring the voltage of each cell, the current at the connection of each battery pack, and
temperature at various locations in the battery pack. The measurements obtained from the
sensors will be read by a Microchip PIC24 microcontroller. Continuous monitoring of the
sensors from the microcontroller will allow for system stability and allow for the capability of
disconnecting the battery pack if necessary. The microcontroller will be connected to the cars
computer system to report its status and receive commands to connect and disconnect the pack.
2.2

Goals
Program microcontroller to read sensor data and determine state of battery system
Monitor individual cell voltages, temperature, charge/discharge current
Satisfy cooling requirements
Implement safety shut off system
Send/receive data and commands with computer

3.

Technical Specifications

3.1

Battery Pack Specifications

Three independently monitored battery packs all work together to power the solar

vehicle. The specifications for one of these battery packs are listed in Table 1 [1]. The choice of
batteries was chosen by the Solar Jackets officials. The battery packs will output at 96V for the
motor and also supply the 12 V power used by the all other electronics in the vehicle.
8

Additionally, size constraints will play a critical role and are also listed in Table 1 [1]. The BMS
is designed to keep the batteries within the manufacturer's operational specifications [7] and will
shutdown operation whenever safe limits are exceeded.
Table 1. Pack Specifications
Battery Make
Battery cells per pack
Number of packs
Motor output voltage
Peripheral output voltage
Microcontroller
Communication Protocol
Maximum mass
Maximum width
Maximum length
Maximum height

Headway Headquarters H-38120S

30
4
96 V
12 V
PIC24F16KA102
RS 485
10 kg
20 inches
22 inches
8 inches

3.2

Lithium-Ion Battery Specifications

The Headway 38120S Li-ion batteries were selected by the Solar Jackets officials. The

specifications can be seen in Table 2 [7].

Table 2. Headway 38120S(10AH)

3.3

No. Item

Specification

Normal capacity

10000mAh

Normal Voltage

3.2V

Inter Impedance

<6m

Maximum Charge Current

2C(20A)

Maximum Charge Voltage

3.650.05V

Maximum Continuous Discharge Current

10C(100A)

Maximum Peak Pulse Discharge Current

15C(150A)

Discharge Stop Voltage

2.0V

Dimension

10

Weight

11

Work temperature

12

Store temperature

13

Cycle Life

Diameter

381mm

Height

122 1mm (1321mm)

Approx. 330g

Charge

0~45C

Discharge

-20~60C

In one month

-20~45C

In six month

-20~35C

1500 cycles 1C 100% DOD 2000 cycles 1C 80% DOD

Microcontroller Specifications
PIC microcontrollers will be used to monitor the batteries and relay such information to

the rest of the vehicle. Each individual microcontroller will have a unique hardware identity used
to communicate among the RS-485 bus, programmed with jumper on the primary board. Each
monitoring PIC microcontroller operates in slave mode and waits for a ping before sending its
response. Table 3 shows the specs on the PIC microcontroller chosen [8].
10

Table 3. Microcontroller Specifications

Microcontroller
Architecture
CPU Speed (MIPS)
Memory Type
Program Memory (KB)
RAM Bytes
Temp Range (C)
Operating Voltage
I/O Pins
Internal Oscillator
Timers

3.4

PIC24F16KA102
16-bit
16
Flash
16
1,536
-40 to 125
1.8 to 3.6
24
8 MHz, 32 kHz
3 x 16-bit

MOSFET Specifications
The MOSFET will be used for isolating the battery packs when over-voltage, under-

voltage, over-current, and over-temperature limits are reached. The MOSFET specifications are
shown in Table 4 [9].
Table 4. MOSFET Specifications
MOSFET
VDSS
IDSS
RDS(on)
trr

3.5

INFK230N20T
200V
230A
7.5m
200ns

LTC Specifications
The LTC IC will interface between the PIC microcontroller and the battery cells. It will

be used to measure/balancing voltages and measuring current. The specifications for the LTC IC
are shown in Table 5 [10].

