Eee Formula Sheet PDF

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Formula Sheet
(EEE Department)
Index
Page. No.
1. Mathematics
---
---
1 to 9
3. Signals & Systems
---
---
17 to 22
5. Power Systems
---
7. Measurements
---
2. Electromagnetic Fields
4. Electrical Machines --6. Control Systems

8. Analog Electronics
9. Digital Electronics
10. Microprocessors
11. Power Electronics
-----------
-------------------
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MatheMatics
Mathematics Formula Sheet
Matrix : If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix

Scalar Matrix is a Diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements are equal
Unitary Matrix is a scalar matrix with Diagonal element as 1 (AQ = (A )T = A1 )
If the product of 2 matrices are zero matrix then at least one of the matrix has det zero
Orthogonal Matrix if AAT = AT .A = I AT = A1
A = AT Symmetric
A = - AT Skew symmetric
Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )

A + B symmetric
KA is symmetric
AB + BA symmetric
AB is symmetric iff AB = BA
For any A A + AT symmetric ; A - AT skew symmetric.
Diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix are zero
If A skew symmetric A2n symmetric matrix ; A2n1 skew symmetric
If A is null matrix then Rank of A = 0.
Consistency of Equations : r(A, B) r(A) is consistent
r(A, B) = r(A) consistent &
if r(A) = no. of unknowns then unique solution
r(A) < no. of unknowns then solutions .
Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :
AT = A then Hermition
AT = A then Hermition
Diagonal elements of Skew Hermition Matrix must be purely imaginary or zero
Diagonal elements of Hermition matrix always real .
A real Hermition matrix is a symmetric matrix.
|KA| = K n |A|
Eigen Values & Vectors : Char. Equation |A I| = 0.

Roots of characteristic equation are called eigen values . Each eigen value corresponds to non zero
solution X such that (A I)X = 0 . X is called Eigen vector .
Sum of Eigen values is sum of Diagonal elements (trace)
Product of Eigen values equal to Determinent of Matrix .
Eigen values of AT & A are same
|A|
is Eigen value of A then 1/ A1 &
is Eigen value of adj A.
1 , 2 n are Eigen values of A then
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KA K 1 , K 2 ..K n
m
Am 1m , m
2 .. n .
A + KI
1 + k , 2 + k , .. n + k
(A KI)2 (1 k)2 , (n k)2
Eigen values of orthogonal matrix have absolute value of 1 .

Eigen values of symmetric matrix also purely real .
Eigen values of skew symmetric matrix are purely imaginary or zero .
1 , 2 , n distinct eigen values of A then corresponding eigen vectors X1 , X 2, .. X n for
linearly independent set .
2
adj (adj A) = |A|n2
; | adj (adj A) | = |A|(n1)
Complex Algebra :
Cauchy Rieman equations

=
;
=

1
=
r
1
= r
Neccessary & Sufficient Conditions for f(z) to be analytic
c f(z)/(Z a)n+1 dz =
f(z) = f(z0 ) + f (z0 )
(zz0 )
1!
2i
n!
[ f n (a) ] if f(z) is analytic in region C & Z =a is single point
+ f (z0)
(zz0 )2
2!
(zz )n
+ + f n (z0 ) n!0 + . Taylor Series
fn (z0 )
n
if z0 = 0 then it is called Mclauren Series f(z) =
0 a n (z z0 ) ; when a n = n !
If f(z) analytic in closed curve C except @ finite no. of poles then
c f(z)dz = 2i (sum of Residues @ singular points within C )
Res f(a) = lim( ()
= (a) / (a)
Calculus :-
= lim (1)!
1
1
((Z a)n f(z) )
Rolles theorem :If f(x) is

(a) Continuous in [a, b]

(b) Differentiable in (a, b)
(c) f(a) = f(b) then there exists at least one value C (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 .
Langranges Mean Value Theorem :If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in (a, b)
f(b)f(a)
such that f (c) =
ba
Cauchys Mean value theorem :-
If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that

(a) f(x) & g(x) continuous in [a, b]
(b) f(x) & g(x) differentiable in (a, b)
(c) g (x) 0 x in (a, b)
Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that

f (c) / g (c) =
f(b)f(a)
g(b)g(a)
Properties of Definite integrals :-
a f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx
= 0
a < c < b a f(x). dx = a f(x). dx + c f(x). dx

a
a
0 f(x)dx = 0 f(a x)dx
0 f(x). dx = 2 0 f(x)dx
= 0
na
0 f(x). dx = n 0 f(x)dx
b
f(x) is even
f(x) is odd
if f(x) = f(2a- x)
if f(x) = - f(2a x)
if f(x) = f(x + a)
a f(x). dx = a f(a + b x). dx


a
a a
0 x f(x). dx = 0 f(x). dx
if f(a - x) = f(x)
/2
/2
sinn x = 0
/2
(n1)(n3)(n5)2
n (n2)(n4).3
cosn x =
sinm x . cosn x . dx =
(n1)(n3)1
n (n2)(n4).2
if n odd
. if n even
{(m1)(m3).(m5)(2 or 1)} {(n1)(n3).(2 or 1)}.K

(m+n) (m+n2)(m+n4)2 or 1
Where K = / 2 when both m & n are even otherwise k = 1
Maxima & Minima :-
A function f(x) has maximum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0

A function f(x) has minimum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) > 0
Constrained Maximum or Minimum :-
To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0
Working Rule :-
(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)

(ii) Obtain Fx = 0, Fy = 0 , Fz = 0
(ii) Solve above equations along with = 0 to get stationary point .

Laplace Transform :
L () = s n f(s) - s n1 f(0) - s n2 f (0) f n1 (0)

L { t n f(t) } = (1)n
f(t)
t
t
s f(s) ds
dn
dsn
f(s)
0 f(u) du f(s) / s .
Inverse Transforms :-

s
1
t sin at
2
2 2 =
(s +a )
2a
s2
(s2 +a2 )2
1
(s2 +a2 )2
s
s 2 a2
a
s 2 a2
=
=
1
2a
[ sin at + at cos at]
1
2a3
[ sin at - at cos at]
= Cos hat
= Sin hat
Laplace Transform of periodic function : L { f(t) } =
0 est f(t)dt
Numerical Methods :-
1esT
Bisection Method :(1) Take two values of x1 & x2 such that f(x1 ) is +ve & f(x2 ) is ve then x3 =
+ve then root lies between x3 & x2 otherwise it lies between x1 & x3 .
x1 +x2
2
find f(x3 ) if f(x3 )
Regular falsi method :-
x x
0
Same as bisection except x2 = x0 - f(x 1)f(x
1
Newton Raphson Method :xn+1 = xn
Pi cards Method :x
Taylor Series method :dy

dx
= f(x, y)
Eulers method :y1 = y0 + h f(x0 , y0 )

(1)
h
2
f(x0 )
f(xn )
f (xn )
yn+1 = y0 + x f(x, yn )
0
0)
dy
dx
= f(x, y)
y = y0 + (x- x0 ) (y )0 +
dy
dx
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0 + h, y1 )
(x x0 )2
2!
(y)
0 + .
(x x0 )n
n!
(y)n0
= f(x, y

h
(2)
(1)
y1 = y0 + [f(x0 , y0 ) + f(x0+h, y1 ) ]
:
:
Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree

y2 = y1 + h f(x0 + h, y1 )
(1)
h
2
y2 = y0 + [f(x0 + h, y1 ) + f(x0 + 2h, y2 )
Runges Method :k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )

h
2
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 +
k1
2
k = h f(x0 +h , y0 + k1 )
1
6
finally compute K = (K1 + 4K 2 + K 3 )
k 3 = h ( f (x0 +h , y0 + k ))
Runge Kutta Method :k1 = h f(x0 , y0 )
h
2
k 2 = h f( x0 + , y0 +
h
2
k 3 = h f(x0 + , y0 +
k1
2
k2
2
)
)
1
6
finally compute K = (K1 + 2K 2 + 2K 3 + K 4 )
k 3 = h f (x0 +h , y0 + k 3 )
approximation vale
y1 = y0 + K .
Trapezoidal Rule :x +nh
x 0
0
f(x). dx =
h
2
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 2 (y1 + y2 + . yn1 )]
f(x) takes values y0 , y1 ..
@ x0 , x1 , x2 ..
Simpsons one third rule :-

x +nh
f(x). dx
x 0
0
h
3
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + . yn1 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + . + yn2 )]
Simpson three eighth rule :x0 +nh
3h
8
f(x). dx =
[ ( y0 + yn ) + 3 (y1 + y2 + y4 + y5 + . yn1 )+ 2 (y3 + y6 + . + yn3 ) ]
Differential Equations :Variable & Seperable :-
f(y) dy = (x) dx
General form is
Sol: f(y) dy = (x) dx + C .

Homo generous equations :dy
dx
General form
f(x,y)
(x,y)
dy
dx
Sol : Put y = Vx
=V+x
Reducible to Homogeneous :dy

dx
General form
(i)
a
a
b
b
Sol : Put
(ii)
dy
dx
a
a
Sol : Let
x=X+h
a
a
dy
dx
b
b
& solve
y=Y+k
Choose h, k such that
dy
dx
becomes homogenous then solve by Y = VX
1
m
ax+by+c
m(ax+by)+c
Put ax + by = t
dv
dx
ax+by+c
a x+b y+c
ax+by+(ah+bk+c)
a x+b y+(a h+b k+c )
b
b
f(x, y) & (x, y) Homogenous of same degree
dy
dx
/b

Then by variable & seperable solve the equation .
Libnetz Linear equation :General form
dy
dx
+py = Q where P & Q are functions of x
I.F = e p.dx
Sol : y(I.F) = Q. (I. F) dx + C .
Exact Differential Equations :-
M f (x, y)
General form M dx + N dy = 0
If
M
y
N
x
N f(x, y)
then
Sol : M. dx
+ (terms of N containing x ) dy = C
( y constant )
Rules for finding Particular Integral :1

f(D)
eax =
= x
eax
1
f (a)
= x2
1
f(b2 )
1
f(D)
1
f(a)
eax
if f (a) = 0
1
f (a)
sin (ax + b) =
eax
1
f(a2 )
= x
x m = [f(D)]y x m
1
f(D)
eax f(x) = eax
Vector Calculus :-
sin (ax + b)
1
f (a2 )
= x2
if f (a) = 0
sin (ax + b)
1
f (a2 )
1
f(D+a)
sin (ax + b)
f(- a2 ) 0
f(- a2 ) = 0
Same applicable for cos (ax + b)
f(x)

Greens Theorem :
C ( dx + dy) = x y dx dy
This theorem converts a line integral around a closed curve into Double integral which is special case of
Stokes theorem .
Series expansion :Taylor Series :f(x) = f(a) +
f(x) = f(0) +
f (a)
1!
f (0)
1!
(x-a) +
x +
(1 + x)n = 1+ nx +
x2
f (0)
2!
n(n1)
2
ex = 1 + x + 2 ! + ..
Sin x = x -
Cos x = 1 -
x3
3!
x2
2!
x5
5!
f (a)
2!
(x a)2 + +
x 2 + +
fn (0)
n!
x 2 + | nx| < 1
fn (a)
n!
(x a)n
x n + . (mc lower series )
- ..
x4
+ 4 ! - ..

Electro-Magnetic Theory Formula Sheet
Electromagnetic Fields
Vector Calculus: A. (B C) = C. (A B) = B. (C A)
A(BC) = B(A.C) C(A.B) Bac Cab rule
(A.B)
Scalar component of A along B is AB = A Cos AB = A . aB =
B = A Cos AB . aB =
Vector component of A along B is A
|B|
(A.B) B
|B|2
Laplacian of scalars : A. ds = (.) Divergence theorem

L A.dI = ( ) Stokes theorem
2 A = ( .A) - A
.A = 0 solenoidal / Divergence loss ; .A > 0 source ; .A < 0 sink
A = 0 irrotational / conservative/potential.
2 A = 0 Harmonic .
Electrostatics : Force on charge Q located @ r F =
Q
40
E @ point r due to charge located @
E due to line charge @ distance E =
Qk (rrk )
Q Q
12
; F12 = 41 R23 . R
|rrk |3
0
1
(rrk )
N
=
Q
40 K=1 |rrk 3 k
L
. a (depends on distance)
2
N
k=1
E due to surface charge s is E = 2s an . an unit normal to surface (independent of distance)

0
For parallel plate capacitor @ point P b/w 2 plates of 2 opposite charges is
E = s an - s ( )
20
20
E due to volume charge E =
Electric flux density D = 0 E

Flux = s D .ds
Q
40 R2
ar .
D independent of medium
Gauss Law : Total flux coming out of any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed by surface .
= Q enclosed D . ds = Q enclosed = v . dv
v = . D
Electric potential VAB =

B
VAB = - A
Q
40 r2
w
Q
= - A E. dI (independent of path)
ar . dr ar = VB - VA (for point charge )
Potential @ any point (distance = r), where Q is located same where , whose position is vector @ r
Q
V=
|rr |
V(r) =
40
Q
40 r
+ C . [ if C taken as ref potential ]
E = 0, E = - V

1
1
For monopole E 2 ; Dipole E 3 .
r
1
V ;
V 2
r
r
Electric lines of force/ flux /direction of E always normal to equipotential lines .
1
1
1
Energy Density WE = N
Q V = D. E dv = 0 E 2 dv
2 k=1 k k
2
2
v
t
Continuity Equation .J = v = v 0 e
t/Tr
where Tr = Relaxation / regeneration time = / (less for good conductor )
Boundary Conditions :Et1 = Et2

Tangential component of E are continuous across dielectric-dielectric Boundary .
Tangential Components of D are dis continues across Boundary .
D
Et1 = Et2 ; D1t = 1 / 2 .
2t
Normal components are of D are continues , where as E are dis continues.
tan
D1n - D2n = s ; E1n = 2 E2n ; tan 1 = 1 = r1

H1t = H2t
B12 =
B1n = B2n
1
2
H1n =
B2 t
2
1
r2
H2n
Maxwells Equations : faraday law Vemf = E. dI = -
d
dt
B. ds
B
Transformer emf = E. dI = -
ds E = t
s
B
t
Motional emf = Em = ( B).

H=J+
D
t
Electromagnetic wave propagation :

H = J +
D = E
E = -
B = H
J = E
. D = v
.B = 0
Ey
Hz
=-
Ez
Hy
= / ; E.H = 0
For loss less medium 2 E - 2 E = 0
= 1 + 1
2
2 E =
2 H =
E H in UPW
= j( + j) = + j.
= 1 + + 1
2
E(z, t) = E0 ez cos(t z) ; H0 = E0 / .
|| =
=
+j
1+
| | <
tan 2 = /.
1/4
2

| Np | = 20 log10 = 8.686 dB
= + j
attenuation constant Neper /m .
For loss less medium = 0; = 0.
phase shift/length ; = / ; = 2/ .
Js
=
= / = tan loss tanjent = 2
Jd
If tan is very small ( < < ) good (lossless) dielectric

If tan is very large ( >> ) good conductor
Complex permittivity C = 1 = - j .
Tan =
Plane wave in loss less dielectric :- ( 0)

1
= 0 ; = ; =
;
= 2/ ; = r /r 0.
E & H are in phase in lossless dielectric
Free space :- ( = 0, = 0 , = 0 )
= 0 , = 0 0 ; u = 1/ 0 0 , = 2/ ; = 0 /0 < 0 = 120 0
Here also E & H in phase .
Good Conductor : > >
/ =
= 0 ; = 0 r
= = f ; u = 2/ ; = 2 / ; =
Skin depth = 1/
1
1+j
= 2 ej/4 =
Skin resistance R s =
Rs .l
w
l
R dc = .
s
R ac =
450
Poynting Vector :
1
(E H) ds = - [ E 2 + H 2 ] dv E 2 dv
dt
2
S
v
ave (z) =
1 E20 2z
e
2 ||
cos az
Total time avge power crossing given area Pavge = Pave (s) ds
S
Direction of propagation :- ( )
ak aE = aH
aE aH = ak
Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
Reflection of plane wave :(a) Normal incidence
E

Reflection coefficient = Er0 = 2 + 1
E
i0
Txn coefficient = Et0 =

i0
22
2 + 1
Medium-I Dielectric , Medium-2 Conductor : > :>0 , there is a standing wave in medium & Txed wave in medium 2.
Max values of | E1 | occurs
n
Zmax = - n/1 = 2 1 ; n = 0, 1, 2.
Zmin =
(2n+1)
21
(2n+1)1
4
< :- E1max occurs @ 1 Zmax =
(2n+1)
2
1 Zmin = n Zmin =
H1 min occurs when there is |t1 |max

|E |
|H |
1+||
s1
S = |E1 |max = |H1 |max =
;||=
1 min
1||
1 min
n
1
Zmax =
n1
2
(2n+1)
21
(2n+1)1
4
s+1
Since || < 1 1
Transmission Lines : Supports only TEM mode

LC = ; G/C = / .
d2 Vs
dz2
- r 2 Vs = 0 ;
d2 Is
dz2
- r 2 Is = 0
= (R + jL)(G + jC) = + j
V(z, t) = V0+ ez cos (t- z) + V0 ez cos (t + z)
V
Z0 = I0 =
0
R+jL
G+jC
Lossless Line : (R = 0 =G; = 0)
R+jL
G+jC

= + j = jLC ; = 0, = w LC ; = 1/ f LC , u = 1/ LC
Z0 = L/C
Distortion less :(R/L = G/C)
G
R
R
G
= RG ; = L = C = LC
R
G
L
C
Z0 = = ; = 1/f LC ; u =
LC
i/p impedance : + Z tan hl

Zin = Z0 + Z 0 tan hl for lossless line
Zin =
0
L
+ Z0 tan l
Z0 + Z tan l
0
L
= j tan hjl = j tan l
Z Z
VSWR = L = ZL+Z0
L
CSWR = - L
Transmission coefficient S = 1 +
V
I
1+| L |
Z
SWR = Vmax = Imax =
= ZL
|
min
|Zin |max =
|Zin |min =
Vmax
Imin
Vmin
Imax
min
1|L
= SZ0
= Z0 /S
Shorted line :- L = -1 , S =
= Vp ; uz0 = 1/C , u /z0 = 1/L
L = -1 , S =
Z0
ZL
(ZL > Z0 ) (ZL < Z0 )
Zin = Zsc = jZ0 tan l
Zin = Zsc = j Z0 tan l.
Zin may be inductive or capacitive based on length 0
If l < / 4 inductive (Zin +ve)
< l < /2 capacitive (Zin -ve)

4
Open circuited line :Zin = Zoc = -jZ0 cot l

l = 1 s =
Zsc Zoc = Z02
l < / 4 capacitive
< l < /2 inductive
Matched line : (ZL = Z0 )

Zin = Z0 = 0 ; s =1
No reflection . Total wave Txed . So, max power transfer possible .

