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Tension Test For Foundation
Tension Test For Foundation
Tension test
Subjects of interest
Introduction/Objectives
Engineering stress-strain curve
True stress-true strain curve
Instability in tension
Stress distribution at the neck
Ductility measurement in tension tests
Effect of strain rate on flow properties
Effect of temperature on flow properties
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
Tension test
Subjects of interest
Influence of testing machine on flow properties
Thermally activated deformation
Notch tensile test
Tensile properties of steel
Anisotropy of tensile properties
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May-Aug 2007
Objectives
This chapter provides fundamental backgrounds of tension
tests where appropriate material parameters can be used for
material selection.
Differences between engineering stress-strain curve and
true stress true strain curve will be clearly understood.
Effects of strain rate, test temperature, testing machine as
well as notch and anisotropy on tensile properties will be
highlighted.
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May-Aug 2007
Stress
Af
Necking
Fracture
Fracture strength
Yield strength
Lo
Necking
Af
Fracture
Elastic
deformation
Elastic
strain
Uniform plastic
deformation
Plastic strain
Non-uniform
plastic
deformation
Strain
Total strain
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May-Aug 2007
Necking
Fracture
Fracture strength
Yield strength
Average longitudinal
tensile stress
s=
P
Ao
Eq.1
Average
linear strain
Elastic
deformation
Elastic
strain
Uniform plastic
deformation
Non-uniform
plastic
deformation
Plastic strain
Total strain
Strain
L L Lo
e=
=
=
Lo Lo
Lo
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Eq.2
May-Aug 2007
Heat treatment
Prior history of plastic deformation
Strain rate
Test conditions
Temperature
State of stress
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May-Aug 2007
Load
B
P2
A
P1
b=
ab
Elongation
E
Eq.3
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May-Aug 2007
Tensile strength
Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) su is the
maximum load Pmax divided by the original cross-sectional area Ao
of the specimen.
su =
Pmax
Ao
Eq.4
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May-Aug 2007
Yielding
Various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending
on the sensitivity of the strain measurements and the intended use
of the data.
1) True elastic limit: based on microstrain
measurement at strains on order of 2 x 10-6. Very
low value and is related to the motion of a few
hundred dislocations.
2) Proportional limit: the highest stress at which
stress is directly proportional to strain.
3) Elastic limit: is the greatest stress the material
can withstand without any measurable permanent
strain after unloading. Elastic limit >
proportional limit.
4) Yield strength is the stress required to produce
a small specific amount of deformation.
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Load
Offset yield
Extension
May-Aug 2007
so =
Eq.5
Extension
May-Aug 2007
20%CW
50%CW
Load
Load
Load
Yielding
Elastic
Work hardening
Plastic
Pure Al
A50%c w
Extension
Ao A20%c w
Extension
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Extension
Improvement in elastic
limit by alloying
May-Aug 2007
Energy
Load
Interstitial
solute
atom
Energy required
for initial
movement of
atom
Upper yield
point
L2
Yield point
elongation
L1
Lower yield
point
Extension
Distance
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May-Aug 2007
Ductility
Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of a material.
In general, ductility is of interest in three different ways
1) For metal working operation :
indicating amount of deformation
can be applied without failure.
2) For stress calculation or the
prediction of severe load :
indicating the ability of the metal to
flow plastically before failure.
3) For indication of any changes in
heat treatments or processing
conditions in metal.
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May-Aug 2007
Measures of ductility
Elongation
ef =
Reduction of area, q
q=
L f Lo
Lo
Eq.6
Ao A f
Ao
Eq.7
L Lo Ao
1
q
=
1 =
=
Lo
A
1 q 1 q
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Eq.8
May-Aug 2007
Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus is a measure of
material stiffness (given by the slope of the stress-strain curve).
Modulus of elasticity is determined by the
binding forces between atoms (structure
insensitive property)
Load
Slope = Youngs
modulus
Extension
Temp
Youngs modulus
Youngs modulus
Stiffness
Deflection
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May-Aug 2007
ef =
q=
L Lo 65 50
=
= 30%
Lo
50
Ao A f
Ao
132.7 50.3
= 62%
132.7
Pmax
8400 9.8
=
= 620 MPa
su =
Ao
132.7 10 6
6800 9.8
=
= 502 MPa
so =
Ao 132.7 10 6
Pmax / Ao 620 10 6
eE =
=
= 0.0030
E
207 10 9
Py
sf =
Pf
Ao
7300 9.8
= 539 MPa
132.7 10 6
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May-Aug 2007
Resilience
Resilience is an ability of a material to absorb energy when
elastically deformed and to return it when unloaded.
Usually measured by modulus of resilience (strain energy per
unit volume required to stress the material from zero to the yield
stress, o.
s o2
1
1
Stress, s
U o = x e x = U R = s o eo =
Eq.9
2
2
2E
Modulus of
resilience, UR
UR =
1
s o eo
2
Strain, e
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May-Aug 2007
Toughness
Toughness is an ability to absorb energy in the plastic range.
Or the ability to withstand occasional stresses above the yield
stress without fracture.