11

Table 5. LTC Specifications

Total Supply Voltage (V+ to V) 60V
Input Voltage (Relative to V)
C1

0.3V to 9V

C12

V+ 0.6V to V+ + 0.3V

Cn

0.3V to min (9 n, 60V)

Sn

0.3V to min (9 n, 60V)

CSBO, SCKO, SDOI

V+ 0.6V to V+ + 0.3V

All other pins

0.3V to 7V

Voltage Between Inputs

Cn to Cn-1

0.3V to 9V

Sn to Cn-1

0.3V to 9V

C12 to C8

0.3V to 25V

C8 to C4

0.3V to 25V

C4 to V

0.3V to 25V

Operating Temperature Range 40C to 85C

3.6

Specified Temperature Range

40C to 85C

Junction Temperature

150C

Storage Temperature Range

65C to 150C

Temperature Sensor IC Specifications

An LM35D integrated-circuit will be used as the temperature sensor. We favored it

because its output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The
LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is
not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade
scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical
accuracies of 14C at room temperature and 34C over a full 55 to +150C temperature
range. Its low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing
12

to readout or control circuitry easy. It can be used with a single power supply, or with plus and
minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating which is
extremely important in proper temperature sensing. Table 6 shows the specifications for the
LM35DT temperature sensor [11].

Table 6. LM35DT Specifications

Manufacturer
Range
Supply voltage accuracy
National Semiconductor -55C ~ 150C 4 V ~ 30 V
0.6C

4.

Design Approach and Details

4.1

Design Approach
The topology of one battery pack for the BMS is shown in Figure 1. The system contains

three battery packs in parallel. In each pack 30 cells are put in series to produce a total voltage of
96 Volts DC when fully charged. In theory, this topology allows for a maximum current draw of
400A by the motor since each pack has the capacity to produce 100A. All cable conductors will
be sized accordingly even though the motor will not draw a current that high.

13

Figure 1. BMS block diagram for an individual pack.

Each pack will be connected to the main bus through three different disconnects: a fuse, a
computer controlled electronic switch, and a manual switch. A 12V bus from each battery pack
will be used for all computers and peripheral equipment in the racer. The 30 cells in each pack
will be placed between two printed circuit boards that contain the LTC ICs for voltage and
current measuring of the individual battery cells. The LTC layout can be seen in Figure 2.
Operational amplifiers that can operate at high voltages (above 50V) will be used to measure the
cells voltages and currents. LM35 sensors will be used to measure the temperature of each
battery pack [11].

14

Figure 2. LTC chip layout.

A PIC24F16KA102 microcontroller will be used in each individual battery pack as a

small computer to monitor the batteries health. All sensors will feed through a multiplexor,
allowing the PIC to ping each sensor individually and determine whether the batteries are
healthy. The PIC will have the ability to cut off the batteries from the load or the solar cells
automatically if either voltage is too high in a certain cell or if the motor is drawing too much
current. The PIC will also cut off a pack if the temperature of an individual cell is over 45 C. In
15

addition to monitoring, the microcontroller will deliver data such as charge levels, voltage levels,
average current draw, and temperatures to the motor control computer via RS 485.
Battery balancing will be implemented due to the imperfect nature of the individual
battery cells. Some cells may charge faster than others. Battery balancing will ensure all batteries
within a pack have the same charge level. Implementing this for each battery would require
either bypass or current limiting circuitry for each battery. If a certain battery cell has a higher
voltage than the others, it will be bypassed or the current to it will be limited while the others
continue charging normally. Given the topology presented above, bypassing a cell would drop
the voltage of the pack and cause it to be a lower voltage than the bus. A pack with a lower
voltage than the bus would cause the other packs to discharge into it, possibly causing an
unwanted increase in temperature. The solution to the problem would be to disconnect a pack off
from the bus once one cell in a pack exceeds 3.65V. That would force the highest cell to
discharge into the others and bring the whole pack to a uniform voltage. Once the voltage of the
pack has gone down slightly, the pack will reconnect.
4.2

Codes and Standards

The BMS complies with all electrical regulations set in the 2012 American Solar

Challenge (ASC) Regulations [12]. The regulations define the requirements to electrically isolate
the battery system in case of an emergency shutdown. At the time of this proposal an email was
sent to the ASC requesting information on the acceptability of MOSTFETs as a means of
electrically isolating the Li-ion packs. The communication to the other systems in the solar car
utilizes the RS-485 protocol that is being designed by another Solar Jackets design group. Each
pack will operate as a slave on the bus with its own unique device identity. All messages sent to

16

other systems in the vehicle will be sent in 8-bit plain text ASCII. Each message will be
terminated by a check sum followed by the end-of-line character.
4.3