Behaviour of Transmission Line for Different lengths : =
=0
l = /4
l = /2 : Zin = Z0
impedance inverter @ l = /4
=0
impedance reflector @ l = /2
Wave Guides :TM modes : (Hz = 0)
Ez = E0 sin x sin y enz
m 2
h2 = k 2x + k 2y
n 2
b
+ 2
m no. of half cycle variation in X-direction

n no. of half cycle variation in Y- direction .
2
2
1
m + n
a
b
n 2
Evanscent mode
b
n 2
Cut off frequency C =
k2 <
m 2

a
m 2
k2 >
fc =
up
2
where k =
= 0; = 0 =
; =; =0
+ Propegation mode = j = 0
b
m 2
= k 2
n 2
b
m + n up = phase velocity =
a
c = u /fc =
is lossless dielectric medium
m
n
( a )2 +(b)2
f 2
f
= 1 c
= / W
= phase constant in dielectric medium.
up = / = 2/ = up /f phase velocity & wave length in side wave guide

E
TM = Hx = - Hy =
y
TM = 1 fc
TE Modes :- ( = 0)
Hz = H0 cos
f
= 1 fc
impedance of UPW in medium
enz
cos

TE =
= / 1 fc
TE > TM
TE10 Dominant mode
Antennas :jI dl
Hertzian Dipole :- Hs = 0
sin ej
Half wave Dipole :Hs =
4r
jI0 ej cos cos

2 sin
Es = Hs
Es = Hs
Signals & Systems Formula Sheet
Signals & Systems
2
Energy of a signal |x(t)|2 dt =
= |[]|
1
Power of a signal P = lim
T |x(t)|2 dt = lim
2+1
x1 (t) P1 ; x2 (t) P2
x1 (t) + x2 (t) P1 + P2 iff x1 (t) & x2 (t) orthogonal
2
N
n=N |x[n]|
Shifting & Time scaling wont effect power . Frequency content doesnt effect power.
if power = neither energy nor power signal
Power = 0 Energy signal
Power = K power signal
Energy of power signal = ; Power of energy signal = 0
Generally Periodic & random signals Power signals

Aperiodic & deterministic Energy signals
Precedence rule for scaling & Shifting :
x(at + b) (1) shift x(t) by b x(t + b)

(2) Scale x(t + b) by a x(at + b)
x( a ( t + b/a)) (1) scale x(t) by a x(at)

(2) shift x(at) by b/a x (a (t+b/a)).
x(at +b) = y(t) x(t) = y
S (t) = h(t)
Step response s(t) = h(t) * u(t) = h(t)dt
h[n] = s[n] s[n-1]

S[n] = =0 []
1
ba
eat u(t) * ebt u(t) =
Rect (t / 2T) * Rect (t / 2T) = 2T tri(t / T)
[ eat - ebt ] u(t) .
A1 Rect (t / 2T1 ) * A2 Rect(t / 2T2 ) = 2 A1 A2 min (T1 , T2 ) trapezoid (T1 , T2 )
Hilbert Transform Pairs :
ex
/22
2 /22
dx = 2 ; x 2 ex
dx = 3 2 > 0

Laplace Transform :x(t) =
+j
1
X(s) est
2j j
ds
X(s) = x(t) est ds
Initial & Final value Theorems :

x(t) = 0 for t < 0 ; x(t) doesnt contain any impulses /higher order singularities @ t =0 then
x( 0+ ) = lim ()
x() = lim ()
0
Properties of ROC :-
1. X(s) ROC has strips parallel to j axis

2. For rational laplace transform ROC has no poles
3. x(t) finite duration & absolutely integrable then ROC entire s-plane
4. x(t) Right sided then ROC right side of right most pole excluding pole s =
5. x(t) left sided
ROC left side of left most pole excluding s= -
6. x(t) two sided
ROC is a strip
8. if x(t) stable
ROC includes j-axis
7. if x(t) causal
ROC is right side of right most pole including s =
Z-transform :x[n] =
1
2j
x(z) z n1 dz
n
X(z) =
n= x[n] z
Initial Value theorem :

If x[n] = 0 for n < 0 then x[0] = lim ()
Final Value theorem :lim [] = lim( 1) X(z)
Properties of ROC :-
1.ROC is a ring or disc centered @ origin

2. DTFT of x[n] converter if and only if ROC includes unit circle
3. ROC cannot contain any poles
4. if x[n] is of finite duration then ROC is enter Z-plane except possibly 0 or
5. if x[n] right sided then ROC outside of outermost pole excluding z = 0
6. if x[n] left sided then ROC inside of innermost pole including z =0
7. if x[n] & sided then ROC is ring
8. ROC must be connected region
9.For causal LTI system ROC is outside of outer most pole including
10.For Anti Causal system ROC is inside of inner most pole including 0
11. System said to be stable if ROC includes unit circle .
12. Stable & Causal if all poles inside unit circle
13. Stable & Anti causal if all poles outside unit circle.
Phase Delay & Group Delay :When a modulated signal is fixed through a communication channel , there are two different delays to be
considered.
(i) Phase delay:
Signal fixed @ o/p lags the fixed signal by (c ) phase
(c )
P = where (c ) = K H(j)
c
Frequency response of channel

d()
g =
for narrow Band signal
Group delay
Signal delay / Envelope delay
= c
Probability & Random Process: P (A/B) =
P(AB)
P(B)
Two events A & B said to be mutually exclusive /Disjoint if P(A B) =0

Two events A & B said to be independent if P (A/B) = P(A) P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
P(Ai / B) =
P(Ai B)
P(B)
B
Ai
P P(Ai)
B
Ai
n
i=1 P P(Ai)
CDF :Cumulative Distribution function Fx (x) = P { X x }

Properties of CDF :
Fx () = P { X } = 1
Fx (- ) = 0
Fx (x1 X x2 ) = Fx (x2 ) - Fx (x1 )

Its Non decreasing function
P{ X > x} = 1 P { X x} = 1- Fx (x)
PDF :Pdf = fx (x) =
d
dx
Fx (x)
Pmf = fx (x) =
i= P{X = xi } (x = xi )
Properties: fx (x) 0
Fx (x) = fx (x) * u(x) = fx (x) dx
Fx () = fx (x) dx =1 so, area under PDF = 1

x
P { x1 < X x2 } = x 2 fx (x)dx
Mean & Variance :-
Mean x = E {x} = x fx (x) dx
Variance 2 = E { (X x )2 } = E {x 2 } - 2x
E{g(x)} = g(x) fx (x) dx
Uniform Random Variables :
Random variable X ~ u(a, b) if its pdf of form as shown below

1
fx (x) =
Fx (x) =
Mean =
; <
0 ,
a+b
2
1 ; >
; < <
0 ;
Variance = (b a)2 / 12
E{ x 2 } =
Gaussian Random Variable :-
a2 + ab+ b2
3

2
2
1
fx (x) =
e(x) /2
2
X ~ N (1 2)
Mean = x
Variance =
22
22
2 /22
e(x)
x 2 e(x)
dx =
2 /22
Exponential Distribution :-
dx = 2
fx (x) = ex u(x)
Fx (x) = ( 1- ex ) u(x)
Laplacian Distribution :
fx (x) = e |x|
2
Multiple Random Variables :
FXY (x , y) = P { X x , Y y }
FXY (x , ) = P { X x } = Fx (x) ; Fxy ( , y) = P { Y < y } = FY (y)
Fxy (-, y) = Fxy (x, - ) = Fxy (-, -) = 0
fx (x) = fxy (x, y) dy ; fY (y) = fxy (x, y) dx

Y
X
FY/X x =
fY/X (y/x) =
P{Y y, X x}
P{X x}
fxy (x,y)
FXY (x,y)
FX (x)
fx (x)
Independence : X & Y are said to be independent if FXY (x , y) = FX (x) FY (y)

fXY (x, y) = fX (x) . fX (y)
P { X x, Y y} = P { X x} . P{Y y}
Correlation:

Corr{ XY} = E {XY} = fxy (x, y). xy. dx dy
If E { XY} = 0 then X & Y are orthogonal .
Uncorrelated :Covariance = Cov {XY} = E { (X - x ) (Y- y }

= E {xy} E {x} E{y}.
If covariance = 0 E{xy} = E{x} E{y}

Independence uncorrelated but converse is not true.
Random Process:Take 2 random process X(t) & Y(t) and sampled @ t1 , t 2
X(t1 ) , X(t 2 ) , Y(t1 ) , Y (t 2 ) random variables
Auto correlation
Auto covariance
cross correlation
cross covariance
R x (t1 , t 2 ) = E {X(t1 ) X(t 2 ) }

Cx (t1 , t 2 ) = E { X(t1 ) - x (t1 )) (X(t 2 ) - x (t 2 ) } = R x (t1 , t 2 ) - x (t1 ) x (t 2 )
R xy(t1 , t 2 ) = E { X(t1 ) Y(t 2 ) }
Cxy(t1 , t 2 ) = E{ X(t1 ) - x (t1 )) (Y(t 2 ) - y (t 2 ) } = R xy(t1 , t 2 ) - x (t1 ) y (t 2 )
CXY (t1 , t 2 ) = 0 R xy(t1 , t 2 ) = x (t1 ) y (t 2 ) Un correlated

R XY (t1 , t 2 ) = 0 Orthogonal cross correlation = 0
FXY (x, y ! t1 , t 2 ) = Fx (x! t1 ) Fy (y ! t 2 ) independent
Properties of Auto correlation :-
R x (0) = E { x 2 }
R x () = R x (-) even
| R x () | R x (0)
Cross Correlation
R xy() = R yx(-)
R2xy() R x (0) . R y (0)
2 | R xy()| R x (0) + R y (0)
Power spectral Density :
P.S.D
Sx (j) = R x () ej d
R x () =
1
(j)ej d
2
2
Sy (j) = Sx (j) |H(j)|

Power = R x (0) =
1
(j) d
2
R x () = k () white process
Properties :
Sx (j) even
Sx (j) 0
Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
DC MACHINES : -
Lap Winding
Wave Winding
Ycs = P
Ycs = P
(1) Coil Span :

(2) Back Pitch
(3) Commutator Pitch
Yb = U Ycs
Yc = 1
for Progressive winding
Yc = -1
for Retrogressive winding
(4) Front Pitch
Yf =Yb +2
Yf =Yb -2
for Retrogressive winding
(5) Parallel Paths

(6) Conductor Current
A=P
I
Ic = Aa
(7) No of brushes
S = No of commutator segments
P = No of poles
U = No of coil sides / No of poles =
C = No of coils on the rotor

A = No of armature parallel paths
Ia = Armature current
Yc =

2 (c+1)
Yc = - p
for Restrogressive winding

(Yc Must be integer)
Yf =2Yc - Yb
A=2
I
Ic = 2a
No of brushes = 2
phasor sum coil emf
elecrrical angle of coil
0electrical = 2 0mechanical
2 (c+1)
2C
Distribution factor (K d ) = arthematic sum of coil emf =

P
Yb = U Ycs
No of brushes = A = P
Pitch factor ( K p ) =
1800
*100%
chord
arc
ZI
a
Armature mmf/Pole (Peak) , ATa = 2AP
ZI
pole arc
a
AT (Compensating Winding) = 2AP
* pole pitch
AT(Inter pole) = ATa + i lgi

0
Where Bi = Flux density in inter pole airgap
lgi = length of inter pole airgap , 0 = 4 107
No of turns in each interpole , Ninterpole =
AT(Inter pole)
Ia
pole arc
The no of compensating conductor per pole, Ncw /pole = 2 A P (pole pitch )

The Mechanical power that is converted is given by Pconv = Tind m
Where T = Induced torque
m = Angular speed of the machines rotor
The resulting electric power produced Pconv = EA IA
The power balance equation of the DC Machine is Tind m = EA IA
The induced emf in the armature is Ea =
ZNP
60A
PZ
Torque developed in Dc machine , Te = 2A Ia
Where = Flux\pole , Z = No of armature conductors , P = No of poles , N = Speed in rpm ,

A = No of armature parallel paths, Ia = Armature current
The terminal voltage of the DC generator is given by Vt = Ea - Ia R a

The terminal voltage of the DC motor is given by Vt = Ea + Ia R a
Speed regulation of dc machine is given by ,SR =
Voltage regulation , VR =
Shunt Generator:
Vnl Vfl
Vfl
* 100 %
nl fl
fl
* 100 % =
Nnl Nfl
Nfl
* 100 %
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt generator:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
Series Generator:
For a series generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - ( IaRa + IaR f )= Ea - Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
Note that for a series generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea
The airgap power Pe for a series generator is:

Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2
Cumulatively compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
V
(c) Isf = Rx = shunt field current

f
(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Isf =Isf +
Nse
Nf
Armature reaction MMF
Ia - (
Nf
Where Ns e = No of series field turns

Nf = = No of shunt field turns
Differentially compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)

(a) Ia = If + IL
(b) Vt = Ea - Ia (R a + R s )
(c)
(d)
Isf = Rx = shunt field current

f
The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Isf =Isf -
Nse
Nf
Armature reaction MMF
Ia - (
Nf
Where Ns e = No of series field turns

Nf = = No of shunt field turns
Shunt Motor:
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
V
Ra
The speed of the shunt motor , = K - (K)
2T
PZ
Where K = 2A
Series Motor :
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)

The field current is equal to the armature current.
speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
Note that for a series motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant Ea
The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2
Losses:
constant losses (P k) = Pw f + Pi o
Where, Pio = No of load core loss
Pwf = Windage & friction loss

Variable losses (Pv ) = Pc + Ps t + Pb
2
where Pc = Copper losses = Ia R a
Ps t = Stray load loss = I2
Pb = Brush Contact drop = Vb Ia , Where Vb = Brush voltage drop
The total machine losses , PL = Pk +Vb Ia + K v Ia 2
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:
= Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin
Rearranging the efficiency equations:
Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / = Ploss / (1 - )

Pout = Pin - Ploss = Pin = Ploss / (1 - )
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - )Pin = (1 - )Pout /
Temperature Rise:
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature,
and the relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating
temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at
temperature 1 and R2 at temperature 2, then:
R1 / (1 - 0) = R2 / (2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / (2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:
R2 / R1 = (2 - 0) / (1 - 0)
The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = (1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance Rpu relative to R1:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (2 - 1) / (1 - 0) = / (1 - 0)
.Copper Windings:
The value of 0 for copper is - 234.5 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = (1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 C is 0.00393 per
degC.
Aluminium Windings:
The value of 0 for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:

= 2 - 1 = (1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / (1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per
degC.
Dielectric Dissipation Factor:
If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system
comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the
voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting
current I are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)
The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle between VC and V:
tan = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2fCRS
RS = XCtan = tan / 2fC
The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtan = QCtan
The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle between VR and V:
cos = VR / V
so that and are related by:
+ = 90
tan and cos are related by:
tan = 1 / tan = cos / sin = cos / (1 - cos2)
so that when cos is close to zero, tan cos
TRANSFORMERS:
Gross cross sectional area = Area occupied by magnetic material + Insulation

material.
Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area
of insulation material.
Hence for all calculations, net cross sectional area is taken since (flux) majorly
flows in magnetic material.
= BAn
t
f
Weight of
Specific weight of t/f =
t
f
KVA rating of
Net Cross Sectional area
Stacking/iron factor :- (k s ) = Gross Cross Sectional area
k s is always less than 1

Gross c.s Area = AG = length breadth
Net c.s Area = An = k s AG
Utilization factor of transformer core =
0.85
Effective C.S.Area
mmF
Flux = Reluctance = = m sin t
Total C.S Area

d
U.F of cruciform core = 0.8 to
According to faradays second law e1 = N1 dt = N1 dt m sin t

e1 = N1 m sint 2
Instantaneous value
of emf in primary
Transformer emf equations :E1 = 4.44 N1 Bmax An f

(1)
E2 = 4.44 N2 Bmax An f (2)
E
Emf per turn in Iry = N1 = 4.44 Bmax An f

Emf per turn in II
ry
E2
N2
= 4.44 Bmax An f
Emf per turn on both sides of the transformer is same
E1
N1
E1
E2
E2
N2
N1
N2
Transformation ratio = K =
E2
E1

N2
N1
Turns ratio = K = N1 N2
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied

across N1 primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary
turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied
across (N1 + N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing
across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2
For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated
primary current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2,
the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
During operation of transformer :Bm
E1
f
V1
f
Bmax = constant
V1
f
= constant
Equivalent ckt of t/f under N.L condition :-

N1
I0
Iw
R0
V1
X0
N2
E1
E2
No load /shunt branch.

No load current = I0 = I + Iw = I0 0
Iw = I0 cos 0
I = I0 sin 0
No load power = v1 I0 cos 0 = v1 Iw = Iron losses.

R0 =
v1
Iw1
; X0 =
v1
I
Transferring from
R1
R 21
to :-
Iw =
No load power
V1
I22 R 2 = I12 R 21
I
R 21 = R 2 I2
R
= 22
K
R
1
R 2 = K22
From to :I12 R1 = I22 . R11

R11 =
I12
. R1
I22
R11 = R1 . K 2
Total resistance ref to primary = R1 + R 21

R 01 = R1 + R 2 /k 2
Total resistance ref to secondary = R 2 + R11
R 02 = R 2 + k 2 R1
Total Cu loss = I12 R 01
Or
2
I2 R 02
Per unit resistance drops :I1 R1

E1
I R
drop = 2E 2
2
P.U primary resistance drop =

P.U secondary resistance
I1 R01
E1
ry I2 R02
II = E
2
Total P.U resistance drop ref to I ry =

Total P.U resistance drop ref to
The P.U resistance drops on both sides of the t/f is same

I1 R01
E1
I2 R02
E2
Losses present in transformer :t/f windings

major losses
t/f core
cu parts
Iron parts
minor losses
insulating materials.
1. Copper losses
2. Iron losses
3. Stray load losses
4. Dielectric losses
1. Cu losses in t/f:
Total Cu loss = I12 R1 + I22 R1

= I12 R 01
= I22 R 02
VA rating of t/f
E1
ry VA rating of t/f
Similarly current on II =
E2
Cu losses I12 or I22. Hence there are called
FL Cu loss in watts
P.U Full load Cu loss =
VA rating of t/f
Rated current on I ry =
as variable losses.
I12 R01
E1 I1
If VA rating of t/f is taken as base then P.U Cu loss I12 as remaining terms are constant.
P.U Cu loss at x of FL = x 2 PU FL Cu loss
ry
P. U resistance drop ref to I =
or
P. U resistance ref to Iry
I1 R01
E1
I12 R01
E1 I1
I1
I1

P.U Resistance drop = P.U FL cu loss
% FL Cu loss = % R = % Resistance drop.
Iron (or) Core losses in t/f :1. Hysteresis loss :

Steinmetz formula :x
Wh = Bmax . f . v
Area under one hysteresis loop.
Where
= stienmetz coefficient
Bmax = max. flux density in transformer core.
f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(We ) R ce Ie2
As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.
2
We = K. Bmax
f 2. t2
thickness of laminations.
Supply freq
Constant
(it is a function of )
During operation of transformer :Case (i) :-
V1
f
Bm
V1
f
= constant, Bmax = const.

we f 2
we = B f 2
Const.
wi = wh + we
wi = Af + Bf
When Bmax = const.

