Parts of Speech

Articles. .
Verbs. .
.
Nouns. .
Adjectives. .
Pronouns. .
Adverbs. ?
.
Prepositions. , , , / , /
.
Conjunctions. .
Interjections.
.

Articles
: the ( definite article) a, an ( indefinite
article), :
car appeared out of nowhere and came speeding to my direction (
,
). Just before hitting me, the car stopped and Kostas
came out of it ( ,
).
a an?
the .
.

a an? .

: a
an.
e, y(*), u h.
.
( ) :
Europe, euthanasia, euphonic, year, yolk, yellow, union, universe, honorable, honest,
hour.
, e
eu .
.

, --

.
an :
an airplane / aeroplane
an angry elephant
an egg
an honorable man
an honest man
an opinion
an unusual day,
a
:

a European
a yellow submarine
a stormy weather
a roaring thunder
a gentleman and
a lady
a usual day.

S M N.
, a: I just saw a mouse.
,
an : I just bought an S.U.V..
: a .
(*) y .
.

 the

, .
1. , :
: the Netherlands, the United
States, the Rockies (Rocky mountains),

(/): the Soviet Union, the UAE,

of: the Isle of Man, the Statue of Liberty, the Eiffel Tower,
the Twin Towers, the Peoples Republic of China,
: the Pentagon,
: the Rhine, the Danube, the Nile,
: the
Obamas, the Simpsons.
2.
/ : boys like football,
motorcycles can be very dangerous, malls are great places for shopping, cats can see
in the dark, basketball is a very exciting game.
,
. .
,
, (,
) .

, : .
. ( )
. .
: . ,
.
, , : a Mr. Georgiou wanted to see you.
, ,
-n: an FBI agent is looking for you.

 Nouns
,

s .
. .
. . : pupil.
A , , .
: pupil .

: , , ,
.
: burn, bend, dream, smell.
, : o
, , .
: ( , . )
s : boy boys, car
cars, word words.
:
Gender.
:
possessive forms for nouns.
E Plural.

 Gender
(-masculine, -feminine neuter) ,
. The pilot announced that we are flying at 30.000 feet.
.
, ,
: She also turned off the fasten your seat belts sign.
:
.
, , , , , , , ,
, , .
.
:
. :
actor actress, boyfriend girlfriend, bull cow, heir heiress, lion lioness,
nephew niece, flight attendant stewardess, waiter waitress ..
: fiance fiancee.
.
, :

: My cat is always hungry. She never

stops eating.
, : ,
/ : I have a 1976 Cadillac Eldorado. She is a real
beauty!
: Greece is a major tourist attraction. She has over 5.000 islands.

, ,
.

 Plural: s

s .
apple-apples, boy-boys, day-days, horse-horses, toy-toys, girl-girls ....
:
1. s, z, x, ch sh es, ..: bus-buses, buzzbuzzes, box-boxes, beach-beaches, bush-bushes.
( .. autoautos)
, ..: echo-echoes, hero-heroes, potato-potatoes, tomatotomatoes, torpedo-torpedoes, veto-vetoes,
2. y, y ies, ..: babybabies, body-bodies, party-parties,
3. f fe, ves, ..: calf-calves, halfhalves, hoof-hooves, knife-knives, life-lives, leaf-leaves, loaf-loaves, scarf-scarves,
shelf-shelves, self-shelves, sheaf-sheaves, thief-thieves, wife-wives, wolf-wolves,
4. f
s, .. roof-roofs. , f
, .. scarf-scarfs scarves,
5. ( ),
). :
is, is es, ..: analysis-analyses, basis-bases, crisis-crises,
diagnosis-diagnoses, parenthesis-parentheses, thesis-theses ,
on, on a, ..: automaton-automata, criterion-criteria,
phenomenon-phenomena ,
a, , ta, ..:
schema-schemata, trauma-traumata,
). :
a, e, ..: antenna-antennae, formula-formulae, vitavitae,
ix ex, ices, ..: appendixappendices, axis-axes, index-indices, matrix-matrices,
(.. , )

.
6. ,
.

@ Irregular Plurals

:
child-children,
foot-feet, goose-geese, tooth-teeth,
louse-lice, mouse-mice,
man-men, woman-women,
ox-oxen
, : index-indices
, : ellipse-ellipses, ellipsisellipses

 Possessive nouns
,
, .. .
: Georges hat.
s.
s, .
: Nikos hat.
s .
, (*): The girls hats (
).
:
.
(the Earth)
(- hour, day, week, month, year ). ,
,
s of.
: the Earths atmosphere ( ) a years salaries
( ), the top of the box (
) the bottom of my glass ( ).
, ,
s, , .. David Camerons policy John Waynes real
name was Morrison.
, , !

its its ()
:
its ( ) , .
its it is it has .
,
hes he is he has . .
i, . his.
shes she is she has . .
: her.