Constraints, Alternatives, and Tradeoffs

The battery pack, the topology of cells and sensors were designed by the previous senior

design group. Using three separate battery packs in parallel was chosen because it is easier to test
the smaller battery packs and it does not create a single point of failure. The connection style of
putting the batteries between two custom copper clad boards was chosen to simplify wiring and
make attaching voltage sensors easy. This decision requires that the voltage sensors measure two
cells at a time because each circuit board only has every other cell connection available. This can
be compensated via software by subtracting the voltages from each board to obtain each
individual voltage.
The most difficult constraint is tolerance of the natural variation of the 90 cells in the
three battery packs. These variations can cause the cells to charge and discharge at different
rates, and none of the cells can be allowed to exceed maximum and minimum charge constraints
without shortening their lifetime. It is possible to disconnect a single cell that is charging at a
different rate but that would require the addition of an enormous amount of circuitry. The added
complexity could extend the design project beyond the time allocated. The alternative chosen
was to simply turn off each pack entirely whenever any of its cells exceeds its parameters. This
increases the odds of a single pack being disconnected, and therefore will require tighter
monitoring of the battery packs.
In addition to these design constraints, the completed BMS must meet all requirements
imposed by the contest rules and the design of the Solar Jackets car. This includes safety
requirements such as cooling fans and emergency stop switches being designed by another Solar

17

Jackets design group. The battery pack dimensions are dictated by the size of the cells, which
have been pre-specified by the Solar Jackets.

5.

Schedule, Tasks, and Milestones

The BMS project schedule is to have a working prototype by the week of October 17,

2011. The Solar Jackets have set a schedule to have a fully-functional BMS in the second week
in December. Table 7 shows a summary schedule of the BMS project. A more detailed project
schedule can be found in Appendix A.

Table 7. Summary Schedule of BMS Project

6.

Task Name

Duration

Purchase Parts
Build Prototype
Design PCB

7 days
8 days
12 days

Program PIC24
BMS Fabrication
BMS Install/Test
Final Presentation

9 days
0 days
7 days
0 days

Project Demonstration
In conclusion of the Fall semester, three battery packs will be completely assembled and

tested to ensure that each pack delivers an output voltage of 96V. Individual battery packs will
be capable of being charged and the control software for each battery pack will be demonstrated.
The software will show that no single battery contained within each battery pack becomes overcharged, under-charged, or over-heated. Following this, the interactions of all three packs will be
18

demonstrated in order to show that the BMS has the ability to allow for each battery pack to
properly charge when each battery pack is initially at a different voltage level.
After successful testing/demonstrations, the entirety of the BMS will be integrated into
the Solar Jackets racer and provide a consistent supply of 96V to power the motor. Due to the
fact that all components of the racer may not be completed by the end of the semester, an
alternative testing method will be used. This method will use a power supply to charge the
battery packs and measurements will be displayed on a computer using HyperTerminal.

7.

Marketing and Cost Analysis

7.1

Marketing Analysis
While other battery management systems are commercially available, the constraints and

the power efficiency used in our system is not currently available on the market [1]. Our
interpretation of this design will succeed previous iterations and will incorporate features that
will enhance the functionality of the device. The nature of the vehicle requires that each
management system be able to operate with a current of 100A [1]. However, most systems today
can handle only a maximum of 15 cells per pack. This constraint would require two BMS boards
to be used per pack. An implementation like this would reference all the control signals against a
48 V ground for the upper half of the battery packs [1]. This result would not meet the ASC
standards. The systems that meet the required 96 V for the motor will fail to have the required
current capacity [13]. Most available commercial systems do not have the capability to manage
battery packs in a parallel system. These systems manage the cells during charging in an attempt
to equalize the charges on each cell, which can result in the packs having different voltages from

19

one another [1]. Even if todays systems are used in parallel, they are not cost friendly to
consumers in the market.
7.2

Cost Analysis
The BMS for the Solar Jackets solar vehicle will cost an estimated $26,476.10 for

equipment and development. Table 8 gives a full listing of the parts used to make the BMS.