V1
Case (ii) : constant, Bm const.
f
we f1 . f 2
we V1 2
wi = wh + we
wi =
A V11.6
f0.6
+ BV1 2
P.U iron loss :Iron loss in watts

VA rating of t/f
P.U iron loss =
As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.
To find out constant losses : W0 = Losses in t/f under no load condition
= Iron losses + Dielectric loss + no load primary loss (I02 R1)
Constant losses = W0 I02 R1

Where , R1 = LV winding resistance.
To find out variable losses :-
Wsc = Loss in t/f under S.C condition

= F.L Cu loss + stray load losses (Cu and Iron) + Iron losses in both wdgs
Variable losses = WSC Iron losses corresponding to VCC
O.C test :V1 rated Wi

S.C test :-
VSC (Wi )S.C

Wi V1 2
Wi
(Wi )SC
V1 rated 2
VSC
(Wi )S.C = Wi
VSC
V1 rated
Variable losses = WSC (Wi )SC V
VSC
1 rated

Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to VSC and stray load
losses are neglected the wattmeter reading in S.C test can be approximately taken as F.L
Cu losses in the transformer.
Wse F.L Cu loss
ISC2 . R 01
R 01 =
WSC
2
ISC
Efficiency :output power

input power
output power
output power+losses
E2 I2 cos 2
Efficiency of transformer is given by =
=E
F.L =
of F.L
2 I2 cos 2 + F.L cu losses+Iron losses
E2 I2 cos 2
E2 I2 cos 2 + I22 R02 + Wi
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2
x (E2 I2 ) cos 2 + x 2 (I2 2 R 02 ) + Wi
S.C test
Transformer efficiency =
Efficiency = =
O.C test
KVA cos
KVA cos + wi + Cu losses
x MVA Pf
x MVA Pf + wcu x2 + wi
1
Total losses in transformer = 1 output
Condition for maximum effieciency is, Cu losses = Iron losses

Total losses at max = 2Wi
W
%load at which maximum efficiency occurs % x = I 2 Ri *100 %=
KVA corresponding to max = F.L KVA
Iron loss
F.L culoss
02
Iron loss
*100
F.L.cu loss

all day =
Output energy in kwh

Input energy in kwh
24
hrs
Voltage drop in t/f at a Specific load p.f = I2 R 02 cos 2 I2 X02 sin 2

% Voltage regulation =
I2 R02 cos 2 I2 X02 sin 2
I R02
=2
V1
V1
I X02
cos 2 2
V1
100
sin 2
P.U resistance
P.U reactance
% Regulation = (P. U R) cos 2 + (P. U X) sin 2 100
Condition for max. regulation :-
% regulation = (% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2
d regn
d 2
=0
Tan 2 =
%X
%R
X02
R02
X02
R02
2 = Tan1
lagging
X
At maximum regulation 2 = Tan1 RL

=
XL
RL
X02
R02
X
Tan1 R02
02
Value of maximum regulation :% Regulation = (% R) cos 2 + (% X) sin 2

%R
%Z
%X
Sin 2 =
%Z
%R
regulation = (% R)
+
%Z
2
(% R) + (% X)2
=
%Z
(% Z)2
= %Z
At max. regulation cos 2 =

max. %
(% X)
(% X)
%Z
max. % regn = % Z
= % of rated voltage required to produce rated short ckt current

.

Condition for zero regulation : If the voltage regulation in the t/f is zero, the t/f voltages are maintained at their nominal
values even under load condition
% Regn = (% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2
For zero regulation occurs at leading p.fs
(% R) cos 2 (% X) sin 2 = 0
Tan 2 =
%R
%R
%X
2 = Tan1 % X = Tan1 X02

leading.
02
X
RL
R02
X02
At zero regulation condition : 2 = Tan1 C = Tan1

XC
RL
R02
X02
Regulation at x of FL = x [% R cos2 % X sin 2 ]

= x F.L regn
Regulation at U.P.F:Regulation at UPF = % R

= % F.L Cu loss
Scott Connection:
Ia
86.6%
0.577
0.866
3
V1 0.866
V1
0.289
B
ia
IB
IC
C
VAM = 0.866 V1
2
:
1
IA
2
M
V1
Va
IBC
IA
2
Vb
ib
VAN = 31 = 0.577 V1
VMN = 0.866 V1 0.577 V1 = 0.289 V1

VAN VMN = 0.577 V1 0.289 V1
=2:1
If a neutral pt is located on 3 side, such that, voltage between any terminal to that neutral
point is 0.577 V1 then such neutral point divides the primary of teaser transformer in the ratio
of 2 : 1
2
3
1
N1
3
Location of neutral point from top = 0.866 N1

Location of neutral point from bottom = 0.866
Operation of Scott Connection with 2 balanced load at UPF :Teaser t/f :Ia
ia
Ia =
N2
0.866 N1
N2
0.866 N1
ia
Let N1 N2 = 1 1
IA = 1.15 ia
Main t/f
IBC
ib
= N2
1
IBC =
N2
N1
ib
Let N1 : N2 = 1 1
IBC = ib
IB = IBC IA
IC = IBC IA
Capacity of Scott Connection :(KVA)Scott = 3 VL IL

V2 = V1
IL = I1
Vol. rating of 1 t/f

Current rating of 1 t/f
(KVA)Scotf = 3 V1 I1
(KVA)Scott = 3 (KVA)1
(KVA)
Utilization factor = availableScott

KVA
=
3 V1 I1
2V1 I1
= 0.866
Utilization factor of Scott connection with 2 identical 1 t/fs is 86.6%

AUTO TRANSFORMER:

Primary applied voltage, Vab = Secondary voltage V2 referred to primary + primary leakage impedance
drop + secondary leakage impedance drop ref. to primary.
N1 N2
N2
Vab =
N1 N2
N2
V2 + I1 (r1 + jx1 ) + (I2 I1 )(r2 + j x2 )
K of auto transformer =
LV
HV
(KVA)induction = (V1 V2 ) I1
I/P KVA = V1 I1
(KVA)induction
i/p KVA
(V1 V2 ) I1
=1
V1 I1
LV
HV
=1K
(KVA) induction = (1 K) i/p KVA
(KVA) conduction = I/p KVA (KVA)ind

(KVA)conduction = K I/p KVA
Wt. of conductor in section AB of auto t/f (N1 N2 ) I1
Wt of conductor in section BC of auto t/f (I2 I1 )N2

Total wt. of conductor in auto t/f is
I1 (N1 N2 ) + (I2 I1 )N2
2 (N1 N2 ) I1
Total wt. of conductor in 2 wdg transformer
I1 N1 + I2 N2
2 I1 N1
wt.of conductor in an auto t/f

wt.of conductor in 2 wdg t/f
2(N1 N2 )I1
2N1 I1
N
1 2
N1
=1K
Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 K) (wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
Thus saving of conductor material if auto t/f is used} = K {conductor wt in 2 wdg transformer.
(% FL losses)Auto t/f = (1 K)(% FL losses)2 wdg t/f
(% Z)AT = (1 K) (% Z)2 wdg t/f
(KVA)AT =
1
(KVA)2 wdg t/f .
1K

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:
Principle of operation :Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Coil span () :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180 e = slots / pole.
elec =
P
2
mech
Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
For a machine with P poles and s no. of slots, the slot angle = =
=
180
s
p
P(180)
d
Pitch factor or coil span factor or chording factor :- (K P)

KP =
=
KP =
The emf induced | coil in short pitched winding

The emf induced |coil in full pitched winding
The vector sum of induced emf | coil

Arithmetic sumof induced emf | coil
2E cos/2
2E
K p = cos /2
Pitch factor for nth harmonic i.e,K p = cos n

n
2
180
n
n1
180
n
chording angle to eliminate nth harmonics ()=

coil spam to eliminate nth harmonics ,() =
Distribution factor | spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor(kd) :Kd =
Kd =
The emf induced when the winding is distributed

The emf induced when the winding is concentrated
Vector sum of emf induced
Arithmetic sum of emf induced

Kd =
m
2
m sin
2
sin
The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is

kd4 =
mr
2
mr
2
180
For nth harmonic, kdn =
mn
2
n
m sin
2
sim
sin
To eliminate nth harmonics ,phase spread (m) =
360
n
Generally, KVA rating, power output kd and Eph (induce emf) k d . Tph .
KVA60 (3 )
KVA120 (3 )
KVA60 (3)
KVA90 (2)
KVA90 (2 )
KVA180 (1 )
Pout60 (3 )
Pout120 (3)
Pout60 (3)
Pout90 (2)
KVA60 (3)
KVA180 (1)
kd60
kd90
Pout60 (3)
Pout180 (1 )
Pout90
Pout180
kd60
kd120
60
2
90
sin
2
sin
kd60
kd180
kd90
kd180
60
2
120
sin
2
sin
90
60
60
2
180
sin
2
sin
sin902
sin1802
m120
m60
sin 30
sin 60
120
60
= 1.15
= 1.06
180
60
180
90
= 1.5
= 1.414
1
. Ns
1)
Speed of space harmonics of order (6k 1) is (6k

where Ns = synchronous speed =
2S
P
The order of slot harmonics is
120 f
p
where S = no. of slots , P = no. of poles
Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
The angle of skew = s = (slot angle)
= 2 harmonic pole pitches

= 1 slot pitch.
2s
p
Distribution factor for slot harmonics, k d 1


Is kd1 =
m
2
m sin
2
sin
i.e., same that of fundamental

2s
p
Pith factor for slot harmonics, k p 1 = k p1 = cos 2

The synchronous speed Ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p pole
pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
s = 2fs / p
Slip S =
NS N
NS
Where NS =
120 f
p
= synchronous speed
The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is Ea = 2 Nc f = K

Where K = constant
The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:
Pm = sTm
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / s = PM p/ 2fs = 120PM / 2Ns
Synchronous Generator:
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)

where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
E = (V cos + Ia R a )2 + (V sin Ia Xs )2
+ lag p.f
leading p.f.

Synchronous Motor:
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)

where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Voltage regulation :
|E| |V|
% regulation =
E V = Ia Zs
|V|
EV
V
Ia Zs
% regulation =
=
100
100
regulation Zs
As Zs increases, voltages regulation increases.
Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, Cos ( + ) =

Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, =
Short circuit ratio (SCR) =
SCR
1
Xa
Ifm
Ifa
1
Armature reaction
1
Zs (adjusted)|unit
Ia Zs
2V
1
Xs (adjusted)|unit
Voltage regulation Armature reaction

SCR
1
Voltage regulation
Small value of SCR represent poor regulation.

a =
armature mmf
reluctance
But reluctance Air gap

a =
a
armature mmf
airgap
1
Air gap length
Armature reaction a
1
Airgap length

SCR
1
Armature reaction
Airgap length
Air gap length SCR
machine size SCR.

Cost SCR
Power =
EV
sin
Xs
1
Xs
SCR
Power SCR
Large value of SCR represent more power output.

Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor Psy is given as
Psy =
dp
d
d
EV
sin
d Xs
EV
cos
Xs
Psy is a measure of stability

stability Psy
But Psy
1
Xs
SCR
Stability SCR
Stability SCR Air gap length

Stability Air gap length
When the stator mmf is aligned with the d axis of field poles then flux d perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X d .
Xd =
maximum Voltage
minimum current
Xq =
minimum voltge
maximum voltage
(Vt )line (at min. Ia )

3 Ia (min )
= Direct axis reactance
When the stator mmf is aligned with the q axis of field poles then flux q per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is X q.
=
Vt line (at maximum Ia )

3 Ia (max )
= Quadrature axis reactance

Cylindrical rotor Synchronous machine ,
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by P =

Salient pole synchronous machine ,
Ef Vt
Xs
sin
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by

P=
Ef Vt
Vt2
sin
+
Xd
2
1
sin 2
Xd
X
q
Condition for max. power: For cylindrical rotor machine :At constant Vt and Ef , the condition for max. power is obtained by putting
dp
d
Ef Vt
cos
Xs
=0
dp
d
=0
Cos = 0
= 90
Hence maximum power occurs at = 90
For salient pole synchronous machine :
Vt Ef
cos +
Xd
Cos = 4V
Vt 2
Ef Xq
1
Xq
Xd Xq
1
cos 2
Xd
=0
E Xq
1
f
+ 4V
2
X
t
d Xq
dp
d
=0
The value of load angle is seed to be less than 90.

max. power occurs at < 90
Synchronizing power = Psy. .
EV
cos . .
Xs
Synchronizing power
torque =
.
Synchronizing
Power flow in Alternator : Complex power = S = P + jQ = VIa

Where Active power flow (P) =
EV
cos(
Zs
V2
cos
Zs

Reactive power flow (Q) =
EV
sin(
Z2
Condition for max. power output :P=

dp
d
EV
cos(
Zs
V2
cos
Z2
V2
sin
Zs

;
= 0 for max power condition

ie = 0
=
If R a = 0; = = 90 ; then max power is given by

Pmax =
EV
Zs
V2
Z cos
s
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:
NN.L NF.L
100
NF.L
N N
= S S 100 = 0%
NS
NS N
NS NS
= N = 0%
NS
S
120 f
NS =
p
Speed regulation =
Slip S =
The speed can be controlled by varying the frequency

v
F
V
f
ratio control is preferred for rated torque operation
Power flow in synchronous motor is given by

complex power i/p s = p + jQ = V Ia
where P = Resl power flow , Q = Reactive power flow
V2
P = Z cos
2
EV
cos( +
ZS
:
If R a = 0 ; ZS = X S ; 90
EV
Pin = X sin
S
Condition for max power :-
) :
V2
Q = Z sin
2
EV
sin(
ZS
+ )
Q = X [V E cos ]
S

V2
EV
Pin =
cos
cos( + )
Z2
ZS
d Pin
EV
= 0 0 + sin( + ) =
d
ZS
Sin ( + ) = 0 = sin 180

= 180 0
V2
cos
ZS
Pmax =
EV
ZS
Expression for mechanical power developed : Mechanical power developed = Pm = active component + [E Ia ]
EV
cos(
ZS
Pm =
) +
E2
cos
ZS
Condition for max. mechanical power developed :d pm

d
EV
sin(
ZS
) = 0
Sin ( ) = 0 = sin 0
=
EV
ZS
Pm max =
E2
cos
ZS
This is the expression for the mechanical power developed interms of load angle and the
internal machine angle , for constant voltage Vph and constant E i.e., excitation
Gross Torque =
Pm
w
Pm
2 Ns
60
Ns = synchronous speed in r.p.m

Tg =
Tg =
60
2
9.55 Pm
Ns
Pm
NS
Condition for excitation when motor develops Pmax :For max power developed is
dPm
=0
dE
d EV
cos(
dt ZS
E2
cos
ZS
= 0
Condition for excitation when motor develops Pmax is , Eb =
VZS
2Ra

The corresponding value of max. power is
V2
Pmax = 2R
a
V2
4Ra
Power flow in synchronous motors :Tg = Pin

2 Ns
60
Pin
Stator
copper loss
2
Ra
3 Iaph
3 VL IL cos
(input)
Mechanical power
developed in armature
Pm = 3Ebph . Iaph cos
( )
Tsh =
+ ve lead
Pout
ve for lag
2 Ns
60.
Friction
and Iron
losses
Pout
output
For leading p.f

tan = V
Ia Xq cos + Ra sin
t + Ia
Xq sin Ra cos
The mechanical power developed per phase is given by,

s
Pm =
Eb Vph
Xd
sin +
Vph2
INDUCTION MACHINES:
X
q
1
sin 2
Xd
The power flow diagram of 3 induction motor is

Power i/p to stator
Rotor i/p power
from mains
= airgap power
Stator
I2R
loss
Mechanical power
developed, Pm
Pg
Power of
rotor shaft
Rotor Rotor core loss Friction loss Windage

I2R
(negligible for at bearings
loss
loss
small slips)
and sliprings
of (if any)
Stator
core
loss
The slip of induction machine is (S) =

=
Where Ns is synchronous speed in rpm
ns is synchronous speed in rps
Nr = Ns (1 s)
Ns Nr = SNs
Rotor frequency, f2 =
P . SNs
120
=S
ns nr
ns
Ns Nr
Ns
PNs
120
= Sf1
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the
rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and
slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a
gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
Rotor emf, Current Power :At stand still, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
synchronous speed Ns ; under this condition let the per phase generated emf in rotor circuit
be E2 .
E2 /ph = 4.44 Nphr 1 f1 K dr K pr

E2 /ph = 4.44 Nphr 1 f1 K wr

K wr = Rotor winding factor
But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed Nr
P(Ns Nr )
120
P SNs
120
= Sf1
fr = Sf1
Emf under running conditions is
E = 2 fr Kw2 Nphr 1
= SE2
Rotor leakage reactance = 2 (Rotor frequency)
(Rotor leakage Inductance)
Rotor leakage reactance at stand still = 2 f1 2
= x2
Rotor leakage reactance at any slips = 2 f2 2
= sx2
Rotor leakage impedance at stand still

= r22 + x22
At any slip s, rotor
= r22 + (sx2 )2
Per phase rotor current at stand still

=
r22 + x22
Per phase rotor current at any slip s is given by

SE2
E2
I2 =
=
2
2
r2 + (sx2 )
(r1 /s)2 + x22
The rotor current I2 lags the rotor voltage E2 by rotor power factor angle 2 given by
sx
2 = tan1 r 2
2

Per phase power input to rotor is
Pg = F2 I2 cos 2
Per phase rotor resistance
Per phase rotor impedance
cos 2 =
r2 /s
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
r2 /s
Pg = E2 I2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
E2
(r2 /s)2 + (x2 )2
= I22
r2
s
I2
r2
s
Pg is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore Pg is called air
gap power
r
Pg = I22 s2
= I22 r2 + I22 r2
1S
Pg = (Rotor ohmic loss) + Internal mechanical power developed in rotor (Pm )

= S Pg + (1 S)Pg
Pm = (1 S) Pg = I22 r2
Rotor ohmic loss =
1S
1S
Pm = SPg
Internal (or gross) torque developed per phase is given by

Te =
Internal mechanical power developed inrotor

Rotor speed in mechanical radian per sec
Te =
Pm
r
(1S)Pg
(1S)s
Pg
Electromagnetic torque Te can also be expressed as

Te =
Pg
1
s
I22 r2
Rotor ohmic loss
=
(s ) slip
S
Rotor ohmic loss
(s ) slip
Te =
Power available at the shaft can be obtained from Pg as follows.