 Adjectives
, .
(adverbs) modifiers: .
.
(. )
, .
1200 .
? (, , , ).
:
?
:

.
: beautiful flowers ( ). . -s
.
,
(comparative) (superlative) .
(,
..): George is taller than John.
O
(, ..): Alex is the fastest of them all.
( )
-er -est (); tall, taller,
tallest rich, richer, richest.

: more most :
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful dangerous, more dangerous, most
dangerous.
:
: happy, happier, happiest, funny, funnier, funniest
careful, more careful, most careful, patient, more patient, most patient.
er, est?
er, -ly ow.

bad, worse, worst

far, farther, farthest
far, further, furthest
good, better, best
little, less, least
little, smaller, smallest
many, more, most
much, more, most
old, elder, eldest ( old, older, oldest)
well, better, best

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UmRBdtf7WjY

Possessive adjectives
.
(possessive
pronouns) .
.
.
, :
This is my car ,
my.
:
This car is mine ,
mine.
:
These are my boots. .
I am going to use your computer for a moment.
.
This is your lunch. .
John wants to use her toothbrush. O
.
This is his computer. .
I will reduce your taxes. .
.
Those are her shoes. .
That on top of the hill is their house.
.
These are our tickets. .

http://brixfax.co/ma/grammar/adjectives/possessive_adjectives/

 Conditional
(
): A ,
A ,
.
,
Conditional.
H .
.
:
1. , conditional if-clause, ..
,
2. , main clause, .. .
: Protasis
Apodosis .
: If you come for dinner
tonight, Ill make a nice prassopita. ,
: Ill make a nice prassopita if you come for
dinner tonight.
conditional (
if main clause) /
:

Zero conditional , .
,
Type 1 main clauses if-clause ,
Type 2 main clauses ,
if-clause ,
Type 3 main clauses ifclause ,

, conditional if
:
unless, as long as, assuming (that), if only, on condition (that) provided (that), so
long as, supposing that.

Zero Conditional
,
.
? , .
: Zero Conditional.
, :

If you press this button, we are all dead!

If you have enough money, you buy tickets for the 1st class.
If my mother makes prassopita, I eat like an animal.
If you press the reset button now that the application is still running, the database
is destroyed for good.
if you pay for it, then its yours.
if you break it, you pay for it.

(if-clause main clause) Simple Present.

if
:

you press this button now and we are all dead!

you reset the machine now and the data files get corrupted.
you break it, you pay for it.

Type 1 Conditional

if-clause.
if-clause: Simple Present,
main clause: Future Modal Verb.
Zero Conditional if main
clause ,
( if-clause):

if you press this button, we will die for sure ,

If I have enough money, I will buy you a 1st class ticket
, 1
if you call me, I will pick you up later ( ),

If you work hard, youll make more money ,

If the weather is good, well go swimming

If my mother makes prassopita, I will eat it all

, ( , )
if you break it, you will pay for it
if you leave me now, youll take away the biggest part of me
, ( Chicago)
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1ykMNtzMT8)
if you go away, you might as well take the sun away, ,
, but
if you stay, Ill make you a day like no day has been
(
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SUn4JqUTsA)
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=slHjkszSAKs)
Frank Sinatra, Neil Diamond, Shirley Bassey
o).
http://brixfax.co/ma/category/music-poetry/ (
)

(imperative)
, and or:

Keep driving like that, and youll get killed one day

Write your name clearly on the application, or it will be void
,
Keep spending your money like that, and you will end-up poor

Stop spending your money like that, or you will end-up penniless
, .

if .
To .
. Type 1 . .

Type 2 Conditional
.
if-clause: Simple Past,
main clause: Modal Verb.
/
. .
( )
. Conditional Type 3 if-clause
Past Perfect.

If I had more money, I would buy me a Ferrari ,

. .
.
If I had more time, I could finish the project ,
.
If you studied harder, you would succeed in the examinations
,
We could go swimming if the weather was better,
We could go swimming if the weather improved
.
.
.

,
. .
.

Type 3 Conditional
.
if-clause: Past Perfect,
main clause: would have/could have/might have
Past Perfect?
.
, , . Past
Perfect , . .
,
if-clause.
:
If I had had more money, I would have bought me a Ferrari
, .
. . .
If I had had more time yesterday, I would have finished the project
,
If you had studied harder, you would have succeeded in the exams
,
We would have gone swimming yesterday if the weather had been better

If you had told me yesterday about the strike, I might have gone fishing today
, .