Can be simply defined by the area under the stress-strain
curve (amount of work per unit volume that the material can
withstand without failure.)
The structural steel although has a
lower yield point but more ductile than
high carbon spring steel. Structural
steel is therefore tougher.
Toughness = strength + ductility
Ductile materials
Brittle materials
U T su e f
Comparison of stress-strain curves for U T
high and low-toughness materials.
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so + su
ef
Eq.10
2
UT
(only approximation)
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2
su e f
3
Eq.11
May-Aug 2007
True-stress-true-strain curve
True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation
characteristics because it is based on the instantaneous
dimension of the specimen.
The true stress-strain curve is also known as the flow curve.
In engineering stress-strain curve,
stress drops down after necking since it is
based on the original area.
In true stress-strain curve, the stress
however increases after necking since the
cross-sectional area of the specimen
decreases rapidly after necking.
True stress
Comparison of engineering and
the true stress-strain curves
True strain
P
(e + 1) = s (e + 1)
Ao
Eq.12
= ln(e + 1)
Eq.13
Note: these equations are used for data upto the onset of necking. Beyond
necking, use the actual measurements of load, cross-sectional area, diameter.
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May-Aug 2007
Where u
Au
Pmax
Au
Ao
u = ln
Au
u =
Ao
u = su
= su e u
Au
Eq.14
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May-Aug 2007
f =
Pfracture
A fracture
Eq.15
f = ln
Ao
Af
Eq.16
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1
1 q
Eq.17
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u = ln
Ao
Au
n = ln
Au
Af
Eq.18
Eq.19
May-Aug 2006
= K n
Eq.20
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May-Aug 2007
= K ( o+ ) n
Eq.21
= o + K n
Eq.22
= K n + e K e n
1
Eq.23
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May-Aug 2007
60
= ln = 0.405
40
= ln 150 = 0.405
100
If a more ductile metal is tested such that necking occurs and the
final gauge length is 83 mm and the final diameter is 8 mm, while
Lo = 40 mm and Do = 12.8 mm.
Lf
f = ln
Lo
83
= ln = 0.730
40
Do
f = ln
Df
= 2 ln 12.8 = 0.940
May-Aug 2007
Instability in tension
Undergo necking after yielding with
no strain hardening
Most metal
www.seas.upenn.edu
>
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May-Aug 2007
Instability in tension
Therefore the point of necking
can be obtained from the true
stress-strain curve by
dP = 0, P = A
dP = dA + Ad = 0
Because the
volume is constant
dL
dA
=
= d
L
A
dA d
=
A
So that at a point of
tensile instability
d
=
d
Eq.24
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2007
u = n
Eq.25
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May-Aug 2007
u = n = 0.33
From Eq.13
971
971
su = 0.33 =
= 698 MPa
1.391
e
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May-Aug 2007
u = 2n
Eq.26
May-Aug 2007
May-Aug 2007
Depends on
Metallurgical condition of the material
(through n)
Specimen size and shape on the
development of necking
Localised extension once necking begins
May-Aug 2007
Lo = 5.65 A
%Elongation
Eq.27
A
Lo
Gauge length Lo
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May-Aug 2007
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May-Aug 2007
d
dt
Eq.28
Strain rate
Flow stress
Temperature
Strain rate
dependence
= C
Eq.29
,T
Dependence of tensile
elongation on strain-rate
sensitivity
Tapany Udomphol
May-Aug 2007
Effect of temperature on
flow properties
Temperature strongly affects
the stress-strain curve and the
flow and fracture properties.
Temperature
Changes in
engineering
stress-strain
curves of mild
steel with
temperature
Strength
Ductility
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May-Aug 2007
Effects of temperature
on yield stress
Effects of temperature
on ductility
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Homogenous temperature =
Testing temperature
Melting temperature
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May-Aug 2007
Displacement
controlled machine
Displacement is controlled
and the load adjusts itself to that
position. Ex: Screw driven
machine.
Constant cross head velocity is
the sum of
1) Elastic strain rate in specimen
2) Plastic strain rate in specimen
3) Strain rate resulting from
elasticity of the machine.
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May-Aug 2007
Soft machine
Hydraulic testing machine.
The effect of upper and lower yield
point will be smeared out and only
the extension at constant load will
be recorded.
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solids.ame.arizona.edu
Screw
Hydraulic
driven
testing
machine machine
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May-Aug 2007
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Stress distribution
around tensile notches.
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Notch strength
Notch strength is defined as the maximum load divided by the
original cross-sectional area at the notch.
Due to the constraint at the notch, the notch strength is higher than
the tensile strength of the unnotched specimen.
Notch-strength ratio NSR detects notch brittleness
(high notch sensitivity) from;
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May-Aug 2007
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www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk
Pearlite microstructure
Transformation temperature
Spacing between
cementite platelets
Strength
Relationship of tensile
properties of Ni-Cr-Mo steel
to isothermal transformation
temperature.
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May-Aug 2007
Tensile properties of quenched and tempered SAE4340 steel as a function of tempering temperature
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Effect of
forging on
longitudinal
and
transverse
reduction of
area
May-Aug 2007
References
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May-Aug 2007