Output or shaft power, Psh = Pm Mechanical losses
Mechanical losses implies frication and windage losses
Psh = Pg Rotor ohmic loss Friction and windage losses

= Net mechanical power output or net power output
P
Output or shaft torque Tsh = Rotorsh

=
speed
Psh
(1s) s
If the stator input is known. Then air gap power Pg is given by

Pg = stator power input stator I 2 R loss stator core loss.
Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is
1
Ir2 R 2 /s : Ir2 R 2 : Ir2 R 2 1

s
1 : S : (1 S)
Rotor copper losses = S Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 S) Rotor input.
Rotor copper losses = (Gross Mechanical output)

Efficiency of the rotor is approximately
Gross mechanical power output
Rotor input
(1S) Rotor input
Rotor input
Equal to rotor =
=
S
1S
=1S
=1
=
N
Ns
rotor
NS N
NS
N
Ns
Total torque is
Te =
m
s
Ve2
r2 2
Re + + (x2 + Xe )2
s
m is the number of stator phases.

Torque equation can be written as
m
r
Te =
I22 s2
Te =
s
m
s
r2
s
rotor input per phase.
Nm

Thus the slip SmT at which maximum torque occurs is given by
r2
SmT =
Re2 + X2
Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
Tem =
=x2
m
s
Ve2
2Re + Re2 + X22
If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to r2 /s then
r2
s
Slip corresponding to maximum torque is

Sm =
r2
x2
(Breakdown slip)
Nm = Ns (1 Sm )
Nm = Ns (1 R 2 /x2 )
Nm is the stalling speed at the maximum torque
Starting torque:-
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by

m Ve2
s
Test =
r2
(Re + r2 )2 + X2
Motor torque in terms of :
The torque expression of an induction motor can also be expressed in terms of maximum
torque Tem and dimension less ratio
S
.
Sm,T
In order to get a simple and approximate
expression, stator resistance r1 , or the stator equivalent resistance R e , is neglected.
Te
Tem
2Re + Re2 + X2
r 2
Re + 2 + X2
s
Since r1 or Re is neglected
Te
Tem
2X
r 2
2 + X2
s
r2
s
r2
s
The slip at which maximum torque occurs is

r
SmT = X2
r2 = SmT X
Te
Tem
Te
Tem
2X
S
X 2
mT + X2
s
SmT
S
S
SmT
SmT X
s

Te =
2Tem
SmT
S
+
S
SmT
Power slip characteristics : The total internal mechanical power developed is

1s
w
s
1s
r2
s
Pm = m(1 S)Pg = m I22 r2

Pm =
mVe2
r (1s)
Re + r2 + 2
+ X2
s
Maximum power transfer theorem is invoked again to obtain maximum value of internal
mechanical power developed. Since Pm per phase is the power delivered to r2
mechanical power developed is maximum, when
rs 1Smp
SmP
SmP =
internal
= (R e + r2 )2 + X 2
r2
(Re + r2 )2 + X2 + r2
In order to get maximum power Pm ,substitute

Pmm =
1s
,
s
mve2
2[Re + r2 + (Re + r2 )2 + X2
r2 1 Smp
Smp
, in place of
r2 (1s)
s
in power equation
In order to get maximum power output from an induction generator, the rotor must be deiven
at a speed given by
r2
ns 1 +
(R e + r2 )2 + X 2 + r2
Losses and efficiency :There are three cases in iron losses.

Case (i) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is constant and flux is also constant then
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss
Ph = K h + Bm1.6
Pe = K e f 2 Bm2
Given
V
f
is constant. As Bm
Bm is constant
Ph f
and
V
f
Pe f 2
Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant
v
const
const
f

2
Ph = K h f Bm1.6
Pe = K e f 2 Bm
Ph v1.6 f 0.6
Pe v 2
Case (iii) : If frequency is constant and voltage is variable then

1.6
2
Ph = K h f Bm
Pe = K h f 2 Bm
v 1.6
f
= Kh f
Ph v1.6
Pe v12
Short circuit current with normal voltage applied to stator is

I = Ibr
V
Vbr
I = short circuit current with normal voltage

Ibr = short circuit current with voltage Vbr .
Power factor on short circuit is found from
Pbr = 3 Vbr Ibr cos br
Cos br =
Pbr
3
V
br Ibr
As Pbr is approximately equal to full load copper losses

Pbr
Ibr2
R br =
The blocked rotor impedance is

Zbr =
Vbr
Ibr
Blocked rotor reactance = X br = Zbr 2 R br2
Efficiency of Induction machines :-
output power
input power
Net mechanical output
Induction motor =
Electrical power input
Generally efficiency =
Efficiency of
Efficiency of Induction generator =
Net electrical output

mechanical power input
Squirrel cage rotor:

Stator Cu loss = 3 Isc2 r1 = 3 Isc2 r1
Rotor Cu loss = Psc 3 Isc2 r1
GD
GF
Psc 3 Isc2 r1
3 Isc2 r1
Wound rotor
GD
GF
I22 r2
I12 r1
r2
r1
I2
1
Direct on line (across the line) starting : The relation between starting torque and full load torque is
Te.st
Te.fl
Te =
1
s
I22
2 r2
I2.st
2
I2.ft
1
r2
Sfl
r2
s
= I2 st Sfl
2 fl
The above equation valids of rotor resistance remains constant.

Te.st
Te.fl
Where
Ist
Ifl
= Ist Sfl
fl
(Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I2 st

(Effective rotor to stator turns ratio) I2 fl
Per phase short circuit current at stand still (or at starting) is,
V1
Zsc
Isc =
Where Zsc = (r1 + r2 ) + j(x1 + x2 )

Here shunt branch parameters of equivalent circuit are neglected.
Therefore, for direct switching,
Ist = Isc =
I
Test = Isc Sfl .

esf
fl
V1
Zsc
Stator resistor (or reactor) starting :Since per phase voltage is reduced to xv, the per phase starting current Ist is given by
xv
Ist = Z 1 = xIsc
As be fore
Te.st
Te.fl
sc
= Ist Sfl
fl
xI 2
I sc
fl
Sfl
In an induction motor, torque (voltage)2
starting torque with reactor starting

starting torque with direct switching
xv
= v 1 = x2
1
Auto transformer starting : Per phase starting current from the supply mains is Ist = x 2 Isc
Te.st
Te fl
Per phase starting current in motor winding

Perphase motor full load current
Te.st
Te.fl
Ist Isc
Ifl2
Sfl
Sfl
Test with an autotransformer

Test with direct switching
xv
= 1 = x2
v
1
Star delta method of starting :
starting torque with star delta starter

starting torque with direct switching in delta
V
L
3
= [V
2
L]
1
3
star delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one third of that produced by direct switching
in delta.
With star delta starter, a motor behaves as if it were started by an auto transformer starter with x =
1
= 0.58 i.e with 58% tapping.
Starting torque with star delta starter Te .st

Full load torque with startor winding in delta,Tefld
2r
1
12
I
ws st .y
1
r
(I )2 2
ws fl d
Sfl
2
1
I
3 st .d
(Ifl .d )2
Sfl =
1
3
d 2
I sc . d Sfl
fl .
Power systems:
Power Systems Formula Sheet
Power Systems Generation and Distribution and Concepts of HVDC:

Thermal Power Station : Thermal efficiency, Thermal =
Heat equivalent of mechenergy Transmitted toTurbine shat

Heat of coal combustion
Thermal efficiency = boiler turbine

Overall efficiency, overall =
Heat equvivalent of electrical o/p

Heat of combustion of coal
Overall efficiency = Thermal efficiency Electrical efficiency.

Energy output = coal consumption calorific value.
= coal consumption 6500 k.cal
Output in k.cal
Input in k.cal
Water Power equation: Water Head : The difference of water level is called the water head.
Gross Head : The total head between the water level at inlet and tail race is called as gross
head
Rated Head : Head utilized in doing work on the turbine
Net Head : It is the sum of the Rated Head and the loss of head in guide passage and
entrance
H = Head of water in metre
Q = Quantity of water in m3 /sec or lit/sec.
W = specific gravity of water
= 1 kg/lit when Q represented in lit/sec.
= 100 kg/m3 when Q represented in m3 /sec.
= efficiency of the system.
Effective work done
or
= WQH kg- m/sec.
Output of system
Metric output =
WQH
75
(H.P)
1H.P = 75 kg-m/sec
Metric output in watt =
Output =
WQH
102
kw
WQH
75
735.5
Branches: Jayanagar & Malleshwaram Ph: 0 99003 99699 Email: gateiespsu.com@gmail.com
Pg.No. 59 of 143
Volume of water available per annum = catchment area Annual Rainfall

Electric energy generated = weight head overall .
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT :
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine plant is about 22% to 25%
The air fuel ratio may be of the order of 60 : 1 in this ase.
Engine efficiency engines =
Thermal efficiency they =
overall
alt
engine
mech. of englnd
Heat produced by fuel per day = coal consumption / day caloritic value
Terms and Definitions :1. Connected load :It is the sum of ratings in kilo watts of equipment installed in the consumers premises
2. Demand :It is the load or power drawn from the source of supply at the receiving end averaged over a
specified period.
3. Maximum Demand :Maximum demand (M.D) of a power station is the maximum load on the power station in a given
period.
4. Average load:If the number of KWH supplied by a station in one day is divided by 24 hours, then the value so
obtained is known as daily average load.
KWH deliverd in one day
24
KWH delivered in one month
Monthly average load =
30 24
KWH delivered in one year
Yearly average load =
365 24
Daily average load =
5. Plant capacity :It is the capacity or power for which a plant or station is designed. It should be slightly more than
M.D. it is equal to sum of the ratings of all the generators in a power station.
6. Firm Power :It is the power which should be always be available even under emergency
7. Prime Power :It is the maximum power (may be thermal or hydraulic or mechanical) continuously available for
conversion into electrical power.
Pg.No. 60 of 143

8. Dump power :This is the term usually used in hydro electric plants and it represents the power in excess of the
load requirements. It is made available by surplus water.
9. Spill Power :Is that power which is produced during floods in a hydro power station.
10. Cold reserve :Is that reserve generating capacity which is not in operation but can be made available for service.
11. Hot reserve :It that reserve generating capacity which is in operation but not in service
12. Spinning reserve :Is that reserve generating capacity which is connected to bus-bars and is ready to take the load.
Load factor :It is defined as the ratio of number of units actually generated in a given period to the number
of units that could have been generated with maximum demand.
Load factor =
=
Average load or Average Demand

Maximum Demand.
Energy generated in a given period

(Maximum Demand) (Hours of operaation in the given period)
.
The load factor will be always less than one (< 1)
Demand factor:It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand on the station to the total connected load to
the station.
Demand factor =
Maximum Demand on the station

Total connected load to the station
Its value also will be always less than one (< 1)
Diversity Factor :Diversity factor may be defined as the sum of individual maximum demand to the station
to the maximum demand on the power station.
Diversity factor =
Sum of individual consumers maximum demand

Maximum demand on the station.
Its value will be always greater than one (> 1)
Plant Factor or Plant Use Factor : Plant factor =
station output in kwh

(KW1 ) H1 + (KW2 ) H2 + (KW3 )H3 +
Where KW1, KW2, KW3 etc. are the kilowatt ratings of each generator and H1 , H2 , H3 etc.
are the number of hours for which they have been worked.
Pg.No. 61 of 143

Capacity Factor or plant capacity factor or capability factor : It is defined as the ratio of average demand on the station to the maximum installed capacity.
i.e. capacity factor =
Average demand on the station

Max.installed capacity of the station
Coincidence factor:It is the reciprocal of diversity factor and is always less than 1
Maximum demand
Plant capacity
Service hours
Operation factor =
Total duration
Actual energy produced
Use factor =
Plant capacity Time (hrs)the plant has been in operation
Utilization factor =
D.C. Distribution calculations
Uniformly loaded Distributor fed at one end.

Fig (a) shows the single lien diagram of a 2 wire d.c. distributor AB fed at one end A and
loaded uniformly with i amperes per metre length.
A
i
A
B
dx
Fig. (a)
Then the current at point c is.

= ix amperes
= i( x) amperes.
Total voltage drop is the distributor upto point C is
x
= 0 ir ( x)dx = ir x
Voltage drop over the distributor AB

=
1
2
1
2
ir 2
x2
= IR
Where
i = I, the total current entering at point A

Pg.No. 62 of 143

r = R, the total resistance of the distributor.
Uniformly loaded distributor fed at both ends.
(i) Distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages
Current supplied from each feeding point
9
2
=
x
dx
A
C
V
i
Voltage drop upto point C =

Max. voltage drop
Min. voltage
=V
IR
8
1
8
ir
2
(x x 2 ).
IR
volts
(ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages :The point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance x meters from the feeding point A.
Voltage drop in section AC =
x
A
VA
i
x=
i
VA VB
ir
irx2
2
volts.
- x
VB
Comparison of 3 wire and 2 wire D.C. distribution

The area of cross section of neutral is half the cross section of outers in 3 wire system.

volume of w for 3wire system

5
8
1
2a
5
16
If the neutral has the same cross section as the outer, then.
Pg.No. 63 of 143

= 37.5%
3
4
1
2a
3
8

=5
Transmission Lines:
The empirical formula for the economical voltage line to line is V = 5.5
3P
+
1.6
100
where V = line pressure in KV, l = distance of transmission in KM,

P = estimated max.KW per phase to be delivered over one pole or tower line
Performance of Lines
By performance of lines is meant the determination of efficiency and regulation of
lines.
The efficiency of lines is defined as
% efficiency =
% efficiency =
% regulation =
Power delivered at the receiving end

Power sent from sending end
100
Power delivered at the receiving end

Power delivered at the receiving end+losses
Vr Vr
Vr
100
100
Where Vr is the receiving end voltage under no load condition and Vr the
Receiving end voltage under full load condition.
Effect of Earth on a 3 line:S. No
Line Description
1.
Length Increases
Increases
Increases
2.
Distance of separation No change

increases
Increases
XL
XC
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
Pg.No. 64 of 143

3.
Radius of conductor Decreases Decreases Decreases Increases
Decreases
increases
4.
Symmetrical spacing.
Does not Decreases

depend
Decreases
Increases
Decreases
5.
Unsymmetrical spacing.
Does not Increases

depend.
Increases
Decreases
Increases
6.
Effect of earth is taken No change

into account
No change
No change
Increases
Decreases
7.
Height of the conductor No change

increases
No change
No change
Decreases
Increases.
The capacitance C of the conductor with reference to grund
C=
2 0
ln 2hr
F/metre
Where h = distance between earth and conductor
Effect of earth on the capacitance of single phase transmission line :a
Daa
Effect of earth on the capacitance of single phase transmission line is

C=
ln
0
Dab Daa
r Dab
F/metre
The effect of earth on capacitance of the system is to increases it.

Capacitance of a 1 transmission line
Pg.No. 65 of 143

P
L
L
r
x
h
C=
C=
1 transmission line
F/metre.
2
h
h
+ 2
r
r
L
V
0
ln hr
F/metre.
The capacitance C of the 3 transmission line with reference to grund is

P
C = Va =
a
2 D
3 D D D
ab bc ca 3 Daa Dbb Dcc
D
r
D
D
ab bc ca
ln
F/metre.
Capacitance of a 3 Phase Unsymmetrically Spaced Transmission Line is

P
C = Va =
a
20
ln
GMD
r
F/metre
Vertical Spacing:h
a
d
b
g
f
c
1
a
c
a
3
Pg.No. 66 of 143
For Vertical Spacing conductors, The capacitance C per phase of the system is
C=
4 0
d g
ln 2
r f
2
3
F/metre/phase.
Capacitance of a hexagonal spacing Double Circuit Line is
C = Va =
a
20
3D
2
ln
F/metre/coloumb
Bundled conductors: For a two conductor bundle, the equation for maximum gradient at the surface of a
sub-conductor is
g=
V1+
2r ln
2r
s
d
rs
where s is the seperation between the sub conductors.

Let the equivalent radius or geometric mean radius be P0 then for two conductors
1
P0 = (rd) 2 = r 2 d 2
When there are 3 conductors
1
3
P0 = (r d d )
For 4 conductors
P0 = r
d
2
d
2
= r
1
3
1
4
2
3
= r
1
4
For six conductors , P0 = r
1
3
3
4
3
4
5
1 d 6
6
2
Inductance of a double 3 line :-
1
2
1
4
1
6
d 5
= 6r
2
1
6
Pg.No. 67 of 143

h
a
d
b
g
f
c
1
a
c
a
3
Transposed double circuit line.