 Type 3 .
.. !

Conditional

http://brixfax.co/ma/grammar/conditional/conditional-recap/

 -ing
--
, -ing
.

(continuous/progressive), .
( )
-ing
.
( gerund):
Smoking is a very dangerous habit ( ),
Financing is an essential part of a new business venture ( ),
Driving is not allowed to women in Saudi Arabia ( ).
:
The Flying Dutchman ( ,
Wagner),
I saw an exciting movie ( ),
I read an interesting article yesterday ( ).

-ing
:
1.
,
( x),
-ing:
bet -> betting
bid -> bidding
cut -> cutting
trip -> tripping
admit -> admitting
begin -> beginning
emit -> emitting
2.
-e ( -ie -ee),
-e -ing:
close -> closing
give -> giving
lose -> losing
3.
-ie, -ie y -ing:
die -> dying
lie -> lying
tie -> tying
vie -> vying
4.
-ee, e
-ing:
agree -> agreeing
free -> freeing

 Pronouns
. ,
(
: ), (.
).
Me Tarzan, you Jane: me you
. : I am Tarzan, you are Jane,
.
, :
. .
. .
.

:
George passed by on Monday. This box is his. He said nothing to me. I just found it
the next day.
:
(personal), (possessive), (demonstrative), (indefinite) ..:

Indicative (): this, that ( ) these, those ( ).

this that .

( ).
. This is my son. Those are my children. That is my car. hose
are my books.
Indefinite (): any, every, none, some (
) body, one thing: anybody,
anyone, anything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one,
nothing, somebody, someone, something.
Relative (): that, which, who, whom, whose
.
For whom the bell tolls: Ernest Hemingway
Oscar.
Reciprocal: one another each other.

Relative pronouns ()
:

, ,
.
:

, , .
.
() ,
. (relative).
, ( )
5:

that, which, who, whom whose.

A , .
whose:
. ,
, . . .
. possessive relative pronoun.
, (),
(), ()?

The person, whose car is double-parked, is kindly requested to remove it.

,
.
Whose lunch is that? () ?
: whos ,
. s is has. . who is
who has.
whom:
. , ,
. . . ,
: , , ?
George, whom I just met, was very friendly with me at the party yesterday.
, , .
Helen, whom the boss decided to fire yesterday, was a very good colleague. ,
, .
: .
who:
, .
(*) . , ,
, . , -, -, -.
, , -, -, .
The person who drives that car, is Michael Schumacher.
, . .
He or she who hasnt done his project will flunk the course.
/, .
which:
who (. )
, .
She was wearing a hat, which was too big on her had. ,
.
He took the money, which his father gave him, and wasted it on chocolates.
, , .

that:
which, .
.
: relative pronouns,
.
that
(essential restrictive).
.
(*) ( /
), , .. You dont kick Lassie, who is the smartest of all
dogs. .

that VS which
which restrictive non-restrictive clauses.
that.
restrictive, essential) clauses: . -
.
:
1- The person that called you yesterday is the President of the Union.
( ) .
that called you yesterday, o
. restrictive clause. (
) ( ) :
.
.. :
2- She is reading the book that I recommended to her yesterday.
.
that I recommended to her yesterday,
. the,
. , ,
that, . ,
?, .
:
3- Lets meet sometime that you will stay a little longer at the office.
.
that . Lets meet
sometime . ,


.

.
:
4- I just bought a new car, which Im paying off with monthly installments.
, .
, ,
.
,
. ,
.
.

3 relative pronouns
whoever, whomever, whosever
who, whom whose . ,

.
ever,
. ,
: , -, -, , -, - , -, -.
:

Whoever solves the problem first, will get extra credit.

.
Give the money we found on the street, to whomever shows up first asking for
it. ,
.
This car, whosever it might be, has to be towed away because is blocking the
driveway. , ,
( ) .

, ,
whose of which.

The hat, whose owner has been looking for it for the last two hours has been
found. , , .
, : The hat, the owner of which has been
looking for it for the last two hours has been found.

 Adverbs
.
, , , ,
, (
).
-ly, . ,
:
, .
She arrived immediately: immediately arrived
.
He laughed wholeheartedly: wholeheartedly laughed
.
She is very beautiful: very beautiful,
( ).
-ly ,
-ly .
: sadly (sad )

 Prepositions
?
?
, , :
.
.
, ,
(
).
between a rock and a hard place? between
( ,
,
).