Table 8. Equipment Costs

Product Description

Quantity Unit Price Price

BMS IC chip LTC6802

Amount Purchased

$13.86

$41.58 $0.00

PIC24F16KA102 microcontroller 1

$2.70

$2.70

$0.00

External Oscillator

$2.13

$2.13

$0.00

Phone jack

$4.54

$4.54

$0.00

Current sensor

$7.00

$7.00

$0.00

RS 485 transceiver

$6.30

$6.30

$0.00

High power MOSFETs

$9.50

$28.50 $0.00

Gate driver

$1.36

$1.36

$0.00

DC/DC converter

$4.22

$4.22

$0.00

Voltage differential amplifier

$2.45

$2.45

$0.00

Connector

$4.58

$4.58

$0.00

PCB, low-current board

$350

$350

$0.00

PCB, high current board

$100

$100

$0.00

Resistors

47

$0.01

$0.24

$0.00

Diodes

$0.01

$0.07

$0.00

Capacitors

11

$0.03

$0.33

$0.00

Op-Amps

$0.50

$0.50

$0.00

Pin headers

$0.20

$0.80

$0.00

LM35DT

20

$0.94

$18.80 $0.00

Total Cost

$576.10

20

The BMS team has all the parts needed to construct a prototype in the Solar Jackets lab.
Therefore, the need to purchase products will be at a minimum. The development costs for the
BMS are shown in Table 9. Labor rates are set at $35 per hour for the workforce. The majority of
the time and effort will be spent under BMS circuit design, due to the difficulties in trying to
balance the charge on all battery cells and preventing malfunctions in the situation that two packs
become charged to different levels.

Table 9. Development Costs

Component

Labor Hours Labor Cost Equipment Cost Total Component Cost

Microcontroller Coding 80

$2,800.00 $0.00

$2,800.00

BMS circuit design

200

$7,000.00 $0.00

$7,000.00

PCB layout

40

$1,400.00 $0.00

$1,400.00

Device Assembly

90

$3,150.00 $576.10

$3726.10

Testing/Debugging

100

$3,500.00 $0.00

$3,500.00

Lecture/Group Meetings 230

$8,050.00 $0.00

$8,050.00

Total Labor

$25,900.00

740

Total Parts

$576.10
$26,476.10

Project Total

8.

Summary
The goal is to have a fully working and functional BMS by December 9th, 2011.

Currently, the BMS has been skeletally tested to demonstrate about 25% functionality; it is able
to measure the voltage levels of the battery cells and determine whether or not to switch on the
battery packs. It is also able to receive request for status and send responses back. These
functions were tested using the PIC18 microcontroller which is being upgraded to a PIC24
21

microcontroller due to extra memory requirements. Per the requirements of the American Solar
Challenge regulations, the completed BMS will be an active protection system designed to
continually monitor over-voltage, under-voltage, over-current, and over-temperature of the
Lithium based battery packs [12]. The major milestones set are to have a working prototype built
and tested by mid October, fabrication and installation of BMS system by mid November, and a
fully tested and functioning system by the week of December 9th, 2011.

22

9.

References

[1]
J. Durham, N. Murdaugh, D. Trawick, Battery Monitoring System for a Solar Powered
Racer, May, 2011. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ece.gatech.edu/academic/courses/ece4007/11spring/ECE4007L01/ws4/deliverables.h
tml [Accessed Sep. 18, 2011].
[2]
A. Bibonge, Lithium-ion batteries and their use, Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Georgia, 7 Sept. 2011.
[3]
D. Christopher, LTC6802 battery stack monitor, Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, Georgia, 7 Sept. 2011.
[4]
T. Tsegha, Using power MOSFETs as circuit breakers in battery charging applications,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 7 Sept. 2011.
[5]
M. Slade, Embedded microcontrollers used in technological devices, Georgia Institute
of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 7 Sept. 2011.
[6]
D. Martin, Driving field effect transistors with various gate drivers, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 7 Sept. 2011.
[7]
All Battery, Detailed description of LiFePO4 38120S battery, stores.headwayheadquarters.com, 2011. [Online]. Available: http://stores.headway-headquarters.com/-strse1/Headway,-batteries,-EV,-solar/Detail.bok. [Accessed Feb. 4th, 2011].
[8]
Micorchip, PIC24F16KA102, 2011. [Online]. Available:
http://www.microchip.com/wwwproducts/Devices.aspx?dDocName=en539800 [Accessed Sept.
15, 2011].
[9]

IXYS, GigaMOS Power MOSFET IXFK230N20T datasheet, 2009.

[10]

Linear Technology, Multicell Battery Stack Monitor LTC 68002 datasheet, 2007.

[11] National Semiconductor, Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensors LM35 datasheet,

2000.

23

[12]
2012 American Solar Challenge General Regulations, September. 2010. [Online].
Available: http://americansolarchallenge.org/tech/tech-center-2012/regulations/. [Accessed Sept.
5th, 2011].
[13]
Zero Emissions Vehicles Australia, TS90 Fail Safe Battery Management System
zeva.com.au, 2011. [Online]. Available: http://zeva.com.au/store/datasheets/TS90_BMS.pdf
[Accessed Feb 14, 2011].

24

Appendix A

25

26