Inductance per phase =
2 107 ln 2
1
6
1
2
d
r
g
f
1
3
H/metre/phase
Inductance of composite conductors :1

2
2
1
3
n
A
B
A
Inductance of composite conductors 1 transmission line.
LA = 2 10
ln
m2
mn
D11 D12 D1n D21 D22 D2n Dm1 Dm2 Dmn
(R D12 D13 D1m ) (R D21 D23 D2m ) (R Dm1 Dm2 Dmm )
The mnth root of the product of the mn distances between m strands of conductor A and n strands
of conductor B is called geometric mean distance (GMD) and is denoted as Dm .
The m2 th root of m2 distances i.e., the distance of the various strands from one of the strands
and
the radius of the same strand, the distances of such m groupings constitute m2 terms
in the denominator, is called the geometric mean radius (GMR) of self GMD and is denoted
as Ds .
LA = 2 107 ln
Dm
Ds
Henry/metre.
Pg.No. 68 of 143
Composite Conductors,
Inductance L per unit length
0
D
ln Henry/metre.
R
D
7
10 ln Henry/metre [where
R
= 40 +
=4
1
4]
R = R. e
Inductance of 3 Unsymmetrically Spaced Transmission Line

Ia
b
Ic
L=
Ib
a
3 transmission with
Unsymmetrical spacing
La + Lb + Lc
3
= 2 107 ln
abc
R
Henry/metre.
Short Transmission Line

The equivalent circuit and vector diagram for a short transmission line are shown in fig.
VS =
Vr
1 +
2Ir R cos r
Vr
2Ir X sin r
Vr
Ir2
Vr2
(R2 + X 2 )
In practice the last term under the square root sign is generally negligible; therefore.
2Ir R
cos r
Vr
VS = Vr 1 +
R + JX
vS
IS
1
2
2Ir X
sin r
Vr
Ir
vr
vS
r a
vr
jIrX
IrR
Ir
Pg.No. 69 of 143

The terms within the simple brackets is small as compared to unity. Using binomial expansion and
limiting only to second term,
Vs Vr + Ir Rcos r + Ir X sin r
The receiving end voltage under no load Vr is the same as the sending end voltage under full
load condition.
VS Vr
100
Vr
I R
I X
= r cos r + r sin r
Vr
Vr
Ir R
Ir X
=
cos r +
sin r
Vr
Vr
%regulation =
Regulation per unit
100
= Vr cos r + Vx sin r
Where Vr and Vx are the per unit values of resistance and reactance of the line.
Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr
V
A = Vs Ir = 0
r
This means A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when
receiving end is open. It is dimensionless.
B=
Vs
Ir
Vr = 0
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end to have one ampere at the short circuited receiving
end. This is known as transfer impedence in network theory.
I
C = Vs Ir = 0
r
C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on the open circuited receiving end. It
has the dimension of admittance.
I
D = s Vr = 0
I
r
D is the current at the sending end for one ampere of current at the short circuited receiving end
.
The constants A, B, C, and D are related for a passive network as follows
AD BC = 1
The sending end voltage and current can be written from the equivalent network as,
Vs = Vr + Ir Z
Is = I r
The constants for short transmission lines are,
A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
% regulation =
VS Vr
A
Vr
100
Pg.No. 70 of 143
%=
Power received at the receiving end

Power received at the receiving end+losses
Where R is the resistance per phase of the line.

100
Medium Length Lines: Transmission lines with lengths between 80 km and 160 km are categorized as medium lines
where the parameters are assumed to be lumped. .
The two configurations are known as nominal T and nominal respectively.
vS
IS
R
jX
+2
2
R
jX
+2
2
vC
IC
Ir
vr
Y = jwc
R + jX
vS
Y
2
Y
2
Ir
IC1
vr
Nominal T
vS
vr
IC
Vr =
wc
R jX
j
+
2 2 wc
Vr Vr
IS
P+3
Vr
P
X
2
R
2
jIr X/2
IS
Ir
|VS |
% of regulation =
%=
vc
jIS
100
R
I 2 + I52
2 r
100
A, B, C, D constant for nominal T

A=1+
YZ
2
B = Z 1 +
C=Y
Nominal
D = 1 +
YZ
YZ
Pg.No. 71 of 143

IS
Z = R + jx
IC2
Y
2
vS
Vr =
jwc
2
Y
2
I
jwc
2

Ir
IC1
vr
2j
C
j
R+jX C
2
|VS |
% regulation =
%=
vS
IC & IC
IS
Ir
vr
IR
jIX
Vr LVr
100
Vr
P
100
P+3 I2 R
A, B, C, D constants for nominal

A=1+
B=Z
Y
2
C = Y 1 +
D = 1 +
YZ
YZ
Long Transmission Lines: In case the lines are more than 160 km long
I + I
V + V1 I + I ZX
vS V + V
vr
Let Z = series impedence per unit length

Y = shunt admittance per unit length
= length of line
Z = zl = total series impedence
Y = yl = total shunt admittance.
V = Aerx + Berx
V1 I
CX
YX
I
(Aerx Berx )
ZC
V +I Z
V I Z
V = r 2 r c erx + r 2r C erx
1 V +I Z
V I Z
I = r 2 r C erx r 2 r C erx
ZC
I=
Pg.No. 72 of 143

ZC =
z
y
r+jL
g+jC
The propagation constant r = + j ; the real part is known as attenuation constant and the
quadrature component the phase constant and is measured in radians per unit length.
Vr + Ir ZC
2
V=
ex . ejx +
Vr Ir ZC
2
Vs = Vr cos hrl + Ir Zc sin hrl

IS = Vr
sin hrl
+
Zc
A = cosh rl
B = Zc sinh rl
C=
Ir cos hrl
ex . ejx
sinh rl
Zc
D = cosh rl
The equivalent Circuit Representation of a Long Line equivalent Representation
y1
VS
Z1 =
Z sinhr
r
y1
2
y Tanhr/2
2
r/2
equivalent T Representation of Long Line.
IS
VS
Z
2
Z
2
Tanhr/2
r/2
Y1 = Y
sinh r
r
Vr
Constants for Two networks in Tandem
Pg.No. 73 of 143

IS
vS
Ir
I
A1 , B1
C1 , D1
A
A B
equivalent
= 1
C1
C D
IS 1
A2 , B2
V
B1 A2
D1 C2
C 2 , D2
B2
D2
Constants for networks in parallel
vS
A1 , B1
C1 , D1
IS
IS 2
vr
A2 , B2
C 3 , D2
A=
Equivalent
Single
Network
Parameters
Ir
vr
A1 B2 + A2 B1
B1 + B2
B .B
B = B 1+ B2
1
A=D=
A1 B2 + A2 B1
B1 + B2
C = C1 + C2 +
Critical disruptive voltage :-
D1 B2 + D2 B1
B1 + B2
(A1 A2 )(D2 D1 )
B1 + B2
Critical disruptive voltage is defined as the voltage at which complete disruption of

dielectric occurs
At any other temperature and pressure
g 0 = g 0 .
Where is the air density correction factor and is given by
=
3.92 b
273+t
where b is the barometric pressure in cm of Hg and t the temperature in .

d
r
The critical disruptive voltage is given by V = rg 0 ln kV
Pg.No. 74 of 143

The final expression for the critical disruptive voltage after taking into account
the atmospheric conditions and the surface of the conductor is given by
d
r
V = rg 0 m0 ln kV
Where m0 = average value for the ratio of breakdown voltage and smooth conductor
Polished wires
Roughened or weathered wires
Seven strand cable
Large cables with more then seven strands
1
0.98 to 0.93
0.87 to 0.83
0.90 approx
The distance between g v and g 0 is called energy distance. According to peek this distance
is equal to (r + 0.301r) for coaxial conductors.
g v = g 0 1 +
vv = rg 0 1 +
0.3
kv/cm for two wires in parallel
r
0.3
d
r
ln kV
In case the irregularity factor is taken into account,

Vv = 21.1 mv r 1 +
0.3
ln r kV rms
Where r is the radius in cms.

The irregularity factor mv has the following values:
mv = 1.0 for polished wires
= 0.98 to 0.93 for rough conductor exposed to atmospheric severities
= 0.72 for local corona on stranded conductors.
Peek made a number of experiments to study the effect of various parameters on the
corona loss and he deduced an empirical relation
P = 241 105
(f+25)
d Vp V0 kw/km/phase
Where f = frequency of supply

= The air density correction factor
Vp = The operating voltage in kV
V0 = the critical disruptive voltage
Sag in Transmission and Distribution Lines
When the Supports are at the Same Level , Sag = s =

Where w = weight in kg/m run
= half the span length in metre
wl2
2T
Pg.No. 75 of 143

T = Tension in kg
Effect of wind and ice

w = weight of conductor kg/m run
wi = weight of ice kg/m run
ww = wind pressure kg/m run acting horizontally
Weight of ice (Wi ) = R (D + R) 1 specific wt of ice
Specific weight of ice = weight of ice/m3 = 1000 kg
Wind pressure = Ww = (D + 2R) 1 wind pressure kg/m3
2
W = (w + wi )2 + ww
Sag =
Wl2
2T
Factor of Safety
factor of safety =
Max. Stress
permissible stress
Vertical sag = S cos
When the Supports are at different level

Let l = Span length
h = difference in levets between two supports
x1 = Distance of support at low level from 0
x2 = Distance of support at higher level from 0
T = Tension in the conductor
W = weight of the conductor per unit length, then
S1 =
Wx12
2T
x1 =
x2 =
; S2 =
+
2
Th
w
Th
w
Wx22
2T
x1 + x2 =
S2 S1 = h
The sag is provided in over headlines so that the safe tension is not exceeded.
Most Economical Conductor size in a cable : g max =
2V
d loge
D
d
volts/m
Pg.No. 76 of 143

most economical conductor diameter is
d=
D
2.718
and the value of g max under this condition is g max =
2V
d
volts/m
Power System Operation and Control:

Incremental change in input
Incremental change in output

d (input)
dF
=
=
=
d (output)
dp
(output)
dp
=
(input)
dF
incremental fuel rate IFR =

Incremental efficiency =
If Pi and Q i are scheduled electrical generation, PDi and Q Di are the respective load demands,
Pi PDi P = Mi = 0
where
Q i Q Di Q = Ni = 0
Mi and Ni represent the power residuals at bus i and P and Q the power flow to the neighbouring
system given by
P = N
j=1 Vi Vj Yij cosij ij
Q = N
j=1 Vi Vj Yij ij ij
For proper operation, each generator should have a minimum and maximum permissible output
and the unit production should be constrained to ensure that
Pimin Pi Pimax , i = 1, 2, , NP
Q imin Q i Q imax , i = 1, 2, , Na
Np and NQ being total number of real and reactive sources in the system
The condition for optimum operation is
dF
dF1
dP1
dF2
dP2
= =
dFn
dPn
Here dPn = incremental production cost of plant n in RS. per MWhr.

n
The incremental production cost of a given plant over a limited range is represented by
dFn
dPn
= Fnn Pn + fn
Where Fnn = slope of incremental production cost curve.

fn = intercept of incremental production cost curve.
The optimal load dispatch problem including transmission losses is defined as
Pg.No. 77 of 143

d Fn
d Pn
PL
Pn
Here the term

known as the
PL
Pn
is known as the incremental transmission loss at plant n and is

incremental cost of received power in RS per MW
The solution of coordination equation requires the calculation of PL / Pn which

is obtained from equation as
PL
Pn
= 2 m Bmn Pm also
d Fn
d Pn
= Fnn Pn + fn
The coordination equations can be written as

Fnn Pn + fn + 2Bmn Pm =
Solving for Pn we obtain
fn
2 Bmn Pm
m n
Pn =
Fnn
+ 2 Bnn
Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss co efficient.
1
The loss formula equation is expressed in terms of generations and is

approximately expressed as
PL = Pm Bmn Pn
m
Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss co efficient.
For two generated plants are there then Power loss,

PL = B11 P12 + B12 P1 P2 + B22 P22
Where B11 , B12 , B22 are loss coefficients of transmission line
then the
1 2
1
1
1 =
& L2 =

PL
1
1
1
P2
Pg.No. 78 of 143

FAULTS:
Percentage reactance % =

I=full load current
100
V= phase voltage
X= reactance in ohms per phase
Alternatively percentage reactance (%X) (an also be expressed in terms of KVA and KV
under
%X=
()
10()2
Where X is the reactance in ohms.

If X is the only reactance element in the circuit then short circuit currenr is given by
100
)
%
Isc= = I (
i.e short circuit current is obtained by multiplying the full load current by 100/%X
Short- circuit KVA=Base KVA
100
%
Symmetrical components in terms of phase currents: The unbalanced phase current in a 3-phase system can be expressed in terms
of symmetrical components as under.

= 1 +2 +0

=
1 +2 +0

=
1 +2 +0

Where The positive phase current (
1 , 1 , &1 )

Negative phase sequence currents (
2 , 2 , &2 ) and
Pg.No. 79 of 143

Zero phase sequence currents (
0 , 0 , &0 )
The operator ais one, which when multiplied to a vector rotates the vector through 1200
in the anticlockwise direction.
A=-0.5+j 0.866
;
a2=-0.5- j 0.866
a3=1
Properties of operator a:
1+a+a2=0
a-a2=j 3
Positive sequence current

1 in phase B leads 1 by 120 and therefore 1 = 1
2
similarly, positive sequence current in phase Y is 2400 ahead of
1 = a 1
= 1 + 2 + 0
2

=
1 + 2 + 0 = a 1 + 2 + 0
= a 1 + a 1 + 0 = 0 +1 +2
Zero sequence current:

2
2

+ + = 1 (1+a+a ) + 2 (1+a+a ) + 30
= 3
0
1

0 = [
+ + ]
3
Positive sequence current :

3
3
2
4
2
2
+a +a = 1 (1+a +a ) + 2 (1+a +a ) + 0 (1+a+a )

R1 = =
1
[
3
1
= 3
2
+a +a ]
Negative sequence current:2

4
2
3
3
2

+a +a = 1 (1+a +a ) + 2 (1+a +a ) + 0 (1+a +a)

2
= 3
1
2
R2 = [
+a +a ]
3
Pg.No. 80 of 143

Single Line to Ground Fault:-
R=0 and B =Y=0

The sequence currents in the red phase in terms of line currents shall be :-
Fault current:- Fault current,

=3 0 =+
Phase voltage at fault
1 +
2
Since the generated emf system is of positive sequence only ,the sequence
components of emf in R-phase are:
The sequence voltage at the fault for R-phase are:

shorted to ground.
This is ecpected because R-phase is
The phase voltages at fault are:
Line To-Line fault:Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice
Pg.No. 81 of 143

The condition created by this fault lead to:
Again taking R-phase as the reference, we have
Expressing in terms of sequence components of red line, we have
Also,
Fault current:
Phase voltages: - since the generated emf system is of positive phase sequence only,the
sequence components of emf in R-phase are:
The sequence voltages at the fault for R-phase are:
Pg.No. 82 of 143

The phase voltages at the fault are:
Double Line- To Ground Fault:The conditions created by this fault lead to :
Also,
Fault current:
Phase voltages: - the sequence voltages for phase R are:
Now
TRANSIENTS IN SIMPLE CIRCUITS:

Pg.No. 83 of 143

1. D.C sources
a) Resistance only: - As soon as switch is closed, the current in the circuit will be
determined according to ohms law.
=
b) Inductance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit will be given by
() =
() =
()
()
= .
1
2
= .
c) Capacitance only:- when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given
I(s) =
()
()
= .CS =VC
Which is an impulse of strength (magnitude)VC
d) R-L circuit: when switch s is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
()
1
1/
= .
= .
()
+
+/
1
1
=
.

+/
1
1
=

+/
() = 1
I(s) =
e) R-L circuit: After the switch s is closed, current in the circuit is given by
I(s) =
1
.
+1/
=
+1/
(t)= . /
=
i
()
()
1
+1/
R-L-C circuit: - After the switch S is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
Type equation here.
I(s) =
1
++1
1
I(s) = .(+)(++)
Pg.No. 84 of 143

()+
(+)
i(t) =

2
where
2
42
= a and
= b; then
There are three conditions based on the value of to

2
If 42 >
If
If
Case I: when b is real

i(t) =
42
2
42
<
2
1
2 2 .
,b is real
,b is zero
,b is imaginary
2 + 42 + 2 42
Case II: when b= 0
The expression for current becomes

i(t)=
{ } which is indeterminate.
Now at b=0
i (t) =
Case III. When b is imaginary

i (t) =
=
2
1
2 2
(/2)
. . = 2 . 2
2
.2 sin 42 +
A.C source:
R-L circuit: when switch is is closed, the current in the circuit is given by
Pg.No. 85 of 143

I (s) =
=
()
()
2+2
=
+
2+
2+
+/
2+
R-L circuit connected to an ac source

Let
I(S)
i(t) =
= ;
=
(+)( 2+2 )
(2 +2 2 )12
Where = 1
(+)( 2+ )
{sin( + ) sin( ) }
Circuit Breaker ratings :

The value of resistor required to be connected across the breaker contacts which will
give no transient oscillations, is R= 0.5
Where L,C are the inductance and capacitance upto the circuit breaker
The average RRRV =
2Vr
Lc
Maximum value of RRRV = wn Epeak
Where wn = 2fn ,
Natural frequency of oscillations, fn =
1
1
2 LC
Where L , C are the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker
Frequency of demand oscillations, f =
1
1
1
2 2
2 LC
4R C
Pg.No. 86 of 143

Breaking capacity:
Symmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of a.c component

x
= 2
Asymmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of total current.
Where
= 2 + 2
X = maximum value of a.c component

Y = d.c component
Is the rated service line voltage in volts, then for 3-phae circuit? Breaking capacity = 3
V I 106 MVA
String efficiency =
Voltage across the string

n voltage acrosss the unit near power conductor
Where, n = no. of insulators
Making capacity : Making capacity = 2.55 symmetrical breaking capacity.