: My glasses are on the table The cat is under the chair.
( ) :
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at,
(http://brixfax.co/ma/dictionary/at/)
before, behind, below, beneath, beside, beyond, by,
down, during, for, from, in, (http://brixfax.co/ma/dictionary/in/) into, like, off, on,
(http://brixfax.co/ma/dictionary/on/) out, over, through, till,
(http://brixfax.co/ma/dictionary/till/) to, (http://brixfax.co/ma/dictionary/to/) toward,
under, underneath, until, unto, up, with, within, without

: according to, because of, in front of, instead of, in spite of, next to.
H
. , ,
. on over
, in, at to
///.
: (..
/ ),
.. / .
,
.

 Conjunctions
, , ,
.

.
. , :
, , ,
. , ,
, .
. . :
?
, .
!
. .
-
. ,
.

.
:
1. Coordinating
For, and, not, but, or, yet, so (fanboys: ,
). : I bought apples and oranges.
2. Subordinating
After, although, as, because, since, so, till, unless, until, whereas, while ..,
( ) ( ,
): e didnt buy a new car because he didnt have any money.
, .
3. Correlative
As as, both and, either or, neither nor, not but, not only but also,
whether or. To -: Both John
and his wife are engineers.

 Interjections, Exclamations
, interjection ( exclamation).
:

.
, ,
,
.
.
.

( ).
,
.
.
, .
Ah, A ha, Aw, Hey, Hmm, Yea, Wow, Oh, Ouch, Oops, Phew, Yuck, Yo, Shh:
.
,
, ,
.

 Punctuation marks
,
, .

: .

( )
.
. :
. .
. : . .
( ) .
.
.

. ,
. , ,
.
(
), , .
.
a. , ( , )
- (comma)-

. , ,
:

(/ )
, ..: She can speak English, French, German and
Greek.
.

, ..: A gentleman, whose name I dont know, has been
looking for you.
( ) , ..: after that disastrous first flight, the government
decided to scrap the project, killing all hope of fresh financing for the
company.
.

, ..: Oct. 1, 1972.
, ..: Brooklyn, N.Y. Athens,
Georgia Boston, Massachusetts.

b. , ( . ),
:

,
( ), .. Washington DC
D.C.,
Full stop Period.

c. ( ),
(apostrophe), :

,
(http://brixfax.co/ma/grammar/nouns/possessive_noun/)
, ..: arent, dont, didnt, doesnt, cant, isnt.

d. quotation
marks ( ) ( )
. ,

, ..: ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your
country, JFK.
e. To , semicolon ( ; )
.
.
.
: , , .
.
(,
). (. )
.

 Pronunciation
,
:
, :
. shave (, ).
(save = , , ),
. (.. change, chapter, George),
. : h, r,
.
.
,
.
, ,
.
( ),
.
,
. u : culprit ()
cure (, ) a o.
( , .. , ) ()
.
, ().
/
/ . object, subject, suspect.
.
advocate.
.
separate. wind.
) (
) ) .
, .
g : guest, gesture, draught,
drought.
.

.
:

-tion, -ssion. :
pronunciation, incarnation, constellation, nation, revelation, objection,
commission, passion, permission, mission, relation, organization,

: oi, ai, ei, aw

/ .

s/sh i/ea/ee
E
.
4
s/sh, . ,
i/ea/ee . .

:
1. Please take a seat ( /)
This seat is still available

2. A thin sheet of metal covered the

He must have been a simple man. He wrote the story of his life on a single sheet of
paper .

3. Sit down and relax ()

Dont sit under the apple tree with anyone else but me

! shit slang vulgar
4. I need to take a shit right now
He scared the shit out of me ( ).
, ee/ea (feel, easy, feet, need, peel, appeal,
reveal, please, repeal) i ( )
(sit, fit, give, thin, thick, kick, spit).
( )
.
.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySfVFWruWxw

Idioms
(informal),
, .
.
(to) add insult to injury: .
: .
a no-brainer:
a run for your money: ,
back-seat driver:
,
(to) be in somebody elses shoes: ( )
(to) be the fifth wheel: () , .

(to) be filthy rich:
(to) be fresh out of (e.g. new ideas): (.. )
(to) go by the book:
(to) be grounded:
(to) bend over backwards: ..

(to) be up to something: ( )
(to) be well off:
(to) call it a day: ,
(to) call the shots: //
catch you later:
did you catch my drift? , /?
excuse my french: (
)
(to) get cold feet about something:

(to) get the short end of the stick /

(to) get pissed : ,
(to) have a sweet tooth:
heres to : //
how come ? , , ?
I am game: ,
in the nick of time:
it is so groovy: , , , cool
(its time to) hit the sack:
(to) keep your fingers crossed: (.. )
(to) know something like the back of my hand: ,
,
(to) live on a shoestring: ,
(a) long shot:
(to) lose face:
neck and neck: ( ), neck to neck
not my cup of tea:
once in a blue moon:
out of the blue: , ,
outside the box: , , /
a piece of cake: ( )
(to) pull my leg: ,
(to) put myself in somebody elses shoes:

(to) rain cats and dogs: ,

red handed:

(to) rub salt into the wound: .

: .
(to) show the ropes: ( ) , ,
sort of:
(to) take a shot: , ()
/
(to) talk me into something:
(to) take (someone) for a ride: , ,
(). ( /).
(to) throw a party: ,
(to) turn a blind eye:
(to) wag the dog: . the dog wags its
tail
(to) wake up on the wrong side of the bed: (
)
whats the scoop? , ,
whats up? , ?

Sayings and Proverbs

a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush:

a friend in need is a friend indeed:

a gentleman should always mean what he says and say what he means (
)
a good example has twice the value of good advice:
.
a hen tomorrow is better than an egg today:
, .
a penny saved is a penny earned:
(penny = 1 cent)
a pen is mightier than a sword: .

a small leak can sink a big boat:

a stitch in time saves nine: (

) ,

beauty is in the eye of the beholder:

beggars cant be choosers: (.

)
better safe than sorry:
, : .
beware of Greek gifts: , .
(.
), .
curiosity killed the cat:
do as I say, not as I do:
dont bring a knife to a gunfight:
dont put off for tomorrow what you can do today:
.

dont put the carriage before the horse:

if you are a hammer, everything looks like a nail to you:

it cost me an arm and a leg:
no pain, no gain: , .

one good turn (deed) deserves another:
:
.
putting all your eggs in one basket:

put your money where your mouth is:

talk is cheap:
talk softly but carry a big stick:
.
this is all Greek to me: ,
.
the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence:

there are too many chiefs but not enough Indians:

the road to hell is paved with good intentions:

there is no such thing as a free lunch: ,

the squeaking wheel gets the oil:

using a sledgehammer to crack a nut:
, , .

what doesnt kill you makes you stronger:
.

what goes aroung comes around:

when the going gets tough the tough get going:

where there is a will there is a way:
you cant have an omelet without breaking some eggs:

Phrasal Verbs
to ( to be) phrasal
verb.
, phrasal verbs ( )
. Dictionary.
be up to (something): ,
carry on
count on (somebody or something):
fix up (somebody with somebody else):
fix up (something): ,
get along (with somebody): , ,
get by ()
go on
hang around: , , ,
hang on
live off (somebody else): ( )

look after somebody: ,
look for
look out
look up to somebody ,
kick off ,
put off
rip-off ,
turn down (somebody or something, e.g. a proposal, a solution):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmoBpX0m2LM

Quotes
.
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
Americans always try to do the right thing, after theyve tried everything else
(Winston Churchill).
An eye for an eye will only end up making all people blind (M. Gandhi).
Fool me once, shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me.
From now on we will not say that the Greeks fight like heroes, but heroes
fight like the Greeks (Winston Churchill).
Girls are made of sugar and spice and all things nice.
He who talks by the yard and acts by the inch deserves to be kicked by the
foot.
Humanity must put an end to war or war will put an end to humanity (JFK).
If at first you dont succeed, try and try again.
I hope we never forget one thing: it all started by a mouse (Walt Disney).
Murderers are punished, except when they kill in large numbers under the
sound of trumpets (Voltaire).
Speak softly but carry a big stick (Theodore Roosvelt).
Stupidity is not a handicap in politics (Napoleon).
Success is 90% perspiration and 10% inspiration (Thomas Edison).
The way to make money is to buy when blood is running in the streets (J. D.
Rockefeller).
Watch your enemies close but your friends closer.
Youll never get a second chance to make a first impression (David Swanson).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3eNerq-hPFA


( )
. 100
.

( - - ).
(
) ,

1866.
, ,

. :
!
-- :
. , (
), gallon: 4
,
. mile: 1,5 .

. 55 (
) . 100 ./,
. (, ,
, , ) , 100
Fahrenheit. ,
: 2
30 Fahrenheit.

i. 32 F ( . ),
ii. 20 68 F,
iii. 100 212 F.
:

inch 2,5 , 12 ,
. .
,
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pound ( lbs)
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SMS, e-mail
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. :
Dont 4get 2 turn off the lights b4 u go

Dont forget to turn off the lights before you go.
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