The Universal Relay Torque Equation: The universal relay torque equation is given as follows
T = K1 I 2 + K 2 V 2 + K 3 VI( ) + K
Distance Relays:
impedance relays :
From the universal torque equation putting 3 = 0 and giving negative sign to voltage term,
it becomes
T = K1 I 2 K 2 V 2 (Neglecting spring torque)
For the operation of the relay the operating toque should be greater than the
restraining torque i.e
K1 I 2 > K 2 V 2
Here V and I are the voltage and current quantities fed to the relay.
V2
K
I2 < 1K
2
K1
K
2
Z<
Pg.No. 87 of 143

Z < constant (design impedance)
This means that the impedance relay will operate only if the impedance seen by the relay
is less than a pre-specified value (design impedance). At threshold condition,
K1
K
2
Z=
Reactance Relay:
The directional element is so designed that its maximum torque angle is 900
i.e. in the universal torque equation.
T = K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( )
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI cos( 90)
= K1 I 2 K 3 VI sin
For the operation of the relay
KI 2 > K 3 VI sin
VI
I2
sin < K1 /K 3
K
Z sin < 1K
3
K1
X < K
3
The mho relay: In the relay the operating torque is obtained by the V I element and restraining torque due
tot the voltage elemen
T = K 3 VI cos( ) K 2 V 2
For relay to operate
K 3 VI cos ( ) > K 2 V 2
V2
K
< 3K cos( )
VI
2
K3
Z < K cos( )
2
Pg.No. 88 of 143
Pg.No. 89 of 143

Control Systems Formula Sheet
Control Systems
Time Response of 2nd order system :Step i/P :
e n t
C(t) = 1-
e(t) =
ess = lim
12
e n t
12
12
(sin n 1 2 t tan1
12
sin tan1
e n t
12
sin tan1
12
Damping ratio ; n Damping factor

< 1(Under damped ) :-
C(t) = 1- =
e n t
12
Sin tan1
= 0 (un damped) :-
12
c(t) = 1- cos n t
= 1 (Critically damped ) :C(t) = 1 - en t (1 + n t)

> 1 (over damped) :C(t) = 1 T=
Tundamped > Toverdamped > Tunderdamped > Tcriticaldamp
Time Domain Specifications :
Rise time t r =
Peak time t p =
n
n
d
12
12
= tan1
2
Max over shoot % Mp = en/1 100

Settling time t s = 3T
5% tolerance

= 4T
2% tolerance
1+0.7
Delay time t d =
(ln Mp )2
Damping factor 2 2 =
2 + (ln Mp )2
2
Time period of oscillations T =
d
t
t
No of oscillations = s = s d
2/d
2
t r 1.5 t d t r = 2.2 T
Resonant peak Mr =
212
>
>
; r = n 1 22
Bandwidth b = n (1 22 + 4 4 4 2 + 2)1/2
r < n < b
Static error coefficients :
()
1+
0
Step i/p : ess = lim () = lim () = lim

ess =
1
1+KP
Ramp i/p (t) : ess =
(positional error)
1
Kv
Parabolic i/p (t 2 /2) : ess = 1/ K a
K p = lim () ()
0
K v = lim ()()
0
K a = lim s 2 ()()
0
Type < i/p ess =

Type = i/p ess finite
Type > i/p ess = 0
Sensitivity S =
A/A
K/K
sensitivity of A w.r.to K.
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t forward path T/F G(s) :

Open loop:
S =1
Closed loop :
S=
1
1+G(s)H(s)
Minimum S value preferable
Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t feedback T/F H(s) : S =
Stability
RH Criterion :
G(s)H(s)
1+G(s)H(s)
Take characteristic equation 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0

All coefficients should have same sign
There should not be missing s term . Term missed means presence of at least one +ve real part root

If char. Equation contains either only odd/even terms indicates roots have no real part & posses only
imag parts there fore sustained oscillations in response.
Row of all zeroes occur if
(a) Equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal image but opposite sign
(b) has one or more pair of imaginary roots
(c) has pair of complex conjugate roots forming symmetry about origin.

Measurements:
Measurements Formula Sheet
Derived Units:
Area
Volume
Density
Angular
Velocity
Angular
Acceleration
Pressure,
stress
Luminance
Work ,
Energy
Charge
Electric field
strength
Capacitance
Magnetic
flux density
m2
m3
Kg/ m3
rad / sec
rad / sec 2
Kg/m/sec 2
cd/m2
Joule
(Nm)
Coulomb
V/m
(AS/v)
Wb / m2
L2
L3
L3 M
[L]0 T 1
MMF
Frequency
Velocity
Acceleration
Force
L1 MT 2
Kg m/sec 2
Luminous flux
lm(cd Sr)
Illumination
Power
EMF
Resistance
lm/m2
Watt
(J/sec)
Volt (W/A)
V/A
Magnetic flux
Inductance
Vs
Vs / A
[L]0 T 2
2
L MT
TI
LMT 3 I 1
L2 M1 T 4 I2
MT 2 I 1
A
Hz
m/sec
m/sec 2
I
T 1
LT 1
LT 2
LMT 2
L2 MT3
L2 MT 3 I1
L2 MT 3 I2
L2 MT 2 I1
L2 MT 2 I2
Static error:Static error is defined as the difference b/w the measured value and the true value of
the quantity.
A = 0 = Am At
where Am = measured value of quantity
At = True value of quantity

A = Absolute static error
Absolute error
Relative static error (r ) = True value
=
A
At
= A0
Percentage static error (% 0 ) = r 100

Am
True value At = 1+
r

Static correction :- It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity
c = Am At
= - A
Sensitivity :
It is the ratio of infinitesimal change in output to an infinitesimal change in input.
Static sensitivity =
Infinitesimal change in output

Infinitesimal change in input
Inverse sensitivity (or) deflection factor =

Linearity:
Infinitesimal change in input
Infinitesimal change in output
A measurement system is considered to be linear if the output is linearly proportional to the input .
Non-linearity =
(maximum deviation of output from the idealized straight line
Non-linearity =
(maximum deviation of output from the idealized straight line)
actual reading
full scale deflection
100
100
The magnitude of a quantity having a nominal value As and a maximum Aa error or

limiting error of A must have a magnitude Aa between the limits As A and
As A
Actual value of quantity Aa = As + A
Relative limiting error , r = 0 / As
A a = A s [ 1 r ]
Magnitude of limiting error = full scale reading guaranteed accuracy

n
Xi
Mean : Arithmetic Mean = = i=1
n
The root mean square value is the standard deviation .

2
d1 + d2 +dn
n
S.D , =
2
n
i=1 di
Where d1 = xi x, d2 = x2 x, etc the deviation from the mean of the individual readings
2
n
i=1 di
If the number of readings is less than 20, then S.D, =

Variance = 2
n1
Moving Coil Permanent Magnet Type:
The deflecting torque Td is given by

Td = NBI l.b = NBA.I
Where N is the number of turns of the coil,

B is air gap flux density , wb/m2 .
I is current in the coil, ampere.
L is active length of conductor , metre and
b is width of coil, metre
The controlling torque , TC is given by TC = S
Where S is spring constant and is the angle of deflection.
When steady deflection is reached , Td = Tc and

Hence I.
Moving Coil Dynamometer Type :
The torque developed in a dynamometer type ammeter or voltmeter is given by

Td = I 2 (dM/D)
Where I is the current through fixed coil and moving coil (connected in series) and
M is the mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils.
Moving Iron Instruments :
The deflecting torque is given by Td = (1/2) I2 (dL/d).

Where I is the current through the coil and
L is the inductance.
Linearization of scale:
.(dL/d)=K.
Compensation towards frequency errors can be done by connecting a capacitor

across a part of series resistance in MI voltmeter C = 0.41 (L/R2 ).
Half wave Rectifier type Instruments:
d.c supply Im = R
Vdc
m +RL
a.c supply V = Vrms voltage of source.

Vdc = (Vm /)
Im = (2V) / ((R L + R m ))
= (0.45 V)/(R m + R L )
= (2 V)/()
In half wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.45 times that of d.c.
Full wave rectifier type instruments:
d.c. supply Im = R
m +RL
2Vm
a.c supply Im = (R
m +RL )
0.9 V
Rm +RL
In full wave rectifier type instrument , the sensitivity of a.c is 0.9 times that of d.c.
Thermal instruments :

Hot wire type:
The change in the length of the wire due to temperature is given
L = [(RL)/(UA)]I2 (or) L = [(L)/(UAR)]V 2

Where L in the original length of the wire,
is the temperature coefficient of linear expansion of wire material,

R is the resistance of wire,
U is the coefficient of heat dissipation,
A is the area of heat dissipating surface.
Thermo couple instruments
The e.m.f generated in thermocouple is given by

E = a(T) + b(T)2
Where T is the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions

a is a constant (40 to 50 v/0C )
b is a constant (1 to 2 v / 0C )
1. Kelvins Double Bridge is used for the measurement of low resistance
Vad = Vam +Vmd =I2 R + I2
qr
R= S.Q p+q+r
p+q+r
2.Measurement of Medium Resistance:

(a)Voltmeter-Ammeter method:
Measured value of resistance, R ml =
VR +Va
IR
Where R is the true value of the resistance.
Error = R a % Error = (R a /R)
In this method, always the measured value of resistance is greater than true value
of resistance.

(b)Ammeter-Voltmeter Method:
Measured value of resistance, R m2 =

V
Where I= IR = IV = RR + RR
Which gives R m2 =
1+
R
Rv
Rm2
Rv
VR
I
Error = R m2 -R = R m2 R
% error =
R
Rv
In this method, the measured value of resistance is always less than the true value
of resistance.
This method is suitable for measurement of low resistance among the range.
The resistance where both the methods give same error is obtained by equating the
two errors.
Ra
R
=R ,
v
R = R a R v
Wheatstone Bridge:
Balanced condition Q = S
Q
P
S
R
P
R
=
P+Q
R+S
Sensitivity of the galvanometer, Sv = e
Where = deflection of the galvanometer

e = emf across galvanometer
= Vb - Vd
= (E - Vab )- (E - Vad )
= Vad - Vab
(R+R)
R+R+S
E.P
P+Q

S
e = E.
2
(R+S)
Sensitivity of galvanometer, Sv =
Or = Sv
E.SR
(R+S)2
Sensitivity of the Bridge = SB =

SB = Sv . R
S
SBmax =
When
S
R
+2+
= Sv = P
+2+
(R+S)2
E.S.
R
R
Q
P
Sv .E
4
=S=1
Q
Bridge sensitivity is useful for
(a) Selecting the galvanometer with which the given unbalance can be observed.
(b) Determining the deflection to be expected for a given unbalance.
Measurement of High Resistance:

(a) Loss of charge method :
At t, voltage across capacitor, v = Vet/RC

R=
t
2.303C log(V/v)
R=
0.434 t
C log10 (V/v)

The general ac bridge circuit
At balance, the Pd across BA = Pd across BC in magnitude and phase

EBA = EBC = I1 Z1 = I2 Z2
Z1 Z4 (Q1+Q 4 ) = Z2 Z3 (Q 2+Q 3 )
Equating the magnitudes and angles

Z1 Z4 =Z2 Z3
(Q1+Q 4 ) = (Q 2 +Q 3 )
Measurement of Self Inductance:1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
The following bridges are used for measurement of self inductance.

Maxwells Inductance Bridge
Maxwells Inductance- Capacitance Bridge
Hays Bridge
Owens Bridge
Andersons Bridge
1.Maxwells Inductance Bridge:-
This bridge circuit measures an inductance by comparison with a variable standard

self-inductance.
At balance condition,
L1 = R 3 L2 /R 4 ; R1 = R 3 (R 2 +r2 )/R 4
Where L1 = unknown inductance of resistance R1
L2 = variable inductance of fixed resistance r2
R 2 = variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2

R 3 , R 4 = known non-inductive resistance

2.Maxwells Inductance-Capacitance Bridge:
In this bridge, an inductance is measured by comparison with a standard

variable capacitance.
At balance conditions,
R1 = R 2 R 3 /R 4 ; L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
Q-factor,
Q= wL1 /R1 =wC4 R 4
This bridge is used for measurement of low Q coils (1< Q<10).
3.Hays Bridge:-
This is a modification of Maxwells bridge. It is used for measurement of high Q coils.

L1 = unknown inductance having a resistance
R1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 = known non-inductive resistance

C4 = standard capacitor
R R C
3 4
L1 = 1+W22 +C
2 +R2 ; R 1 =
4
2 R2 R3 R4 C24
Q=L1 /R1 = 1/C4 R 4
1+2 C24 R24
4.Andersons Bridge:-
In this method, the self-inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor..

R1 =(R 2 R 3 /R 4 ) r1 ; L1 = CR 3 [r(R 4 + R 2 ) + R 2 R 4 ]/R 4
5.Owens Bridge:-
This bridge may be used for the measurement of an inductance in terms of capacitance.
Under balance conditions,
L1 = R 2 R 3 C4
C
R 1 = R 3 C4
2
Measurement of Capacitance:-
The following bridges are used for the measurement of capacitance:
1. De Sautys Bridge
2. Modified De Sautys Bridge
3. Schering Bridge.
1.De Sautys Bridge :- This bridge is the simplest method of comparing two capacitances.
At balance condition, C1 =C2 . R 4 /R 3
2.Modified De Sautys Bridge:-
R +r
At balance condition, C1 = R2 +r2 =R4

2
Dissipation factor, D1 = tan 1 = c1
D2 = tan 2 = c2 r2
D1 - D2 = c2
3.Scherings Bridge :-
1 4
3
At balance conditions, r1 = R 3 C4 /C2 ;


C1 = C2 (R 4 /R 3 )
Dissipation factor, D1 = tan 1 = c1 r1 = c4 r4
Measurement of Mutual Inductance:
The following bridges are used for the measurement of mutual inductance:
(1). Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge
(2). Campbells modification of Heavisides bridge
(3). Heaviside Campbell equal ratio bridge

(4). Carry Foster Bridge/ Heydweiler Bridge
Ammeter Shunts:
These are small resistances in parallel to basic meter to increase current
measuring capacity
Im R m = Ish R sh
R
m
= m1
Where m is the multiplying power of ammeter

Series Multipliers:
These are used for increasing the voltage measuring capacity of basic met
Rse + Rm
=R
R se = R m (m-1)
Where m is the multiplying power of voltmeter.
Multi Range Ammeter: A range of current settings can be obtained using different shunts.

R
I
R sh1 = m m1 , m1 = I 1
1
R sh2 = m m1 , m2 = I 2
2
R sh3 = m m1 , m3 = I 3
3
4.Universal Shunt (or) Ayrton shunt:

Im R m = (I1 - Im ) R1
R
I1
Im
I2
Im
I3
Im
R1 = m m1 , m1 =
1
R 2 = m m1 , m2 =
2
R 3 = m m1 , m3 =
3
MEASUREMENT OF POWER & ENERGY:

Power in D.C. Circuits
Power measured = Pm1 = VR IR + I 2 R R a

True value = Measured power power loss in ammeter
Power measured = Pm2 = VR IR + (V 2 R /R v )
True power = Measured power- Power loss in voltmeter

Power in A.C. Circuits:
Value of power but in its average value over a cycle.

Instantaneous power = VI
Average power = VI cos
Where V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current and cos is the power factor of the
load.
3.Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter:
The deflecting torque in electrodynamometer instruments is given by ,

Td = i1 i2 (dM/d)
Where i1 and i2 are instantaneous values of currents in two coils.
Many watt meters are compensated for errors caused by inductance of pressure coil
by means of a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of multiplier.
Capacitance C = (L/r 2 )
Low Power Factor Wattmeter:
In present case of wattmeter , i1 is the load current and is the current flowing
through pressure coil.
Td = iP iC (dM/d)
Average deflection torque = IP I cos (dM/d)
= (V/R P ).I cos (dM/d)
Td VI cos (dM/d)
At balance condition, Td = TC
K1 VI cos (dM/d) = k
VI cos

power if (dM/d) is constant.
Errors in Electro Dynamometer Wattmeter:
In general , pressure coil offers inductance, in addition to resistance. Due to this

inductance, wattmeter reads more power on lagging loads and less power in case of leading
loads.
Correction is to be made for wattmeter reading to get true value of power.

cos
True power for lagging pf loads = cos cos() actual wattmeter reading
cos
True power for leading pf loads = cos cos(+) actual wattmeter reading
ERROR = tan tan true power = VI sin tan
= pf angle
= tan1 (X P/R P )
ERROR = tan tan

is the angle between PC current and voltage.
Measurement Of Power in Three circuits:

(a)Three watt meter Method:
In the three wattmeter method to determine the power in 3-, 4 wire system.
Sum of the instantaneous readings of watt meters = P= P1 +P2 +P3
P= V1 i1 +V2 i2+V3 i3
Instantaneous power of load = V1 i1 +V2 i2 +V3 i3
Hence the summation of readings of three watt meters gives the total power of load.

(b)Two wattmeter Method:
In a 3-, three wire system we required 3 elements. But if we make the common
points of pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require only (n-1
l =2) elements.
Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter (P1 ) = i1 (V1 - V3 )
Instantaneous reading of P2 wattmeter (P2 ) = i2 (V2 - V3 )
Sum of instantaneous reading of two watt meters = P1+P2

From Kirchoffs current law, i1 +i2 +i3 =0
P1+P2 = i1 (V1 - V3 ) + i2 (V2 - V3 )
= V1 i1 - V3 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 i2
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (i1 +i2 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (-i3 )
= V1 i1 + V2 i2 + V3 i3
Hence, the sum of two watt meter readings is equal to power consumed by load.
Let the load be balanced, V1 , V2 , V3 be the rms value of phase voltage and I1 , I2 , I3 be the rms
values of phase currents.
For star connection,
Phase voltages
Line voltages
V1 = V2 = V3 = V (say)
V13 = V23 = V12 = 3 V

Phase currents
I1 = I2 = I3 = I (say)
Line currents
Power factor
I1 = I2 = I3 = I
cos (lag)
In general , reading of wattmeter is given by
Wattmeter reading = current through wattmeter current coil * voltage across its
pressure coil * cos( phase angle between this current and voltage).
Reading of P1 wattmeter = V13 I1 cos(30- ) = 3 VI cos(30-)
Reading of P2 wattmeter = V23 I2 cos(30+ ) = 3 VI cos(30+)

Sum of reading of two watt meters = P= P1 +P2
= 3 VI cos (30-) + 3 VI cos (30+)

= 3 VI cos
This is the total power consumed by load.
Difference of reading of two watt meters = P1 - P2
= 3 VI [cos (30-) - cos (30+)]

= 3 VI *2* sin 30 * sin
= 3 VI sin
Reactive power consumed by load = 3 (Difference of two wattmeter readings).

= 3 (P1 - P2 )
Power factor cos = cos tan1
3 (P1 P2 )
P1 +P2
7.Effect Of Power Factor On the Readings of Watt Meter:
With unity power factor, cos =1 (or) = 00
P1 = P2 = 3 VI cos (00 ) = (3/2)VI
The readings of two watt meters are equal , each watt meter reads half of the total power.
When cos = 0.5, =60
P1 = (3/2) VI, P2 =0
When power factor is 0.5 , one of the watt meter reads zero and the other reads total power.
When cos =0 , = 900
P1 = (3/2) V I ,
P2 = - (3/2) V I
Therefore , width zero power factor, the readings of two meters are equal but of opposite
sign.
8.Measurement of Reactive Power in Three Phase Circuits:
Reading of wattmeter = v23 i1 cos (angle between i1 and v23 )

= v23 i1 cos (90- )
= 3 VI sin
Total reactive power of the circuit
= 3 (watt meter reading).
Measurement of Energy:
Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval, that is.
Energy = Power time
Electrical energy developed as work or dissipated as heat over an interval of time t

may be expressed as :
t
W= 0 VI dt
Construction and Principle of Single Phase Induction Energy Meter:
Net driving torque is given as, Td = k1 1 2 (f/z) sin cos

Where = Phase between fluxes 1 and 2
= Phase angle of eddy current paths.
These two fluxes will be produced by two currents which are described earlier.
At steady speed the driving torque must equal to the breaking torque.
k 4N= k 3 VI sin (-)
If = 900 , sped, N = K VI sin(90- )

= K VI cos
= k x(power)
Total number of revolutions = N dt = k VI sin( )

If = 900 , total number of revolutions = k VI cos dt
= k * (energy)
Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
The values of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same value of
current
at normal frequency (i.e) R = L
Deflecting torque acting on coil is: TA = KVI Mmax cos sin

Where = angular deflection from the plane of reference.
Mmax = maximum value of mutual inductance between the two coils.
This torque say acts in the clockwise direction.
Deflecting torque acting on coil B is: TB = KVI Mmax cos (900 -) sin (900 +)
= KVI Mmax sin cos
This torque acts in anticlockwise direction.
At equilibrium , TA = TB =
Therefore the deflection of the instrument is a measure of phase angle of the circuit.
Q-Meter:
Q Meters are intended to measure the Q (quality factor) of an inductance or

capacitor.
Q=
L
R
1
IX
= IRL
CR
So the voltage across the capacitor or coil is Q times the applied voltage
) :
In series connection method the unknown value component is connected in series

with the resonant circuit. This method is employed for measurement of low value
resistors, small coils and large capacitors.
,
1
1 =
=
1
=
=
=
b) :
1 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
(1 2 )1 2
1 1 2 2

, ,
.
,
RP
C1
Q2
XP = (C
= RQ
2 C1 )
Rp
Qx = X =
p
(C1 C2 )Q1 Q2
Q1 C1 Q2 C2
The main error in the measurement of Q is due to distributed or stray capacitance of

the circuitry. To check for this, the Q is measured at two frequencies f1 and 2f1 . It
should be same if not,
Cd =
C1 C1 C2
3
Cathode Ray Tube:
For electrostatic deflection, D=

Where D-Deflection, m
Lld Ed
2dEa
L distance from centre of deflection plates to screen, m

ld - effective length of deflection plates, m
Ed - deflection voltage, volts
d- separation between the plates, m
Ea - accelerating voltage, volts
Ll
Deflection sensitivity is S = E = 2dEd , m/V

d

1
2dEa
lLB
2m , m
Deflection factor G is G= S =
Magnetic Deflection D =
Va
Lld
, V/m
l- width of magnetic coil, m
L- length from centre of 1 to screen, m
B- magnetic flux density, wb/m2
e, m charge and mass of electron
Va - acceleration potential
Magnetic Deflection Sensitivity is B = IL 2mV , m

a
Oscilloscope Specifications:
1.Sensitivity:
It means the vertical sensitivity . It refers to smallest deflection factor G = (1/S) and
expressed as mv/div. The alternator of the vertical amplifier is calibrated in mv/div.
2.Band width:
It is the range of frequencies between 3 dB of centre frequency.
3.Rise Time:
Rise time is the time taken by the pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its amplitude.
1
BW = 2RC BW = band width in MHz
90% of amplitude is normally reached in 2.2 RC or 2.2 time constants

1
2.2
BW = 2RC = 2RC =
0.35
Tr
, Tr = rise time in seconds.
Synchronization means the frequency of vertical signal input is an integral multiple

of the sweep frequency.
Fin = n fs

EDC & Analog
EDC & Analog Electronics Formula Sheet
G/si =1.21 3.6 104 .T ev

Energy gap depending on temperature
G/Ge =0.785 2.23 104 .T ev
EF = EC - KT ln = Ev + KT ln
No. of electrons n = Nc e(EcEf)/RT

(KT in ev)
No. of holes p = Nv e(EfEv )/RT
Mass action law np = n2i = Nc Nv eEG/KT
Drift velocity d = E (for si d 107 cm/sec)
B.I
Hall voltage H =
. Hall coefficient R H = 1/ .
charge density = qN0
we
Energy gap
= ne
Conductivity = ; = R H .
q
q
Max value of electric field @ junction E0 = - Nd . nn0 = - NA . np0 .
si
si
Charge storage @ junction Q + = - Q = qA xn0 ND = qA xp0 NA

EDC
dp
Diffusion current densities Jp = - q Dp

Jn = - q Dn
dx
Drift current Densities = q(p p + nn )E
p , n decrease with increasing doping concentration .
Dn
n
Dp
p
= KT/q 25 mv @ 300 K
Carrier concentration in N-type silicon nn0 = ND ; pn0 = n2i / ND

Carrier concentration in P-type silicon pp0 = NA ; np0 = n2i / NA

Junction built in voltage V0 = VT ln
dn
dx
Width of Depletion region Wdep = xp + xn =

2
xn
N
= A
xp ND
= 12.93
2s 1
q NA
1
(V0
ND
+ VR )
q.NA ND
. A . Wdep
NA +ND
s A
Cj0 =
Wdep / VR =0
Charge stored in depletion region qJ =

Depletion capacitance Cj =
Cj = Cj0 /1 +
VR m
V0
s A
Wdep
Cj = 2Cj0 (for forward Bias)
Forward current I = Ip + In ;
Ip = Aq n2i L
In = Aq n2i L
Saturation Current Is = Aq n2i L
Dp
p ND
+L
Dp
p ND
Dn
n NA
Dn
n NA
/ 1
/ 1
Minority carrier life time p = L2p / Dp ; n = L2n / Dn

Minority carrier charge storage Qp = p Ip , Q n = p In
Q = Q p + Q n = T I
T = mean transist time
Diffusion capacitance Cd = I = .g Cd I.
carrier life time , g = conductance = I /

I02 = 2(T2 T1 )/10 I01
Junction Barrier Voltage Vj = VB = Vr (open condition)
= Vr - V (forward Bias)
= Vr + V (Reverse Bias)
1
Probability of filled states above E f(E) =
(EEf )/KT
Poisson equation
Drift velocity of e
d2 V
dx2
d 107 cm/sec
nq
Transistor : IE = IDE + InE

IC = ICo IE Active region
IC = IE + ICo (1- eVC /VT )
Common Emitter : IC = (1+ ) ICo + IB
dv
dx
1+e
=E=
nqx
Co
ICEO = 1
Collector current when base open
ICBO Collector current when IE = 0
ICBO > ICo .
V
0
VBE,sat or VBC,sat - 2.5 mv / C ; VCE,sat BE,sat
= - 0.25 mv /0 C
10
Large signal Current gain =

D.C current gain dc =
IC
IB
IC ICBo
IB + ICBo
= hFE
(dc = hFE ) when IB > ICBo

I
Small signal current gain = IC
Over drive factor =
R VCE
= hfe =
active
forced under saturation
Conversion formula :CC CE

hic = hie ; hrc = 1 ;
hfc = - (1+ hfe ) ;
hFE
h
1(ICBo + IB ) FE
IC
IC sat = forced IB sat
hoc = hoe
CB CE
h
hie hoe
h
hoe
hib = 1+hie ; hib = 1+h
- hre ; hfb = 1+hfe ; hob = 1+h
fe
fe
fe
fe
CE parameters in terms of CB can be obtained by interchanging B & E .

Specifications of An amplifier :-
AI =
hf
1+h0 ZL
AV =
Zi = hi + hr AI ZL
AI ZL
Zi
Y0 = ho -
hf hr
hi + Rs
Avs =
AIs =
Av .Zi
Zi +Rs
Av .Rs
Zi +Rs
AI .ZL
Zi +Rs
AIs .ZL
Rs
Avs .Rs
ZL
Choice of Transistor Configuration : For intermediate stages CC cant be used as AV < 1

CE can be used as intermediate stage
CC can be used as o/p stage as it has low o/p impedance
CC/CB can be used as i/p stage because of i/p considerations.
Stability & Biasing :- ( Should be as min as possible)
For S = I C
Co
S = V C
BE
VB0,
IC = S. ICo + S VBE + S
1+
dI
1 B
For fixed bias S =
Collector to Base bias S =
Self bias S =
R1 =
Vcc Rth
Vth
1+
1+
RE
RE +Rth
1+
1+
1+
R
; R 2 = V ccVth
cc
IC
BE,ICo
=1+
dIC
IC0,
S =
th
RC
RC +RB
Rth
Re
0 < s < 1+ =
R E > 10 R 2
1+
RC + RE
RC + RE + RB
1+
For thermal stability [ Vcc - 2Ic (R C + R E )] [ 0.07 Ico . S] < 1/ ;
VCE <
VCC
2
Hybrid pi()- Model :g m = |IC | / VT
rb e = hfe / g m
rb b = hie - rb e
rb c = rb e / hre
g ce = hoe - (1+ hfe ) g b c
For CE :g
f = 2(Cb +e C
e
c)
gm
hfe 2(Ce + Cc )

gbe
1
fT = hfe f ;
fH =
= 2C
C = Ce + Cc (1 + g m R L )
C
2 rbe
fT = S.C current gain Bandwidth product

fH = Upper cutoff frequency
For CC :
fH =
1+gm RL
2CL RL
For CB:
f = 2r
fT =
gm
2CL
1+ hfe
b e (CC + Ce )
fT Ce
CL
gm + gbe
2(CL + Ce )
= (1 + hfe ) f = (1 + ) f
f
1+
f > fT > f
Ebress moll model :IC = - N IE + ICo (1- eV/VT )
IE = - I IC + IEo (1- eV/VT )
I ICo = N IEo
Multistage Amplifiers : fH * = fH 21/n 1 ; fL =
0.35
0.35
=
fH
B.W
2
2
t r1 + t r2 +
Rise time t r =
t r = 1.1
fL
21/n 1
fL = 1.1 fL21 + fL22 +
1
fH
1
f H1
= 1.1 2 +
1
f2H2
Differential Amplifier :
Zi = hie + (1 + hfe ) 2R e = 2 hfe R e 2R e

gm =
0 |IEE |
4VT
= 4VC = g m of BJT/4
h R
CMRR = R fe+he
s
Darlington Pair :-
ie
0 DC value of
R e , Zi , Ad & CMRR

AI = (1 + 1 ) (1 + 2 ) ;
Av 1 ( < 1)
(1+hfe )2 Re2
fe hoc Re2
Zi = 1+h
R o = (1+hs
fe )
2h
+ 1+hie
[ if Q1 & Q 2 have same type ] = AI R e2
fe
g m = (1 + 2 ) g m1
Tuned Amplifiers : (Parallel Resonant ckts used ) :
f0 =
1
2LC
Q Q factor of resonant ckt which is very high
B.W = f0 /Q
BW
2
BW
f0 +
2
fL = f 0 fH =
For double tuned amplifier 2 tank circuits with same f0 used . f0 = fL fH .
MOSFET (Enhancement) [ Channel will be induced by applying voltage]
NMOSFET formed in p-substrate

If VGS Vt channel will be induced & iD (Drain source )
Vt +ve for NMOS
iD (VGS - Vt ) for small VDS
VDS = VGS - Vt channel width 0 pinch off further increase no effect
VDS channel width @ drain reduces .
For every VGS > Vt there will be VDS,sat

1
2
2
iD = K n [ (VGS - Vt ) VDS - VDS
] triode region ( VDS < VGS - Vt )
iD =
1
2
rDS =
2
K n [ VDS
] saturation
Kn
(VGS
Vt )
K n = n Cox
Drain to source resistance in triode region
PMOS :Leading coaching center for GATE/IES/PSU in Bangalore & All over India for Online Tests/Practice

Device operates in similar manner except VGS , VDS, Vt are ve
iD enters @ source terminal & leaves through Drain .
VGS Vt induced channel
VDS VGS - Vt Continuous channel
1
2
2
iD = K p [(VGS Vt )2 - VDS
] K p = p Cox
VDS VGS - Vt Pinched off channel .

NMOS Devices can be made smaller & thus operate faster . Require low power supply .
Saturation region Amplifier
For switching operation Cutoff & triode regions are used
NMOS
PMOS
VGS Vt
VGS Vt
VGS - VDS > Vt
VGS - VDS < Vt
VDS VGS - Vt
VDS VGS - Vt
induced channel
Continuous channel(Triode region)

Pinchoff (Saturation)
Depletion Type MOSFET :- [ channel is physically implanted . i0 flows with VGS = 0 ]
For n-channel
iD - VDS characteristics are same except that Vt is ve for n-channel
VGS +ve enhances channel .

-ve depletes channel
Value of Drain current obtained in saturation when VGS = 0 IDSS .

IDSS =
1
2
K n Vt2 .
MOSFET as Amplifier :
For saturation VD > VGS - Vt

To reduce non linear distortion gs < < 2(VGS - Vt )
id = K n (VGS Vt ) gs
d
gs
= - gm RD
Unity gain frequency fT = 2(C
JFET : VGS Vp iD = 0 Cut off
g m = K n (VGS Vt )
gm
gs +Cgd )

Vp VGS 0, VDS VGS - Vp
iD = IDSS 2 1
Vp VGS 0 , VDS VGS - Vp
Triode
I
iD = IDSS 1 VGS = Vp 1
I
gm =
2IDSS
|Vp |
DSS
2I
I
1 = DSS
|V |
I
DSS
Saturation
Zener Regulators :
Vi Vz
Rs
Vsmin Vz0 IZmin rz
IZmin + ILmax
For satisfactory operation

R Smax =
IZmin + ILmax
Load regulation = - (rz || R s )

Line Regulation =
rz
Rs +rz
For finding min R L take Vs min & Vzk , Izk (knee values (min)) calculate according to that .
Operational Amplifier:- (VCVS)
Fabricated with VLSI by using epitaxial method

High i/p impedance , Low o/p impedance , High gain , Bandwidth , slew rate .
FET is having high i/p impedance compared to op-amp .
Gain Bandwidth product is constant .
A
Closed loop voltage gain ACL = 1 OLA
feed back factor
V0 =
OL
1
RC
Vi dt LPF acts as integrator ;
V0 =
R
L
i dt ;
i dt ;
Max operating frequency fmax =
slew rate
2 . V0
For Op-amp integrator V0 =

Slew rate SR =
V0
t
V0
t
Vi
t
= A.
Vi
t
V0 =
L dvi
R dt
(HPF)
Differentiator V0 = -
slew rate
2 Vi A
dvi
dt
In voltage follower Voltage series feedback
In non inverting mode voltage series feedback
In inverting mode voltage shunt feed back
V0 = - VT ln I
V0 = - VBE
= - VT ln I
0
Error in differential % error =
Power Amplifiers :
1
CMRR
100 %
B
Fundamental power delivered to load P1 = 21 R L =
12
Total Harmonic power delivered to load PT = 2 +
22
2
B21
2
RL
+ . .
= P1 1 + 2 + 3 +
1
Where D = +D22 + . . +D2n

D = total harmonic Distortion .
Dn = Bn
= [ 1+ D2 ] P1
Class A operation : o/p IC flows for entire 3600

Q point located @ centre of DC load line i.e., Vce = Vcc / 2 ; = 25 %
Min Distortion , min noise interference , eliminates thermal run way
Lowest power conversion efficiency & introduce power drain
PT = IC VCE - ic Vce if ic = 0, it will consume more power
PT is dissipated in single transistors only (single ended)
Class B:-
IC flows for 1800 ; Q located @ cutoff ; = 78.5% ; eliminates power drain

Higher Distortion , more noise interference , introduce cross over distortion
Double ended . i.e ., 2 transistors . IC = 0 [ transistors are connected in that way ] PT = ic Vce
PT = ic Vce = 0.4 P0
PT power dissipated by 2 transistors .
Class AB operation :-
IC flows for more than 1800 & less than 3600

Q located in active region but near to cutoff ; = 60%
Distortion & Noise interference less compared to class B but more in compared to class A
Eliminates cross over Distortion
Class C operation : IC flows for < 180 ; Q located just below cutoff ; = 87.5%
Very rich in Distortion ; noise interference is high .
Oscillators : For RC-phase shift oscillator f =
f=
For op-amp RC oscillator f =
Wein Bridge Oscillator :f=
1
2RC 6+4K
1
2RC6
1
2RC6
29
k
hfe 4k + 23 +
> 29
where k = R c /R
| Af | 29 R f 29 R1
hfe 3
3
A 3 R f 2 R1
2R R C C
Hartley Oscillator :f=
2(L1 +L2 )C
|hfe | L2
1
L
| | L2
1
L2
|A|
L1
Colpits Oscillator :f=
C C
2L 1 2
C1 +C2
Rf
R1
|hfe | C1
2
| | C1
2
| A | C1
2
Digital Electronics Formula Sheet
Digital Electronics
IOH
IIH
IOL
IIL
Fan out of a logic gate =
Noise margin : VOH - VIH or VOL - VIL

I
+I
Power Dissipation PD = Vcc Icc = Vcc
or
I Ic when o/p low

I Ic when o/p high .
TTL , ECL & CMOS are used for MSI or SSI

Logic swing : VOH - VOL
RTL , DTL , TTL saturated logic
ECL Un saturated logic
Advantages of Active pullup ; increased speed of operation , less power consumption .
For TTL floating i/p considered as logic 1 & for ECL it is logic 0 .
MOS mainly used for LSI & VLSI . fan out is too high
ECL is fastest gate & consumes more power .
CMOS is slowest gate & less power consumption
NMOS is faster than CMOS .
Gates with open collector o/p can be used for wired AND operation (TTL)
Gates with open emitter o/p can be used for wired OR operation (ECL)
ROM is nothing but combination of encoder & decoder . This is non volatile memory .
SRAM : stores binary information interms of voltage uses FF.
DRAM : infor stored in terms of charge on capacitor . Used Transistors & Capacitors .
SRAM consumes more power & faster than DRAM .
CCD , RAM are volatile memories .
1024 8 memory can be obtained by using 1024 2 memories
No. of memory ICs of capacity 1k 4 required to construct memory of capacity 8k 8 are 16
DAC
FSV = VR 1
Resolution =
2
step size
FSV
1
VR /2n
VR 1 n
2
1
= n+1
2
Accuracy = LSB
2
Analog o/p = K. digital o/p
2n 1
100%
ADC
* LSB = Voltage range / 2n
* Resolution =
FSV
2n 1
* Quantisation error = 2nR %
PROM , PLA & PAL :AND

Fixed
OR
Programmable
Programmable fixed
PROM
PAL
Programmable Programmable PLA

Flash Type ADC : 2n1 comparators
2n resistors
2n n Encoder
Fastest ADC :
Successive approximation ADC : n clk pulses

Counter type ADC : 2n - 1 clk pulses
Dual slope integrating type : 2n+1 clock pulses .
Flip Flops :
a(n+1) = S + R Q
=D
= JQ + K Q
= TQ + T Q
Excitation tables :-
0
0
1
1
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 x
1
0
1
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1
0 x
1 x
1
0
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 1
1 0
1
1
For ring counter total no.of states = n

For twisted Ring counter = 2n (Johnson counter / switch tail Ring counter ) .
To eliminate race around condition t pd clock < < t pd FF .
In Master slave master is level triggered & slave is edge triggered
Combinational Circuits :Multiplexer :-

2n i/ps ; 1 o/p & n select lines.
It can be used to implement Boolean function by selecting select lines as Boolean variables
For implementing n variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX is enough .
For implementing n + 1 variable Boolean 2n 1 MUX + NOT gate is required .
For implementing n + 2 variable Boolean function 2n 1 MUX + Combinational Ckt is
required
If you want to design 2m 1 MUX using 2n 1 MUX . You need 2mn 2n 1 MUXes
Decoder :
n i/p & 2n o/ps

used to implement the Boolean function . It will generate required min terms @ o/p & those terms
should be OR ed to get the result .
Suppose it consists of more min terms then connect the max terms to NOR gate then it will give the
same o/p with less no. of gates .
If you want to Design m 2m Decoder using n 2n Decoder . Then no. of n 2n Decoder
2m
required = 2n .
In Parallel (n bit ) total time delay = 2n t pd .
For carry look ahead adder delay = 2 t pd .
Microprocessors Formula Sheet
Microprocessors
Clock frequency = crystal frequency

2
Hardware interrupts
TRAP (RST 4.5)
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
RST 5.5
INTR
Software interrupts
RST 0
RST 1
2
:
:
7
S1
S0
Halt
write
Read
fetch
0000H
0008H
0010H
0018H
0024H
both edge level
Edge triggered
003CH
0034 H
level triggered 002C
Non vectored
Vectored
0038H
HOLD & HLDA used for Direct Memory Access . Which has highest priority over all interrupts .
Flag Registers :S
X AC X P X CY
Sign flag :- After arthematic operation MSB is resolved for sign flag . S = 1 -ve result
If Z = 1 Result = 0
AC : Carry from one stage to other stage is there then AC = 1
P : P =1 even no. of ones in result .
CY : if arthematic operation Results in carry then CY = 1
For INX & DCX no flags effected
In memory mapped I/O ; I/O Devices are treated as memory locations . You can connect max of
65536 devices in this technique .
In I/O mapped I/O , I/O devices are identified by separate 8-bit address . same address can be used
to identify i/p & o/p device .
Max of 256 i/p & 256 o/p devices can be connected .
Programmable Interfacing Devices :
8155 programmable peripheral Interface with 256 bytes RAM & 16-bit counter
8255 Programmable Interface adaptor
8253 Programmable Interval timer
8251 programmable Communication interfacing Device (USART)
8257 Programmable DMA controller (4 channel)
8259 Programmable Interrupt controller
8272 Programmable floppy Disk controller
CRT controller
Key board & Display interfacing Device
RLC :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes D0 .

CY flag modified according to D7
RAL :- Each bit shifted to adjacent left position . D7 becomes CY & CY becomes D0 .
ROC :-CY flag modified according D0
RAR :- D0 becomes CY & CY becomes D7

CALL & RET Vs PUSH & POP :CALL & RET
PUSH & POP
When CALL executes , p automatically stores

16 bit address of instruction next to CALL on the
Stack
CALL executed , SP decremented by 2
RET transfers contents of top 2 of SP to PC
RET executes SP incremented by 2
* Programmer use PUSH to save the contents

rp on stack
* PUSH executes SP decremented by 2 .
* same here but to specific rp .
* same here
Some Instruction Set information :CALL Instruction

CALL 18T states SRRWW
CC
CM
Call on carry
Call on minus
9 18 states
9-18
CNC Call on no carry


CZ
Call on Zero ; CNZ call on non zero
CP
Call on +ve
CPE
Call on even parity
CPO Call on odd parity
RET : - 10 T
RC
: - 6/ 12 T states
Jump Instructions :JMP 10 T

JC
Jump on Carry
7/10 T states
JNC Jump on no carry

JZ
Jump on zero
JNZ Jump on non zero

JP
JM
Jump on Positive
Jump on Minus
JPE Jump on even parity

JPO Jump on odd parity .
PCHL : Move HL to PC
6T
PUSH : 12 T ; POP : 10 T
SHLD : address : store HL directly to address 16 T
SPHL : Move HL to SP 6T
STAX : R p store A in memory 7T
STC : set carry
4T
XCHG : exchange DE with HL 4T
XTHL :- Exchange stack with HL 16 T
For AND operation AY flag will be set & CY Reset

For CMP if A < Reg/mem : CY 1 & Z 0
(Nothing but A-B)
A > Reg/mem : CY 0 & Z 0
A = Reg/mem : Z 1 & CY 0 .

DAD Add HL + RP (10T) fetching , busidle , busidle
DCX , INX wont effect any flags . (6T)
DCR, INR effects all flags except carry flag . Cy wont be modified
LHLD load HL pair directly
RST 12T states
SPHL , RZ, RNZ ., PUSH, PCHL, INX , DCX, CALL fetching has 6T states
PUSH 12 T ; POP 10T
Power Electronics Formula Sheet
Power electronics:
1.Turn on time of scr = t d + t r +t s
Where t d = delay time

t r = rise time
t S = settling time
2.Device turn off time, t q = t rr + t gr
Where t rr = Reverse recovery time and

t gr = gate recovery time
3.SERIES OPERATION:
SCR,s are connected in series to increase the voltage rating.

String efficiency s =

. , voltage rating of each SCR
Derating factor =1 string efficiency
V1 + V2
2 V1
T1
Static equalizing Resistance Rs = (1)
Dynamic equalizing capacitance C =
T2
(n1) Q
n VbmVs
4. Parallel operation is applied for SCR, s with higher current ratings

String efficiency S =

. , current rating of each SCR
I1 + I2
2 I1
1. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R load:

Circuit turn off time = t c = /
Average output voltage V0 = Vm /2[1+ cos ]
r. m. s output voltage Vor = Vm / (2 ) [ + (Sin 2) /2]1/2

Average output current, I0 =
V0
R .m .s output current, Ior / R
Power factor of input supply =

pf=
V2or / R
Vs Is
p.f =
Vor
Vs
Power supplied to load

Source volt ampere
2. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R-L load:

Circuit turn off time = t c = (2- )/
Average output voltage V0 = (Vm /2) [cos cos ]
r.m.s output voltage Vor = Vm /(2 ) + sin 2 sin 22
Average output current, I0 = V0 /R
R.m.s value of output current, Ior = Vor / R

Power factor of supply, pf =
Vor
Vs
3. Single Phase Half wave rectifier R.L load and free wheeling Diode:
Circuit turn off time = t c
m
Average output voltageV0 = 2
[ 1 + ]
r.m.s output voltageVor = Vm / (2 ) +
Average output current, , I0 = V0 /R
1
(sin 2)2
2
R.m.s value of output current, , Ior = Vor / R

Power factor of supply,
Pf
V
= or
Vs
4. Single Phase Half wave rectifier RLE load:

Circuit turn off time, t c =
2 +1
,
1 = Sin1 (/ ) and 2 = 1800 - 1

Average Output voltage, V0 =E+I0 R
1
[ (
2
Average Output currentI0 =

Supply power factor, pf =
I2 or R + I0 E
Vs Ior
R.m.s value of output current

Ior =
1
2R2 VS2
+ E ( )
) ( )]
V2S
(sin 2
2
1
2
2 sin 2) 2Vm E(cos cos)
5. Single Phase Full wave rectifier Mid point converter type:

Circuit turn off time t c =
Average output voltage , V0 =
2Vm cos
6.Single Phase Full wave Bridge type Rectifier:

Circuit turn off time , t c =
Average output voltage , V0 =

r.m.s output voltageVor = Vs
2Vm cos
The inductance of source results in an lesser value of voltage

2V
L
V0 = m cos - s I0
7. Single Phase semi converter:
Circuit turn off time t c =
Average output voltage V0 =
Vm
[1+cos ]
1
2
1
2
r.m.s output voltageVor = Vs / ( ) + (sin 2)
8.Three Phase controlled half wave rectifier with R load:

Average output voltage V0 =
3
2
Vml cos =
Average Output current I0 = V0 /R

r.m.s output voltageVor =
VML 1
R 6
33
2
Vmp cos
1
2
3
(cos 2)
8
R.m.s value of output current, Ior = Vor / R

9. Three Phase full converter:
voltage V0 Average output =
=
Vml cos
2
3
3
VML + 2 (cos 2)
2 3
10. Three Phase full converter:

voltage V0 Average output =
3
2
Vml (1+cos )
VML 3 2
3
+ (1 +
2
2
3
cos 2)
1
2
11. For a 3- converter , The inductance of source results in an lesser value of voltage
V0 =
36
Vph cos -
3Ls
I0
CHOPPERS:
a.STEP UP CHOPPER:
T
Duty cycle, = on (T
on
= (Ton / T)
+ Toff )
Average output voltage across load ,V0 =
VS
1
Energy supplied by inductor = Wout = (0 )
(Imin +Imax )
2
x ToFF
b.STEP DOWN CHOPPER :

T
Duty cycle,= on (T
on
= (Ton / T)
+ Toff )
Average output voltage across load ,V0 = VS (Ton / T) = f Ton VS = Vs

Where V =supply voltage
Average output current through load,0 =
Rms value of output voltage = Vs
Rms value of thyristor current =
Vs
R
Effective input resistence of chopper=
VS
R
The minimum and maximum values of load current is given by

Imax =
Imn =
Ton
Vs /R [1e Ta ]
T
[1e Ta ]
Ton
Vs /R [e Ta 1]
T
[e Ta 1]
Ripple I =
Vs
R
- (E/R)
- (E/R)
Toff
Ton
1e Ta 1e Ta
T
[1e Ta ]

Per unit Ripple =
1e Ta
(1)T
Ta
1e
T
[1e Ta ]
Maximum value of ripple current is given by (I)max = Vs / 4fL

Ripple factor =
A.C.ripple voltage
D.C voltage
= 1
Voltage Commutated Chopper:

Minimum turn on time of chopper LC seconds
Minimum duty cycle of voltage commutated chopper mn = f LC

The output current , I0 =
where C =
I0 tc
vs
Cvs (vs )
2tc
V 2
I0
, L S C
t1 = LC
Current Commutated Chopper:
The values of L & C are given by

L=
C=
vs tc
xI0 2 Sin1
x
x I0 tc
1
x
vs 2 sin1
Where x = ICp / I0
t c = [ -2 sin1 (1/x) ] LC
t c = ICp sin t
At t = 1 , ic = I0 = ICp sin 1 , 1 = sin1 [I0 /ICp ] = sin1

x
Peak capacitor voltage = vs +I0 L/C
INVERTERS:
Fourier Analysis Of Single Phase Inverter Output Voltage :

1-phase Half bridge Inverter:
V0 =
n=1,3
i0 =
n=1,3
2Vs
n
sin nt
2Vs
nZn
Sin(nt n )
1-Phase Full Bridge Inverter:

V0 =
n=1,3
i0 =
n=1,3
4Vs
n
sin nt
4Vs
nZn
sin (nt - n )
Zn is the impedance offered to nth harmonic
Zn = R2 + nL
1 2
nc

1
n = tan
nL1/nc
Vor = Vs - full bridge inverter
Vor = Vs /2 Half bridge inverte
Harmonic factor of nth harmonic , H.Fn = Vn / V1
Where Vn = r.m.s value of nth harmonic component

V1 = fundamental component r.m.s value.
Total harmonic distortion (T.H.D) it is a measure of closeness in shape between

a wave form and its fundamental component.
1/2
2
THD = 1/V1
=2,3
V2or V21
V1
Vn
2
1 .n
Distortion factor of nth harmonic is defined as V
Three Phase Bridge Inverter :
Vab =
n=1,3
Vbc =
n=1,3
Vca =
n=1,3
4Vs
n
4Vs
n
4Vs
n
Cos
Cos
Cos
n
Sin n(t +
6
n
Sin n(t 6
/6)
/2)
n
Sin n(t +
6
5/6)
All triple n harmonics are absent from the line voltages.

1
2/3
Vl = 0
Vph =
Vs2 d(t) = Vs 2/3 = 0.8165 Vs
0.8165 Vs
3
= 0.4714 Vs
Va0 =
n=1,3
2Vs
n
Cos
n
6
Sin n(t+ )
Vc0 =
n=1,3
2Vs
n
Cos
n
6
Sin n(t+
Vb0 =
n=1,3
Vph =
2Vs
n
Cos
n
6
2/3 Vs 2
2
Sin n(t - )
5
)
6
d(t) = Vs 1/6
Vph = 0.4082 Vs , Vl = 0.4082 Vs 3 = 0.7071 Vs
Voltage Control In 1- Inverter:

1.Single Pulse Modulation:
Vor = Vs 2d/
4V
s
V0 =
n=1,3( n Sin n/2. sin nd) sin(nt)
Maximum value of nth harmonic

To eliminate nth harmonic , nd =
i.e., width of the pulse = 2d = 2/n
2.Multiple Pulse Modulation:
Vor = 2 d/
8Vs
nd
V0 =
sin (nt)
n=1,3 n sin n sin
2
Number of pulses per half cycle =

N=
1/2fr
1/fc
fc
2fr
c
2r
Length of half cycle of reference wave form

Width of one cycle of triangle carrier wave
N= c /2r per half cycle

Where fc is carrier wave frequency and fr is reference wave frequency
AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:
Single Phase Voltage controller with R Load:

Circuit turn off time = / sec.
VC =
n=1,3,5 An sin nt + n=1,3,5 Bn cos nt d(t)
Vm sin(+1)
sin(1)
(+1) (1)
Vm cos(+1)1
sin(+1)1
(+1)
(1)
Where An =
Bn =
Vnm = A2n + Bn2

B
n = tan1 An
n
For n=1, Vor of output voltage is given by
Vor =
Ior =
Vm
2
Vor
R
1/2
( ) + 2 sin 2
2
P = Ior
R=
V2or
R
V2
m
= 2R
(-) + sin 2
V2
1
2
= Rs ( ) + sin 2
Power factor =
1
Real power
V2 /R
V
= Vor /R = Vor
Apparent power
Vs or
s
1/2
1
2
= ( ) + sin 2
PHASE VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RL LOAD

i0 =
i0 =
Vm
2
sin (t - ) -
Vm
2
Vm
2
sin (t - ) -
Vm
2
sin ( - ). exp[ / ]. eRT/L

sin ( - ). exp
( )
DC & AC DRIVES
DC Motor equations :
ZN
Ea =
N rpm
60
P
= Zn
n rps
A
If m = 2n

Ea = Z- 2m

=
Ea = k a m
Torque T =
1
P
Z Ia
2
A
Z P
Ia
2 A
k a = motor constant = ((z/2) (P/A)) volts/webers rad/sec

T = K a Ia
k a = Newton meter / wb amper
For a dc separately excited motor:

Flux , is constant
Ea = k m m
k m motor constant volts/rad/sec
Torque = k a Ia
Te = k m Ia
k m Newton meter/Ampere
For a dc series motor:
Ia , = c I a
Ea = k a c Ia m
Ea = k1 Ia m
Te = k a Ia
= k a c Ia2
Te = k1 Ia2
k1 motor constant
volt sec
rad.amp
k1 Nm /Amp2
1- half wave converter drive:
Ia is assumed to be constant for speed control of the drive.

Vm
Vt = V0 = 2
(1+cos 1 )
Vf =
Vm
(1+cos 2 )
Is rms =
= Ia
1 2
I d(t)
2 a
1
(
2
Is rms = Ia [( )/2]1/2
IF.D.R = Ia [( + )/2]1/2
Supply power factor =
=
power delivered to load

Source VA
Ea Ia +I2a ra
Vs Isr
Ia [Ea +Ia ra ]
Vs Isr
Input supply pf = (Ia Vt )/(Vs Isr )
1- half controlled converter drive

v0 = vt =
Vf =
Vm
[1+ cos 1 ]
Vm
[1+cos 2 ]
Isr = Ia ( )/
Ifdr = Ia 2/2 = Ia /
ITr = Ia ( )/2 = I0r
VI
Input supply pf = V tI a
s sr
Single Phase full wave Converter Drive:

V0 = Vt =
2V
2Vm
cos 1
Vf = m cos 2
Isr = Ia
ITr = Ia /2 = Ia /2
Pf = Vt Ia / Vs Isr
3- half wave converter drive:

V0 = Vt =
36
V cos 1
2 ph
Isr = Ia 120/360 = Ia 1/3

ITr = Ia 120/360 = Ia 1/3
3- full wave converter drive:

V0 = Vt =
36
Vph cos
Isr = Ia 240/360 = Ia 2/3

ITr = Ia 120/360 = Ia 1/3
3- semi converter drive:

V0 = Vt =
36
V (1 +
2 ph
cos )
For 1 < 600 , Isr = Ia 2/3 , ITr = Ia 1/3

For 1 > 600 , Isr = Ia 180 1 /180 , ITr = Ia (180 1 )/360

Static Rotor Resistance Control:
R eff = R
Toff
= R (T-Ton )/T
R eff = R(1-)
duty cycle of the chopper

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Mathematics Formula Sheet

Matrix : If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix

Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )

Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :

Eigen Values & Vectors : Char. Equation |A I| = 0.

1 , 2 n are Eigen values of A then

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Eigen values of orthogonal matrix have absolute value of 1 .

Cauchy Rieman equations

Neccessary & Sufficient Conditions for f(z) to be analytic

[ f n (a) ] if f(z) is analytic in region C & Z =a is single point

+ + f n (z0 ) n!0 + . Taylor Series

Res f(a) = lim( ()

((Z a)n f(z) )

Rolles theorem :If f(x) is

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Cauchys Mean value theorem :-

If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that

Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that

Properties of Definite integrals :-

a < c < b a f(x). dx = a f(x). dx + c f(x). dx

a f(x). dx = a f(a + b x). dx

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

{(m1)(m3).(m5)(2 or 1)} {(n1)(n3).(2 or 1)}.K

Where K = / 2 when both m & n are even otherwise k = 1

Maxima & Minima :-

A function f(x) has maximum @ x = a if f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0

Constrained Maximum or Minimum :-

To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0

(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)

(ii) Solve above equations along with = 0 to get stationary point .

L () = s n f(s) - s n1 f(0) - s n2 f (0) f n1 (0)

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

[ sin at + at cos at]

[ sin at - at cos at]

Laplace Transform of periodic function : L { f(t) } =

find f(x3 ) if f(x3 )

Regular falsi method :-

Newton Raphson Method :xn+1 = xn

Taylor Series method :dy

Eulers method :y1 = y0 + h f(x0 , y0 )

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore)

Mathematics Formula Sheet

Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree