T E N Y E A R S O F H Y G IE N E AN D E T H N O G R A P H Y IN

P R IM IT IV E B O R N E O (1891-1901).
BY

D r. A . W . N IE U W E N H U IS
P rofessor of ethnography a t L eyden.

To o b ta in a good idea of w h a t can be done fo.r th e benefit of an

Indonesian p o p u latio n , w hen intercourse w ith it is sup p o rted by a
th o ro u g h in sig h t in to its p e rso n a lity a n d circum stances, th e still
p rim itiv e p a rts of th e A rchipelago p rovide us w ith th e b est d a ta .
W here th e changing influence of th e E u ro p ean s and th e ir a d m i
n istra tio n has m ade itse lf felt for m an y y e a rs , th e specific conditions
of prim iv e life can no longer be a scertain ed w ith any degree of
correctness. F o r th is reason th e w rite r is th a n k fu l to his p ro p itio u s
s ta r for h a v in g led h i m , a t th e end of la s t c e n tu r y , am ong th e
unspoiled M alays and D ayaks, w ho lived in th e basins of th e rivers
K apoew as and S am bas in th e W estern p a rt of Borneo and of th e
riv e rs M ahakam and K ay an in th e E a ste rn p a rt.
My s ta y in th e garrison a t Sam bas as m ilita ry su rg e o n , from
1892 1894, pro v id ed m e w ith an ex cellent o p p o rtu n ity of stu d y in g
th e M alay p o p u latio n of th e low lying regions, since m y duties
included th e supervision of th e v a c cin a tio n of th e subjects of th e
S u lta n of S am bas, as carried o u t for m an y years b y a n a tiv e doctor.
The scientific expeditions in th e K a p o e w a s, M ahakam and K ayan
d istric ts w h ich follow ed in 1894, 1896-1897 and 1898-1901, could
only be b ro u g h t to a successful end b y ren d erin g m edical assistance
on a large scale to th e D a y a k tr i b e s . In th is w a y it w as found possible
to w in th e ir co n fidence, even w hen th e y h a d never been v isite d by
E uropeans b e fo re , and to o b tain th e ir h elp w hich w as so necessary in
connection w ith th e scientific in v estig atio n s and th e arrangem ent of
extensive collections of specim ens. A n intercourse of th is n a tu re
d uring m y five years sta y w ith th e p rim iv e D ayaks w as m ore th a n
sufficient to o b tain a thorough in sig h t in to th e ir w hole existence.

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The living conditions of th e trib e s of Borneo can pro b ab ly best

bn r e v i e w e d by a glance a t th e p o p u latio n d en sity w hich th e y have
a t t a i n e d du ring th e several th o u san d years t h a t th e y h av e been

th ere . The d e n sity of th e p o p u latio n for th e w hole of D utch

Murneo am ounts to 3 .5 p er square k ilo m etre and varies s lig h tly in
t h e different p a r t s ; it is a t its low est in th e above m en tioned c en tral
regions.
I t is th u s v ery sparsely p o p u la te d , especially if com
p a red w ith J a v a w h ich has a d e n sity of 276 people per square
k i l o m e t r e . W h atev er th e reasons for th is m ay b e , it appears t h a t th e
existence of these trib e s is governed b y ex trem ely u nfavourable
circum stances. T his is a ll th e m ore in te restin g because a ll p o p u latio n s
of a low degree of c iv iliz a tio n of a co n tin en t or of large islands are
sim ilarly v ery sparse. T his is also closely connected w ith th e low
state. of developm ent. As long as no correct info rm atio n regarding
the in h ab ita n ts of th e in te rio r of Borneo w as a v a ila b le , it w as
generally th o u g h t t h a t th e s itu a tio n w as of th e ir own m ak in g , th e ir
custom s, blo o d th irstin ess a n d b rav e ry c u lm in a tin g in m assacres and
their sexual debaucheries h a v in g led th em to ru in .

settled

M a la ria .
As I sh all e x p la in , n e ith e r of these tw o factors play ed a p ro m i
nent p a rt in a b o rig in al C entral Borneo w hich I w as able to
investigate. In th e low ly in g regions these tw o factors sin k to insign ificance com pared w ith th e serious conditions for th e p o p u latio n
arising from endem ic diseases, especially m a la ria , and e p id e m ic s.
An extensive in v e stig a tio n , w hich I carried o u t in 1892 and 1893
in the S u lta n a te of Sam bas in th e W estern p a r t, throw s a lig h t on
the then ex istin g co n d itio n s. As e sta te d o ctor, I no ticed t h a t several
hundred Jav an ese and Chinese coolies w ho w ere clearing th e jungle
of the m arsh y p la in s , w ere free f r o m m a la ria , w h ile close b y in a
settlem ent of M alays 400 stro n g , 42 died of acute m a la ria in tw o
m onths tim e . I therefore took a d v an tag e of m y v a c cin a tio n
inspection trip s to in v estig a te th e spread of th is disease am ong th e
population of Sam bas x). T his w as done by estab lish in g p erceptible
swellings of th e spleen in children up to te n years of a g e , w ho w ere
collected before th e in spection in th e v illages v is ite d . I t W as also
noticeable th a t th e a d u lt M alays and D ayaks of th e h ig h er
regions of Sam bas w ere suffering from enlargem ent of th e
') A . W . N ieu w en h u is, L Im paludism e h B orneo, in: J a n u s, A rchives
internationales pour l H istoire de la M dicine et la Gographie m d icale.
1898.

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spleen a n d liv e r, w hich under q u in in e tre a tm e n t m ore or less

a b a te d , b u t I w as n o t able to exam ine these people so carefully as
th e collections of c h ild re n . T he la tte r alw ays appeared w ith th e upper
p a rt of th e body bare and th e ex a m in atio n of th e spleen soon becam e
p a rt of th e v a ccin atio n in sp ectio n . In th is connection th e follow ing
m ay be m e n tio n e d :
T he b asin of th e riv e r Sam bas w hich w as in v e s tig a te d , consists
of m o u n tain o u s and h illy ground w ith m arsh y p la in s , covered w ith
ju n g le , except for th e spots w hich h a d been cleared by th e sparse
p o p u la tio n for a g ric u ltu ra l purposes. T h e s u lta n a te of Sam bas extends
from 1 to 15' n o rth la titu d e . F o r our purposes it can be divided into
th e low m arsh y p lain s of th e lower riv e r, a s trip along th e coast and
th e h ig h er gro u n d . T he soil of th e p lain s is com posed of a k in d of h u
m us and th e roots of th e trees and in th e ra in y season it is changed into
a sea of m u d , often flooded b y th e riv e r a n d offering little supjaort to
th e fo o t. N ear th e h ills th e n a tu re of th e soil changes and sand and
stone form ations are e n c o u n te re d , w h ile in th e h igher reg io n s, even
in th e E a s t and S o u th , th e soil consists of v ery old rock form ations
a n d th e p ro d u cts of th e ir d is in te g ra tio n . In th e E a s t these are fu rth er
covered b y volcanic s tr a ta . T he gold ore veins in th e S outh a ttra c te d
Chinese ad v en tu rers to these p a rts m an y centures ago and th e ir
descendants are s till th ere engaged in th e a g ric u ltu ra l in d u stry .
T he p la in s of Sam bas are in h a b ite d by th e M uham m edan M alays,
th e h ig h er d istric ts m a in ly b y h eath en D ay ak s, w ho also belong to
th e M alay race.
As th e m orals of th is d is tr ic t, from a p u b lic h e a lth p o in t of v ie w ,
do n o t m a te ria lly differ from those in o th er p a rts of B o rn e o , it
provides a ty p ic a l exam ple of th e co n ditions of th e is la n d . As regards
th e m a la ria in v e stig a tio n , i t is of im p o rtan ce to m en tio n t h a t it
covered only th e less in te n siv e ly c u ltiv a te d d istric ts of th e M alays
and D ay ak s. W here th e ground w as dug deeper b y th e Chinese for
th e ir crops in w e t fields or for th e ir gold diggings, th is m ala ria
in v e stig a tio n w as n o t carried o u t. T he re s u lt w as t h a t I w as able to
exam ine 2919 children for enlarged spleens as sym ptom s of m ala ria
in fe c tio n . Of these 2385 lived on th e p la in s and 534 in th e higher
regions. A m ong th e form er 78 h ad a p e rc e p tib le spleen, b u t am ong
th e others th is w as n o t p a lp a b le .
A m ong th e y o u th fu l in h a b ita n ts of th e h ill and m o u n ta in d is
tric ts th ere w ere only 93 w ho h a d no p e rc e p tib le spleen, w h ile th e
o th er 441 showed considerable enlargem ent of th is organ. F o r th e
ch ild ren of th e m o u n ta in p o p u latio n th e disease ra tio w as therefore
825 per 1000, for those of th e p la in s 3 2 .7 per 1000. These rough

figu r es do not how ever p rovide a tru e rep resen tatio n of th e a c tu a l

state of l'h(' m ala ria infectio n .

T h e r e w ere some v illages on th e p lain s s itu a te d in close p ro x im ii \ !> I.Ik1 h ills , w here th e soil showed m ore resem blance to t h a t of
the h ills; iicio 282 ch ild ren w ere exam ined and 72 w ere found to be
suffering from an enlarged spleen. T hus of th e 2003 ch ild ren below
the age of 10 years on th e p lain s p ro p er, only 6 w ere found to have
an enlarged spleen, or 2 .8 . per 1000.
In the higher d istric ts th ere w as also a n um ber of villag es w here
the cim im sl ances w ere p e c u lia r. One w as situ a te d on a ridge 240
m etres high and in an o th e r an E u ro p ean pepper p la n te r h ad for
years d istrib u ted q u in in e am ong th e p o p u la tio n . If th e children from
tlu-se villau'cn are n o t ta k e n in to a cco u n t, th ere w ere 420 children
from l.he hill." of w hich 403 w ere suffering from an enlarged spleen,
or V)0'.). per 1000. T he difference in th e figures in d ic a tin g chronic
m alaria infection am ongst th e ch ild ren i.e . 2 .8 on th e p lain s
and 'Jij').:, in th e h ills , is therefore v ery strik in g . T his ju stifies th e
op in io n , w hie.h w as la te r on confirm ed in C entral B orneo, t h a t there
is prarl.ieiilK no m a la ria in th e m arsh y coast p lain s and t h a t in th e
hill d islrirU the w hole p o p u la tio n is infected w ith it.
As a m utter of fact i t h a d alread y been know n for some tim e
that, large I owns s itu a te d in th e m arshes like P o n tia n a k and
B andjerm usin in Borneo and P alem b an g in S u m atra w ere free from
m alaria, n o lw ith stan d in g th e fact t h a t these places w ere infested
w ith m osquiloes. T his is also th e case in other p a rts of th e w o rld such
as Soul.h \m e ric a ; th e p lain s of th e P a ra n a and th e A m azon are free
l'rom m ah iri:i.
II.
is i.iily n a tu ra l t h a t th e h e a lth conditions of these tw o b r a n
ches of I he pop u latio n of S am b as, are also reflected in th e ir outw ard
appearance. Of tw o M alay v illag e s, L oeboek-L aga and S o ra t, less
than an hour d is ta n t from each o th e r, b u t one on th e m arshes and
the ol.lwr in th e h ills , th e people of Loeboek Laga w ere h e a lth y
looking men a n d w o m e n ,w h ils tth o s e o fS o ra tw e re anaem ic a n d w e a k .
Once on ;i \ ,-iccination inspection in th e v illag e of Sanggau in th e
volcanic d N lric t, I found m yself am ong a b o u t 100 p eople, none of
whom wen- older th a n th ir ty years and th ere w as no reason w h y th e
older people should rem a in in h id in g .
A ccordingly I w as able to ascertain from th e ta x registers of the
SoIIan of S am bas, t h a t u n d er o rd in ary circum stances (w ith o u t
cholera or sm all pox epidem ics) th e a n n u al d eath ra te am ongst th e
iMalnys w as 28 per 1000 and am ongst th e D ayaks 37 per 1000; in
lim es of epidem ics these figures w ere n a tu ra lly m uch h ig h er. As m an y

14 -

of th e M alays lived in th e m ala ria -in fe c te d higher regions. Those w ho

lived on th e p lain s h a d a lower d e a th r a t e . I w as un ab le to o b tain any
correct figures on th e b irth r a te . Soon a fte r th e in au g u ra tio n of m e d i
cal tre a tm e n t of th e B ah au D ayaks of C entral Borneo it w as n o tic e
able t h a t th e m a la ria p a tie n ts g re a tly o utnum bered a ll others. These
trib e s live a t an a ltitu d e of ab o u t 250 m etres above sea level and
ow ing to th e lack of m edicine th e w hole of th e p o p u latio n rem ained
ch ro n ically infected . I t w as noticeab le t h a t m a la ria n e a rly alw ays
follow ed a fte r o ther factors w hich h a d w eakened th e c o n stitu tio n ,
such as fa tig u e , b a th in g in cold w a te r a fte r a h eav y m arc h , in d i
g estio n , colds an d coughs, an d w ounds an d also a fter infections
such as in flu e n z a , a n th ra x e tc . P roof of th is w as found in th e fact
t h a t th e fever q u ick ly subsided w hen tre a te d w ith q u in in e , b u t th e
p rim a ry causes rem ain ed and to o k th e ir u su al course.
In m o u n tain o u s re g io n s, s itu a te d a t a ltitu d e s of 600 m etres and
h ig h e r, such as th e te rrito ry of th e K enya D ayaks in th e source of th e
K a y a n R iv e r, m a la ria is encountered to a m uch lesser degree. H av in g
becom e accustom ed d u ring m y years of p rac tic e to h a v in g m an y m ore
m a la ria p a tie n ts th a n an y o th ers, I w as surprised on m y a rriv a l th ere
in 1900 to fin d t h a t conditions w ere to ta lly d ifferen t. A large
n u m b er of d ropsical old people req u ested m y h e lp , w hich I
never experienced in th e p la in s , b u t th ere w ere very few cases of
m a la ria a n d those th ere w ere confined to acu te cases. The severe
m o u n ta in c lim a te caused considerable b ro n ch itis w hich ev en tu ally
led to p u lm o n a ry disease a n d h e a rt tro u b le . T he K enya D ayaks
fu rth e r s ta r t sm oking b a d ly p rep ared tobacco in th e ir extrem e y o u th
w hich w as regarded as a cure for coughs.
H a rd ly a n y of th e children of these m o u n ta in trib e s showed any
sym ptom s of enlargem en t of th e sp leen . Since b ro n ch itis and its
a fte r effects w eaken th e c o n stitu tio n only in la te r y e a rs , th e K enyas
w ere s p irita lly and b o d ily m uch m ore h e a lth y th a n th e trib es on th e
M a h a k a m ; th e ir v illages h ad from 1500 to 2500 in h a b ita n ts instead
of from 150 to 600 in th e case of those on th e la tte r riv e r.
M alaria alw ays exists in C entral Borneo in a su b -acu te or chronic
form . I h av e never experienced a case of sudden d e a th from m ala ria
am ong th e th o u san d s of D ayak an d M alay p a tie n ts I h av e tre a te d nor
have I seen pernicious cases w ith c o m a , severe ic te ru s , nervous sy m p
tom s e tc . T h is, and th e ir quick rea c tio n to sm all doses of q u in in e ,
p o in t to a p a rtia l im m u n ity , w h ich these D ayaks acquire by enduring
th e in fection in th e ir early y o u th , w ith o u t m ed icin e. E ven in th e
m ost serious cases I have seldom found it necessary to ad m in iste r m ore
th a n 1 gram m e of m u rias qu in in e per d ay an d th is w as sufficient to

effect- recovery in i.lie m ost chronic cases. To o b ta in th e sam e

results w illi Eun>|ic:uis 3 gram m es per day w ere som etim es in su ffi
cient in ('.enI nil IJorneo a n d d u ring th e cam paign in Lom bok
(1894).

| I,,. oxLcnsi\'i'nirt3 of th e m a la ria tre a tm e n t carried out b y me

during my joiirn<'\s Through C entral B orneo, appears from th e q u a n
tity of imirias ami sulfas qu in in e w hich I used, alw ays v ery econo
m ically , i .e . % kiloirram m es.
On (.lie plains w hich are s itu a te d s lig h tly above sea level,
Lhe Malay populalinii suffers chiefly from diseases of th e digestive
organs as a resu lt of th e lack of good d rin k in g w a te r. A t high tid e
and in l.imes of d rought th e w a te r of th e Sam bas is b rack ish for some
considerable distance in la n d and therefore th e n a tiv e s have adopted
Lhe custom of sin k in g w ells in th e m arsh y ground of th e ir com pounds ;
the water o b tain ed from these w e lls, alth o u g h brow nish in colour,
docs not seem to be in ju rio u s, b u t, as is alw ays th e case in th is p a r t of
Lhe w orld, th e w ell w a te r is n o t only used for d rin k in g , b u t also for
w:i'ii in g a n d b a th in g p u rp o se s, w h ile fu rth e r th e w ells are n o t p ro te c t
ed against p o llu tio n b y surface w a te r. The in h a b ita n ts of th e riv e r
basins are exposed to infectious diseases w hich are in tro d u ced along
the river, such as ch o lera, d y se n try and sm all p o x . As has alread y
been m entioned p rev e n tiv e m easures in th e form of v a c cin a tio n have
been taken in respect of th e la tte r sickness since th e m id d le of last
ccnLury.

Venereal Diseases.
N ext to m a la ria , sy p h ilis an d gonorrhoea are th e tw o w o rst
diseases w hich exercise th e ir d estru ctiv e influence on th e h e a lth of
Lhe M alays and D ayaks in C entral B orneo. P a tie n ts w ith lu etical
afflictions came d a ily for tre a tm e n t of alm ost exclusively te rtia ry
forms o l skin and bone lu e s .A lth o u g h m y p a tie n ts w ere alm o st n a k e d ,
1 have never n o ticed a p rim a ry affect nor exclusively secondary s y m p
toms. F u rth e r, secondary exanthem such as roxola and papulous
eruptions, in fla m m atio n of th e th ro a t and alopecia s y p h ilitic a w ere
not present e ith e r. C ondylom a on m o u th and anus w ere n o t often m et
w ith am ongst th e a d u lts , b u t w ere v ery freq u en t am ongst th e little
children. Cases of d efin ite v isceral lues did n o t come to m y notice
ior tre a tm e n t except those of th e liv er. T his form of lues am ong th e

in h ah ila n ts of C entral Borneo can be com pared to th e endem ic

sy ph ili.-, w hich form erly w as encountered in several p a rts of E u ro p e .
lh e O eloe-A yar D ayaks to th e S outh of th e K apoew as and th e K ayans lo th e N o rth w ere e q u a lly affected. A m ongst th e K a y a n s on th e

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U pper M ahakam every fam ily w as affected. These are re a d ily

ex p la in e d , if we assum e th e ir sy p h ilis is h e re d ita ry . As regards
th e neig h b o u rin g trib e s on th e M ahakam , th e cases of lues I found
appeared to be less n u m e ro u s, b u t m y s ta y am ong th em w as m uch
s h o rte r .
M any ch ild ren of lu etic a l m o th ers w ere affected w ith condylom a
on m o u th and anus a n d w ith nose a n d ear tro u b le and skin disease
only a few w eeks a fte r b irth ; it w as therefore obvious t h a t th e y w ere
a lre ad y infected a t b irth .
On th e o th er h a n d th ere w ere people of from 20 to 30 years of
age w ho s ta te d t h a t a t th is age th e y h a d experienced for th e first tim e
serious te r tia ry lu etic a l afflictio n of skin an d b o n e s. These w ere often
proceeded b y p ain s in th e arm s an d legs w hich can ex ist or rem ain
in d ep e n d e n tly for y e a rs , a fter th e sw e llin g , for in stan ce of th e knees
has given w a y to tre a tm e n t. R a d ic a l changes w ith sub lu x atio n s m ay
ap p ear in th e jo in ts . G enerally speaking th e cachectical condition
as a re su lt of th e suffering, w as n o t v e ry pronounced and m o stly
ow ing to th e n ig h tly p a in s , lack of sleep and loss of a p p e tite .
G um m ata of th e osseous system w ere often encountered a n d , as
a re s u lt of th e so ften in g , caused m an y cases of cold abscesses, for
in stan ce of th e r i b s . A t th e e x tre m itie s th e y caused ty p ic a l fusiform
sw e llin g s, especially of th e t ib i a e . In th e course of years th e m uscles
w ere also affected w hich could lead to severe contractures under
m y tre a tm e n t. N ervousness caused by lues w as n o t encountered
no r tab e s e ith e r. Cases of te r tia ry lu etic a l skin desease w ere only
n o ticed in a few fo rm s. A case of R u p ia S y p h ilitic a w hich did n o t
re a c t to io d u re t of po tassiu m w as afterw ard s cured by in te rn a l
a p p lic atio n of m ercu rial p re p a ra tio n s .
In tre a tin g these p a tie n ts I m ade lib e ral use of io d u re t of p o ta s
siu m , w h ich soon bro u g h t an im p ro v em en t in th e condition of th e
p a tie n ts (who h ad no m edicines of th e ir own for th e ir lues) and
fin a lly cured th em a lto g h e th e r. O nly in cases w here th is tre a tm e n t
proved ineffectual did I reso rt to th e in te rn a l a d m in istra tio n of
m ercu rial p re p a ra tio n s . T here w a s , h o w e v e r, a d ifficu lty I did n o t
dare to place th is m edicine in th e ir h a n d s .
T re a tm e n t w ith a n tis y p h ilitic a often gave s trik in g re su lts,
p ain s w h ich h ad been fe lt for years being relieved and fin a lly cured.
T his u n d o u b ted ly co n trib u te d in ju s t as g rea t a degree as th e
d is trib u tio n of q u in in e , tow ard s w in n in g th e confidence of th e D ayak
trib e s of C entral Borneo in th e E u ro p e an s, and tow ard s m ak in g m y
scientific trip s a success. In th is connection it m u st be rem em bered
th a t th e serious illness of a n y len g th y period of one of th e occupants

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o f a h o u s e const , it.ul.cd a c u r s e for th e a b o rig in al M alay fam ilies. The
m e m b e r - "I 1' f a m i l y are so filled w ith sy m p ath y t h a t th e y neglect
t h e i r finlils in o rd er l.o sta y w ith th e p a tie n t. F u rth e r, th e y buy
m e d i c i n e s f r o m l.licir own countrym en and from Chinese, w hich
h o w e v e r arc o f no >iS1' an(i are often m ore dangerous th a n th e disease
itself
F i n a n c i a l l y , I lie fam ily often m akes such sacrifices for th e
b e n c f i l o f Ihe pal.i<iil. th a t th e y b rin g ru in upon them selv es. The
s t r i k i n g m a n n e r in u Inch confidence in th e E uropeans w as gained and

iii;i i n i :i i i w s , is e v i d e n c e d by th e fact t h a t th e leaders of th e m ilita ry

a n d s c i e n t i f i c expeditions w h o , since 1900, v isite d D utch New
G u i n e a f rom Hie S ou l Ix a n d N o rth C oast, a v ailed them selves of th e
i n d i s p e n s a b l e ansi-Uance of th e D ayaks of B orneo. A fter being used to
a c c o m p a n y i n g m e on m y journeys from one p a rt to a n o th e r , th ey
a c c o m p a n i e d I lie ol.lier leaders, fu ll of confidence, to th e fa r, foreign
: Wn I l i i m e a , I lie e.\il once of w hich w as u n til th e n unknow n to th e m .
Since the district, of U pper and Mid M ahakam s u b m itte d to D utch
r u l e as a result, of our v is it, n o t a sh o t has been fire d , even in late r
years when Hie a d jo in in g d is tric t of U pper B arito w as conquered by
ini11f i y action .
Internal Diseases.
Diseases of I he d igestive organs are encountered only on a sm all
scalc and l.lien iiMiall\ only in tim es of food scarcity w hen u n u su al
kinds of food arc collected from th e forests or, for ex am p le, w hen
dam p m ountain sajio w hich qu ick ly d e te rio ra te s, is e a te n . M alaria
often forms a co m plication in these cases in th e sam e w a y as it is
brought about, b\ bad w eath er. The D ayaks, in th e ir rugged m o u n tain
climal.e, arc p a rtic u la rly susceptible to cold w in d s and ra in ag ain st
which I,heir clothing an d houses offer b u t little p ro te c tio n . Colds
and rhcm nal ic pains are often caused by these c lim a tic in flu e n
ces. Among l.tic o ther in te rn a l diseases th e frequency of g oitre is
p articu larly noliccab le. A h y p e rtro p h y of th e th y ro id gland
was fairly
am ong th e w om en. Severe bronchoceles
were not so in-queul.. T he a d m in istra tio n of io d u ret of potassium
usually exerted a lav o a rab le influence on th is g o itr e . A d u lt fem ales
were given one gram m e of io d u re t of potassium per day and
m any of I.hem saw u ith sa tisfa c tio n th e slender lines of th e ir necks
returning.
1 have never seen a single case of tuberculosis of th e lu n g s , bones
or skin a m o n g | he D ayaks of B o rn e o . I can also alm ost c e rta in ly s ta te ,
that, rhachiti* i* nol found as a n y rh a c h itic m alfo rm atio n could n o t
have escaped m \ a tte n tio n am ongst these alm o st naked tr i b e s . I a m
T h e effect of W este rn Influence.

also convinced of th e absence or alm o st to ta l absence of m alig n a n t

tu m o u rs, such as sarcom a and c a rc in o m a , of w hich I never en co u n ter
ed a single c a se . On th e o th er h a n d I n o ticed fibrom a of th e skin and
in tw o cases, to judge b y th e sym ptom s and objective e x a m in atio n ,
of th e u te ru s . B eri B eri p rev a ils am ong th e M alay and D ayak
collectors of forest p ro d u c e ,o n a fa irly large scale, b u t n o ta m o n g th e
se d en ta ry D a y a k s. Infectious diseases like cholera and s m a llp o x
were n o t encountered d u ring m y s ta y in C entral B orneo. T hey are
m uch less p re v a le n t in these p a rts , w hich are s itu a te d far from
th e coast a n d d iffic u lt to ap p ro a c h , th a n on th e coast w here th e y are
introduced in th e h a rb o u r to w n s . F ro m previous ep id e m ic s, also from
S e ra w a k , it appears t h a t once cholera or sm all pox is introduced into
a D ayak v illa g e , one th ir d or one h alf of th e in h a b ita n ts are w iped
o u t. T he re st know of no b e tte r counter-m easure th a n to flee to th e
forests. T he neighbouring se ttle m en ts endeavour, by m eans of a
p a n ta n g d e c la ra tio n , to b reak a ll rela tio n s w ith a v illag e v isite d in
th is w a y by evil s p ir its .
W e E uropeans and our B ahau guides w ere a tta c k e d b y influenza
on several occasions w hen w e journeyed from th e source of th e M ahakam to th e m id d le and lower riv e r d is tric ts . W hen th e B ahau h e a d
m a n , K w in g I r a n g , guided us in 1897 to th e lower M ahakam , b o th
E u ropeans and D ayaks w ere a tta c k e d b y in flu en za. Of ab o u t 100
people no one escaped th e in fectio n , and in th e case of th e D ayaks
m a la ria com plications set in . T hese, how ever, disappeared under
q u in in e tre a tm e n t. In 1899 on a rriv a l in th e Low er M ahakam , we
w ere n o t tro u b le d w ith sickness, b u t in 1900 w e h ad only reached
th e w a te rfa lls in th e riv e r w hen w e w ere infected w ith in flu e n z a . The
influenza w as th e n spread by th e re tu rn in g b o a t am ongst th e trib e s
liv in g above th e w a te rfa lls and m an y w ere in fe c te d ; how ever, only
in th e case of old people and w eaklings w ere th ere fa ta litie s . I t is
therefore n o t su p p risin g t h a t th e trib e s of th e in te rio r are convinced
of th e danger of th e a rriv a l of strangers from th e coast, know ing as
th ey do t h a t th e y often b rin g sickness w ith th em 1).
Parasite skin diseases.
T he s tu d y an d tre a tm e n t of p a ra s ite skin diseases am ong th e
D ayak trib e s of Borneo presents an extensive field fo r-a p p lica tio n
since these people are affected on a large scale. D e rm a titid e s, as a
re s u lt of p h y sical or chem ical lesions, w as n o t freq u en tly encounter 1)

A . W . N ieu w en h u is, Quer durch B orneo, V o l. 1, page 425 etc.

19

ed probably ow ing to th e fact t h a t th e ir skin is never covered by

clothing and is therefore capable of resistin g irrita tio n of th is k in d
from the ou tsid e. W hen tre a tin g th em for p a ra site skin diseases I
m a d e th e slarl.liug discovery t h a t th e in h a b ita n ts of C en tral Borneo
possessed v e r y o o i t o c I . opinions regarding these skin diseases and
also excellent mol hods of tre a tm e n t. T his is due to th e fact t h a t in
the ease of skin diseases th e a fflictio n is d ire c tly v isib le .
As th is provides an ex cellent exam ple of th e in te lle c tu a l develop[ii.Mil '! I-Ik'sc J5;iliau D ayaks, w ho are living under h eav y b u rd en s,
i t w ill be necessary for m e to give a m ore d e ta ile d account of th e ir
opinion oil this mal lor th an w as th e case w ith th e o ther diseases.
They distinguish lour different kin d s of skin disease, of w hich
three are d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y E u ro p ean doctors w h ile th e fo u rth is a
new form . In Ihe first place th e D ayaks call P ity ria s is versicolor
lila k and tin* .Malays p a n o e . On th e ir d ark skins it appears as
lighl spots, soniel iiucs as large as th e h u m an h a n d , ow ing to th e in fillr.il i-'ii of the upper layers.
'I inea c.ireijiiila is know n by th e B ahaus as ki o e rip and by
the Borneo M alays as k o e ra b . I t is localized especially on those
parts oi1th e skin w ith th in e p id e rm is . T inea im b ric a ta know n as ki
la a n by th e B ahaus and as loesoeng by th e M alays is encountered
as a typical skin disease th ro u g h o u t th e In d ia n A rchipelago, espe
cially am ong th e lower civilized races. I t o rig in a te s, by preference,
on the skin w ith th ic k epiderm is and can spread over th e w hole body
w ith the exception of th e arm p its and under hanging b r e a s ts . The
palm s of th e h ands an d th e soles of th e feet are also im m u n e.
Che skin diseases cited above can be cured b y m eans of a n tipara^il.ic m ed ia. T he skin of th e brow n races th e n shows a d ark
discoloration ow ing to h y p e rtro p h y of th e p ig m en t w hich does n o t
disappear and w hich im p a rts a sooty colour to th e sk in .
On m y re tu rn from th e first trip th ro u g h Borneo in 1897 I su c
ceeded in finding ag ain th e pathogenic m ould w hich M a n s o n h ad
discovered and in grow ing i t in th e lab o ra to ry of th e G overnm ent
B otanical G ardens a t B u iten zo rg . I also m ade successful in jections
wil.h it. *),
During th e tre a tm e n t of skin diseases in C entral Borneo I w as
very surprised to find t h a t th e D ajaks distin g u ish ed a fo u rth k in d
of skin disease in a d d itio n to th e th re e a lre ad y k n o w n , w hich is
known by B ahaus as k i o w . I t is an affection of th e palm s of th e
1) A rchiv fr D erm atologie und S y p h ilis 1898.
Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor N ederlandsch In d i 1898.

 20
h ands and th e soles of th e feet w hich p rev a ils ex ten siv ely am ong th e
n ativ es of th e In d ia n A rch ip elag o . I t gives rise to th e troublesom e
chops, im perfect callous form ations a n d d iscoloration of th e sk in ,
b u l w as n o t y e t recognised as an in d ep e n d e n t form of p a ra site
skin disease b y th e E u ro p ean doctors. I t appeared t h a t th is
n a tiv e view w as correct an d t h a t it w as a c tu a lly an ind ep en d en t
sy n d ro m e .
T he first stage is b est observable on th e s till soft skin of th e palm s
of th e h an d s and soles of th e feet of c h ild re n , w here it appears in th e
form of sm a ll, irr ita tin g b lis te rs , in w h ich u n d er th e epiderm is th ere
is a serous flu id . O nly th e palm s of th e h an d s and th e soles of th e feet
are affected ; it is n o t u n til a fter several years have elapsed th a t other
p a rts of th e su rro u n d in g skin becom e affected and a t a s till late r stage
it causes lo c a l, to ta l p ig m e n t-a tro p h y a n d th e creation of a w h ite
skin on h an d s and fee t, so w ell know n am ong n a tiv e s.
A fter several experim ents w ith v a rio u s m ed ia such as chrysarob in e , su b lim ate and iodine tin c tu re , I discovered t h a t th e last m en
tio n ed produced th e best and qu ick est re s u lts , p ro b ab ly ow ing to
its v o la tility w hereby it p e n e tra te d deeper into th e th ic k callons
form ations of th e n a tiv e s.
I gave th is skin d ise a se , according to its m ost noticeab le q u a lity ,
th e nam e of T inea a lb ig e n a , a fter h a v in g discovered th e pathogenic
m ould in B u iten z o rg , and since th e n it has been know n under th is
n am e in d erm atology *).
On m y re tu rn to E urope I w as able to m ake a fu rth e r stu d y of it
and succeeded in g ro w in g th e pa th o g en ic m ould T rich o p h y to n a lbiseicom . W ith th is cu ltu re I w as able to m ake a n u m b er of infection
ex perim ents w hich w ere successful a n d w hich proved its pathogenic
n a tu re 2) .
T he tw o effective m edicines of th e D ayaks for these four form s of
skin disease are firs tly th e leaves of th e Cassia a la ta w hich are also
used for th is purpose in o th er p a rts of th e A rchipelago and secondly
m in ja k p e la n d jau (M alay), a b la c k , o ily liq u id , sm elling like ta r ,
w hich flows o u t of th e b lac k h eart-w o o d (duram en) of th e tree of th e
sam e n a m e . If allow ed to s ta n d , a sem i-solid m ass segregates from
th e flu id , w hich is a p p lie d to th e skin in its orig in al u n a d u lte ra te d
form an d w hich exerts a strong corrosive a c tio n .
De D ayaks m ix th is stuff (ta n a h p e la n d jau ) w ith sugar cane
sap before using i t as a m edine for th e ir kis 3) .
')
2)
3)

G eneeskundig Tijdschrift voor N ed . In d i , V o l. X L IV , N o . 6, 1904.

A rchiv fr D erm atologie und S y p h ilis, V o l. L X X X I X H eft 1 .1908.
A . W . N ieu w en h u is, Quer durch B orneo, V ol I , p . 449.

 21

illu s tra tio n of th e diseases in h ere n t to th e D ayaks

<>f Borneo could s till be carried fu rth e r in to th e
r e a l m s o f o b sletry a n d gynecology, and to th e care of th e c h ild
r e n etc-, b u l . I do n o t w ish to conclude how ever, before m e n
t i o n i n g l.lit'ir ignorance of m ethods to stop b leeding. F o r th is reason
s m a l l w o u n d s affecting a rteries often prove fa ta l.
I once had
t h e o pp o rtin iily of saving th e life of a D ayak on th e K apoew as
who h a d b l e d for five days from an a rte ria tib ia lis p o stic a . T his
a p p e a r e d l.o have been h a lf severed b eh in d th e ankle w h ilst th e leg
h a d b e e n bound up above th e w ound in a v ery ineffective m an n e r.
Ori a n o t h e r occasion a m an w as b ro u g h t to m e on th e M id-M ahakam ,
w h o b a d severed an interassea betw een his th u m b and fore finger and
w h o s e r e l a l i v c n h a d n o t succeeded in sto pping th e hem orrhage.
I w a s I o l d on th is occasion of a m an w ho bled to d e a th a fter
h a v i n g c.ul h i s lo o t.
This

iinl

gloom y

!.1 lay^

M anners and M orals.

lack of care in hygienic m a tte rs provides us w ith
Ihe liv in g co n ditions am ong people of a low degree of
e i v i l i / . a l i m i I i \ ing in th e tro p ic s and also of th e m an n er in w hich
t h e y h a v e I conduct th e ir a g ric u ltu re , c a ttle b reed in g , household
i n d u s t r i e s , l i m i t i n g an d fis h in g . T he co n stru ctio n of th e ir houses and
b o a l s . I. hei r w eaving e tc . p ro v id e m ore th a n sufficient m a te ria l to
il l u s t r a I e I h e crudeness of ex ecu tio n . In view of th e conditions
m e n t i o n e d above, th e ir b o d ily stre n g th is co m p arativ ely low and is
f u r t h e r m o r e a p p lied under v ery unfavourable co n d itio n s. T he
a b s e n c e o f a n \ form of division of labour lessens th e useful effort
l.o n o s m a l l degree. I t w o u ld ta k e us too far to illu s tra te th is and
refereiiei- ma \ be m ade to m y w ork Quer durch B o rn e o in w hich
f u l l d e l ail* w ill be found of th e influence of th e ill effects of th e
h e a l h e n r e l i g i o n of these trib e s on th e ir existence.
<)\\ in;,' lo I.heir e te rn al strife and quarrels w ith th e surrounding
tribe-; I he\ an- e n tirely isolated from co n tact w ith th e la tte r , as
t h o u g h 11le \ were su rro u n d ed by a w a ll; th e ir rela tio n s w ith th e
eoaslal d is tr ic ts , w h ich w ill be d e a lt w ith la te r, p rev e n t th em from
obtaining easily p rim a ry necessities of life.
Tliih e x t r e m e

an exam ple of

Trade Relations.
H ow ever, i t is n o t only disease and causes of disease w hich p lay
such a g reat role in th e w elfare of th ese tr i b e s . F o r a ll th o se w ho live
farther from th e coast th e re is th e a d d itio n a l problem of p ro v id in g

22

for th e ir food in tim es of s c a r c ity . F o r e x a m p le , ta k e th e tw o sim plest

kin d s of food w hich are a b so lu te ly essential to every in h a b ita n t of
Borneo rice and s a lt. In th e coast d istric ts th e re are alw ays reg u
lar supplies a t th e disposal of th e in h a b ita n ts , be it a t slig h tly
h igher p ric e s; in th e in te rio r th is is d iffe re n t. In th e olden tim es,
before th e d o m in a tio n of th e E u ro p e an s, th e trib e s living hern
were' p ra c tic a lly isolated from th e coast ow ing to th e danger of the
m eans of com m unication and to th e a c tio n of th e coast M a la y s. They
c u ltiv a te d th e ir own rice in th e d ry field s, a te th is if th e crop w as a
success or w e n t h ungry if i t f a ile d .
T he M ahakam d istric t on th e E a s t Coast p rovided m e w ith a
good idea of th e s itu a tio n as i t m u st h av e been everyw here in th e old
d a y s. H ere also th e riv e rs are th e o nly tra d e ro u tes and th e M alay
p o p u la tio n of th e lower stream form s th e lin k for th e su p p ly of goods
to th e u p p e r re g io n s.
In th e sam e w ay as th e M alays th in k n o th in g of m ak in g a pro fit
from 30 % to 100 % on tra n sa c tio n s betw een th e m se lv e s, w ith o u t
a n y b o d y raisin g o b jectio n s, th e circum stances determ ine th e am o u n t
of p ro fit to be m ade from o th ers. W hen th e M alays tra d e w ith th e
D ayaks it is for these M uham m edans a g rea t satisfactio n and honour
to be a b le , by m eans of tric k s and d ecep tio n , to ta k e a d v an tag e of
th e h e a th e n .
W here th is leads to is b est illu s tra te d by th e m an n er in w hich
th e B ahau trib e s on th e U pper M ahakam h av e to provide th e ir s a lt.
T he geographical p o sitio n of th e ir co u n try an d th e riv e r M ahakam
in d ic a te t h a t th e logical w a y of o b ta in in g th e ir necessities w ould be
from th e lower riv e r, b u t n o tw ith sta n d in g th e accessibility of th is
p lac e , th e price of s a lt for th e D ayaks a t Oedjoe T epoe, th e term in u s
of th e ship p in g se rv ic e , w as so high t h a t th e y m ade a tr ip over th e
w a te rfa lls and m o u n ta in ra n g e s , occupying m o n th s , in order to o b tain
s a lt from S araw ak or U pper B a r ito ,w h ich w as under E uropean govern
m e n t, n o tw ith sta n d in g th e d iffic u lty of tra n sp o rtin g it over such
d iffic u lt c o u n try . A t th a t tim e th e s a lt w as sold by th e S u lta n of
K o e te i, w ho h a d th e m onopoly a t S am arin d a a t th e m o u th of th e
riv e r, a t f 9. per p icu l (61 K .G .) ; a t Oedjoe Tepoe th e price w as
a b o u t 12.50 h ig h e r, according to circu m stan ces; a t th e w aterfalls
of th e M ahakam th e price in 1897 w as from /2 5 . to 30. w h ilst
on th e U pper M ahakam I w as only able to buy s a lt from th e M alays
se ttle d th e re a t 2.50 per kilo or 150. per p ic u l. These w ere a ll
cash prices and since th e D ayaks h a d to exchange forest produce,
besoar stones, fabrics and b o ats for th e precious s a lt, th e y a c tu a lly
gave m uch h igher v alues for i t.

rice w hich cost from / 4.50 to 5 . per

il a t S a n i a r i n d a . <<>st m e in D ecem ber 1900, under o rd in ary
c i r c u m s t a n c e s j usl. b e l o w th e w a te rfa lls, 16. per p ic u l. A bove
t h e w a t e r fa hs t h e p r i c e w a s / 20. to 25 . Ja v an e se tobacco w hich
cost 1 3 .
a1, the nidiilh of th e R iv er M ahakam , w as sold a t th e
w aterfalls for / 3 5 . and 4 0 . In th e higher regions th e M alay
m erchants dem anded / C,0. and m ore.
Those e x o rb itan t prices also in d ic a te th e conditions under w hich
t r a d e was carried on lielw een th e coast and th e in te rio r on th e M ahakarn n \ 'T and inufal is m u ta n d is, in o ther p a rts of B orneo. On th e
c o a s t t h e prices were a lre ad y higher th a n J a v a ow ing to th e im p o rt
d u ty and then are furl her increased by tra n s p o rt d u ty for th e ir
shipm ent into Mu- in le rio r, levied by K oetei and d iffic u lt tra n s purl-'il imi owing I d Hie danger factor and th e inferior b o a ts . F u rth e r,
th e r e is the peeiili.-iril.y of th e tra d e t h a t p ra c tic a lly e v ery th in g
is bought on credil , I hii.s causing debts w h ich , alth o u g h th e y do n o t
b ear ini crest, are never q u ite p a id off as to th e p rin c ip a l.
Ordinary

im porled

ytiliirr nf the M a la y C o m m u n ity .

In order to oblain a good idea of th e liv in g conditions of th e
uhui iL'iiies of Romeo it is n o t sufficient to know these w ith in
the territo ries, occupied b y th e D ayak trib e s and w ith in th e M alay
kingdom s. The m u tu a l rela tio n s ex istin g betw een th e races are
also of great im p o rtan ce. W ith o u t E u ro p ean influence th e u n li
m ited scope of th e h u m an passions of a few of these in pow er
among the M alays d om inates th e s itu a tio n , w h ile s ta te in te rests are
placed very m uch in th e back g ro u n d . O nly th e fear of m u rd e r and
revolt prevent fu rth e r excesses.
The illu s tra tio n of th e conditions as I encountered th e m on th e
K upoevas and M ahakam should be preceeded by t h a t of th e n a tu re
of the M alays and th e D ay ak s, for th e reason t h a t m an y m is a p
prehensions exist on th is p o in t. W e find th e clearest illu s tra tio n in
the Malay kingdom s on th e W est and E a s t C o a sts. T hey are in h a b it
ed by people w ho live p referab ly by tra d e , fishing and (form erly)
piracy and who reso rt to ag ric u ltu re only o u t of necessity an d w ho
produce very little of an in d u stria l n a tu re . F o r centuries th e M alays
have been in c o n ta c t w ith people of a higher c u ltu re , b u t th e m asses
of m any of th e kingdom s are n o t be distin g u ish ed in developm ent and
m anner of living from th e degenerate D ayaks w ho are th e ir im m ed iate
neighbours. P o v e rty is even greater am ong th em th a n am ong th e
original D ayaks. O nly a few m erch an ts in th e p rin c ip le to w n s,

u su ally foreigners an d th e p ro m in e n t m em bers of th e ru lin g houses,

enjoy a g rea ter p ro sp e rity . The la tte r , h o w e v e r, is n o t founded on
possessions w h ich th e y have gained th em se lv e s, b u t on th e e x p lo ita
tion of th e D a y a k s . T he g rea test obstacles in th e w a y of th e dev elo p
m ent of th e M alays are th e ir aversion to reg u la r a n d continuous
w ork and th e ir passion for g am bling and c o c k -fig h tin g . If necessity
forces them th e y are able to w ork w ell for a tim e b u t as soon as th e
pressure is rem oved g am bling an d idleness form a do u b ly strong
te m p ta tio n .
On th e M a h ak a m , slav ery in its w o rst form i . e . slavery as a
re su lt of d e b ts , w as s till e n c o u n te re d . T he tra d itio n an d c o n tin u a tio n
of th is in s titu tio n exercised th e m o st e n e rv a tin g influence on
th e c o m m u n ity , founded as i t w as on th e m isfo rtu n es and
w eakness of c h a ra c te r of fellow -m en an d often of th e ir in n ocent
w om en an d c h ild ren . These u n fo rtu n a te s w are h e ld c a p tiv e in
th e ir te rrib le p lig h t b y m eans of tric k s an d d e c e it. T he p re p o n
derance of th e M alays over th e D ayaks w as due to th e ir g rea ter
s p irit of en terp rise and courage, assisted b y th e p o s s ib ility of co n
certed a c tio n re su ltin g from th e ir d e sp o tic ally organised kingdom s
w hich th e y h av e established a t stra te g ic p o in ts a:t m o u th s of th e
trib u ta rie s of th e riv e rs, th e gatew ays of co m m u n icatio n w ith th e
D ayak te r r it o r y . B y m eans of th e ir tra d e re la tio n s th e y p ro v id e th e m selves w ith b e tte r w eapons and o th er im p lem en ts w h ic h th e y p u r
chase from m ore c u ltu red jaeoples. The ru le of th e s u lta n s is a h eav y
burden on th e w hole of th e p o p u la tio n b u t especially on th e conquered
h e a th e n D ay ak s. Ow ing to th e polygam ic ten d en cies of th e ru le rs,
th e n u m b er of th e descendants of th e ru lin g h o u se, w ho believed
them selves to be w ith in th e ir rig h ts in liv in g a t th e expense of others
in ste a d of from th e ir own lab o u rs, h as g re a tly m u ltip lie d . T he
p o ssib ility of p a ra sitism on th e D ay ak s, a g a in st w h o m a ll form s of
e x to rtio n w ere allow ed, relieved th em of th e la st in ce n tiv e to w o rk .
N ature of the D a y a k C o m m u n ity .
T he b u rd en w h ich th e D ayak co m m u n ity h a s to bear is of a
d ifferent n a tu r e . As a lre ad y m en tio n e d , m isconceptions existed and
s till e x ist reg ard in g th e ir p e rso n a lity . To e x p la in th is i t is necessary
to m en tio n t h a t th e y w ere p rev io u sly based one ases of D ayaks
who h ad been subject to th e M alays for a long tim e and who
h a d , th erefo re, lost th e ir orig in al c h a ra c te ristic s, for exam ple th e
trib e s on th e B a rito and m an y on th e M id K ap o ew as. T he d ev elo p
m e n t of th e ir c h a ra c te r w as therefore m o st su rp risin g in th e

in terio r w here th e people w ere n o t affected b y outside

a n d could progress in th e ir own w a y . T he B ahaus of
the U p p e r Kiipoewas and of th e U pper and Mid M ahakam are
peaceful
farm ers an d form trib e s of from 600 to 1200 people
s pr e t . d o v e r a A ery large area w h ic h , as we h av e seen, is connected
w i t h i.Ii* hygienic and c u ltu ra l conditions ex istin g am ong th e m .
Slender, w ell-lm ilt peo p le, th e y are very tenacious in th e ir w ork and
very s k i l f u l in a p p ly in g th e ir s tre n g th . As a re s u lt of th e ir a c tiv itie s
they h a v e s u c c e e d e d in a tta in in g a c e rtain s ta n d a rd o f w e lfa re n o tw ith s t a n d i n g I.Im* heavy b u rd en th e y h av e to b e a r. Ow ing to th e dangerous
s l a t e o f t h e c o u n try , th e y b u ilt strong long houses like fo rts, in w hich
h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e are accom m odated. The arran g em en t of th e house
i n t e r i o r s , especially those of th e larger and b e tte r s itu a te d fam ilies,
i n d i c a t e s I lial I hey are th rifty and fond of personal com fort.
T heir crafl m anship has created in d u stries th e products of w hich
have won lame not only th ro u g h o u t Borneo b u t m uch fa rth e r a fie ld .
Those w hich th e M alays can use such as b o a ts , sw o rd s, sw ord h ilts
and scabbards and form erly linen also, are sold to th e M alay c o u rts.
Their a g ric u ltu ra l in d u stry , like t h a t of th e M alays, is conducted on
dry fields. The longer one lives w ith these tr i b e s , th e m ore one is
impressed by th e rem a rk a b le p erso n a lity of these p eople. A lthough
of a lively n a tu re a n d liv in g to g eth er by hu ndreds in one house, one
never hears th em q u a rre llin g or w ra n g lin g . T he B ahaus d rin k
alcohol beverages on only one occasion d u rin g th e y e a r w h ich is m ade
from rice w hich is allow ed to ferm ent for tw o d ay s. Ow ing to th e
freedom w hich th e y o u th enjoys p ro s titu tio n is unknow n .T h eir love of
gam bling is ra th e r ch ild ish and in places w here th e M alays h av e i n
troduced co ck -fighting, these events are held p rim a rily for sp o rt and
not [or g am bling. T he m ild form of sla v e ry , to w h ich th e prisoners of
w ar are reduced is also a re s u lt of such c h a ra c te ris tic s . O nly th e h e a d
men owned sla v e s, som etim es as m an y as a h u n d red or m ore, b u t one
had to live for years am ong th e D ayaks to be able to d istin g u ish th e
slaves from th e free m en , w ith o u t ask in g . T hey w ere a d o p ted as
servants of th e fa m ily , b u t if th ere w ere m an y of th e m , th e y lived
like the free B ahaus in sep arate room s. T hey w ere th e n req u ired to
work only a c e rtain n u m b er of days for th e h e a d m a n , w h ile th e m ost
in lellig en t and in d u strio u s could becom e p rie s ts , advisors of th e
headmen or leaders in b a ttle . In course of tim e m o st of th em m arried
and were th e n a d m itte d to th e trib e .
As real farm ers th e y are peaceful and in d u strio u s, b u t th e y are
not enterprising nor b rav e n o r do th e y realise th e v a lu e of jo in t actio n
de e p e s t ,

influences

as th e M alays d o . Ow ing to th e d iffic u lty w ith w hich th e y eke out

th e ir tr ib a l existence under th e influence of th e c lim a te , disease,
and th e ir low s ta te of c iv ilis a tio n , th e y h av e p ro b ab ly suffered m ore
psychologically th a n p h y sic a lly and h av e therefore becom e extrem ely
afraid of th e ir n a tu ra l s u rro u n d in g s, th e influences of w hich th e y see
d a ily in th e ir a g ric u ltu re . L ike m an y o th er trib e s th e y ascribe th is
to an arm y of sp irits w hich th e y im agine ex ist in a ll pro m in en t
p laces. M isfortunes, disease and a d v e rsity are regarded as p u n ish
m ents in flic ted b y these sp irits a t th e com m and of th e chief g o d , for
offences co m m itted on e a rth . Influenced b y th is co n v ictio n , th ey
h av e developed th e ir p a n ta n g system and th e ir foretoken belief u n til
i t dom inates th e ir liv e s .
T h eir w eak p e rso n a lity causes th em to fear th e ir fellow -m en in
a w a y w hich is d iffic u lt to u n d e rs ta n d . T he fear of being h u m ilia ted
in th e eyes of th e ir neighbours is alm o st sufficien t to p rev en t crim e
and offences ag a in st good m orals in th e se ttle m e n ts. People from th e
coast d istric ts w ho seek escape w ith t h e m , can rem a in long in th e ir
m id st a t th e ir e x p e n se , pro v id ed th e y m ake them selves w elcom e by
selling quack m edicines or by ju g g lin g . If these are th e w ild , b lo o d
th ir s ty , b rav e w arrio rs of th e P a ri or B ah au trib e s of w hom th e ir
enem ies on th e U pper B a rito , K a h a ja n and M elawi have alw ays
lived in fea r, th e n I m u st come to th e conclusion t h a t b ra v e ry , in
th e E u ro p ean sense of th e w o rd , is s till undeveloped am ong these
tr i b e s .
T h eir h e a d -h u n tin g custom w o u ld seem to c o n tra d ic t th is
s ta te m e n t, b u t , w hen w e consider th e extensive m easures w hich are
tak e n to p re v e n t in ju ry to th em selv es, th is c o n tra d ic tio n has only a
sem blance of v a li d it y . In th is connection see Quer durch B o rn e o ,
V ol. I I , page 266 e tc.
If w e ta k e a ll these circum stances in to c o n sid e ra tio n , we can
realise in w h a t a s ta te of a n x ie ty th e w om en and children liv e.
R um ours of a tta c k s b y head h u n ters from elsew here keep th e p o p u la
tio n of C en tral Borneo in a co ntinuous s ta te of u n re st. I once w i t
nessed on th e U pper M ahakam how , upon th e sounding of w h a t later
proved to be a false a la rm , m ore th a n 100 fam ilies fled to th e forests,
th e ir m ost v a lu a b le goods being alw ays packed in b a sk ets, read y for
im m ed iate flig h t. The K enya trib e s did n o t dare se ttle on th e left
b a n k of th e riv e r K a y a n , w hich w as u n p o p u la te d .
The Influence of the M a la y s on the D ayaks.
T he above descrip tio n of th e D ayaks does n o t a p p ly to th e trib es
t h a t live in th e neighbourhood of th e M alays and are subject to th e ir

 27
rulers Tho e x p l o i l a l i o n of these h eath en trib e s by th e descendants
of the Malay rulers has robbed these D ayaks of th e ir re la tiv e w elfare
and c i v i l i s a t i o n . T he M alays m ade of these trib e s a people w hich
is scarcely able to pro v id e its b a re st needs and w h ic h , generally
speaking, is so degenerate t h a t even a rev o lu tio n in its existence
would 11" I I e sufficient to raise it from its sta te of decay.
Thai. I'his m u st be regarded as a secondary c o n d itio n , appears
from scvera 1 pow erful trib e s in th e neighbourhood w h ich h av e been
successI'u 1 iii m a in ta in in g th e ir ind ep en d en ce.T hey possess, p ra c tic a lly
ev ery w h ere,

w e ll-b u ilt houses, im p o rta n t p ro p erty such as gongs and

other valuab les and fu ll rice sheds a fte r a good cro p , w h ile th e

headmen liave gold jew ellery and often gold coins. T his provides a
pii -1 ui''1 vdiich is sim ila r to t h a t of C entral B orneo. As th e co n ditions
on the Kai loewas are th e re su lt of rela tio n s w h ich h av e existed in
Borneo since tim e im m em orial and also on some of th e other
large islands of th e A rchipelago, I h ad d u ring m y tr ip on th e M aha
kam the. o p p o rtu n ity of w itn essin g th e b eh av io u r of th e M alays
tuw iii'ii I,lie trib es of th e in te rio r. Down stream w as th e S u lta n a te
of K oelei w hich, how ever, did n o t extend far u p stream w h ich b o r
dered (Mi the te rrito ry of th e (till th en ) pow erful B ah au (P a ri)
Dayaks, wlio h ad s e ttle d b o th below th e w aterfalls and above th e m .
U ntil l.lie latte r p a rt of la st cen tu ry th e S u lta n of K oetei h a d m ade no
serious a lle m p t to conquer th e B a h a u s. H ow ever, by levying heav y
import and export d u ties a t th e m o u th of th e riv e r on incom ing
necessities for and outgoing products of th e trib e s in th e h ills , he
attained his object to a ce rtain degree. These re la tio n s m ig h t h av e
continued indefinitely h a d i t n o t been for th e h igh v a lu e realised on
the world m arket for g etah p e rtja and ru b b er from th e forests of th e
Mahakam, w hich aw akened th e desire of th e S u lta n s fam ily to
extend its te rrito ry up stre a m . T hey d id n o t, how ever, include
the territo ry of th e B ah au s above th e w a te rfa lls in th e ir p la n s .
On my a rriv al th ere in 1896 no delegate of th e S u lta n h a d dared
to penetrate as far as t h a t .
Conditions on the M a h a k a m .
Tin; first step to w ard s extending its power w as ta k e n by K oetei
in 1870, when L e d j u B e l a , th e p rin c ip a l h eadm an of th e B ahaus w as
taken prisoner w hen on a v is it to T engaron w hich w as accom plished
by means of a false charge of h e a d h u n tin g . A couple of years la te r,
the Sultan forced h im to a d o p t th e M oham m edan religion under th e

mime of J {aden T e m e n g g u n g . E ven w ith his help th e a c tu a l in flu e n

ce of K o e le i in th e B ah au co u n try did n o t increase a n d th e S u lta n

therefore req u ested th e p rin c ip a l B ahau headm en to v is it Tengaron

w ith a view to discussing th e su p p ly of m a te ria l for th e construction
of a p a la c e . T hey arriv ed w ith th e ir w ives and children and m anv
follow ers, b u t w ere n o t allow ed to re tu rn up th e riv e r; th e y wer<;
held ca p tiv e for years and set to w ork in th e p a la c e , w here th ey had
to earn th e ir own liv in g . T hey h a d to su rren d er th e ir v alu ab les to
th e S u lta n w ho th e n h a d a w o nderful co llectio n , in clu d in g very
v a lu a b le old b e a d s .
In 1890 cholera broke o u t on th e Low er M ahakam w ith the
re s u lt t h a t n e a rly a ll th e B ahaus w ere affected a n d v ery m an y died.
Of th e th re e p rin c ip a l headm en L e d j u B e l a , alth o u g h s ic k , escaped
in a b o a t up th e riv e r. H e w as o v ertak en by an arm ed steam b o at
belonging to th e S u lta n , b u t th e M alays did n o t dare to a tta c k the
fu g itiv e s, w ho drew th e ir sw ords and declared t h a t th e y w ould
ra th e r die th a n re tu rn to T en g aro n . S h o rtly a fter his a rriv a l a t
Oedjoe T epoe, L e d j u B e l a d ied .
H is b ro th e r J o k of L iro n g T ik a a t th e foot of th e w aterfalls
died a t T en g aro n . H is son B a n g J o k to o k his body to th e ir n a tiv r
v illa g e , b u rie d i t th e re and th e n fled w ith th e w hole of th e trib e
to th e w a te rfa lls w here I found th e ir s e ttle m e n t.
L a l a u of Long M edang died w ith his fam ily a t T engaron, w ith
th e exception of his s o n , D i n g L a l a u w ho m anaged to escap e. W hen
I a rriv ed a t th e U pper M a h ak a m , he w as liv in g th e r e .
T he son of L e d j u B e l a , also nam ed D i n g , succeeded to a large
e x te n t in keeping th e K oetinese o u t of h is te r r ito ry , b u t since 1890
he a d m itte d gangs of forest produce collectors from th e B a r ito . The
la tte r cleared th e forests of th e B ahau headm en w ho received 10% of
th e p ro ce e d s. L arge q u a n titie s of th is produce w ere tra n sp o rte d to th e
B a rito th u s escaping th e ex p o rt d u ty a t K o e te i. In 1895 th e S u lta n
requested th e B ahau headm en to expel these gangs from th e ir c o u n try .
T hey did n o t agree to th is re q u e st, b u t B a n g J o k , convinced of
th e ap p ro v a l of K o e te i, caused th e w e ll-to -d o B a rito M alays to be
k ille d and to o k possession of th e ir goods. In 1896 five B andjarese
of K ih am H alo suffered th e sam e fate a t th e h an d s of h is slaves.
In 1899 tw o of these w ere k illed by P u n a n s a n d K enyas and also
a B ah au in th e R a ta w h ile sh o rtly a fte r tw o on th e M edang
w ere k ille d b y K e n y a s . H ow ever th e B a rito gangs w ere n o t driven
o u t of th e c o u n try .
Y e t th e y s till felt th e co m p etitio n of th e K oeteinese and th e
B uginese, w ho as collectors of forest produce w ere situ a te d fa rth e r
down th e riv e r. A lthough these w ild gangs w ere w ell arm ed and
m u tu a l enem ies, D i n g L e d j u p rev en ted serious conflicts b u t th e

gam b lin g , cock-fighting and d rin k in g strangers

unfavourable influence on th e B ahaus below th e w a te rfa lls
a n d t h e agrir.ull.ure ami rice crops suffered accordingly.
t 'liiini.l ui'_; and cock - fig h tin g for large sum s a ttra c te d th e B ahau
jdch w hile I in! women were tem p te d by th e easy flow ing m oney of
t h e s t r a n g e r s . T i m resu lt w as th e f t, jealo u sy , and revenge. D i n g
L e d ju died in .I n k I.VJ7 a n d th is w as a sign for K oetei to m ake
i t s e l f m a s t e r of Mid M ahakam in its own m an n e r. M u ltitu d es of
K o e t c i n n s e and luginese spread them selves over th e c o u n try , p a rtly ,
u n d e r leadership of Ihe m em bers of th e house of th e S u lta n . R aden
G o n d o l had broken all bounds in T engaron a n d w as now sent to th e
u p p e r disl.ricl.s will) an escort of w ell arm ed slaves, th e m a jo rity
o f whom were men who had sought safety in th e palace a fte r h a v in g
(oinmil'e'! some crim e i\nd h a d rem ain ed th e re as d ep en d en ts. H e
s e t t l e d a I- Oema Mehak and forced th e d a u g h ter of th e h eadm an
L alau
to give hi- m en th e exclusive clearing rig h ts of th e
f o r e s t s of the .Medaim. In th e m ean tim e he passed th e tim e w ith
cock-fights, w ilhdul , how ever, p a y in g his losses, an d he established
a gam bling hall for I hi' collectors of forest produce and th e m erchants
w h o wen; forced lo p la \ , so th a t w hen I a rriv ed in 1899 w ith m y
companion H a j c i u , we found a g am bling den on a large scale. Y et
t h e Raden and his nu'sl notorious follow ers h a d deem ed it ad v isab le
t o l e a v e before we a r r iv e d . F ro m 6 a .m . t i l l late in th e n ig h t a large
c r o w d congregated here to gam ble and co m p arativ ely large sum s
c h a n g e d h an d s. C ock-fights and cards helped to b rin g v a ria tio n
i n t o the p ro g ram m e.
T h e in h a b ita n ts of Oema M ehak h ad suffered considerably a t
t h e h a n d s of R aden G o n d o l as he stole th e ir chickens for his own u s e ,
k i l l e d their pigs as being unclean and held house to house searches
for valuables a fte r th e m an n er of th e K apoew as M alays.
If
a n y w e r e found, th e y p ro m p tly becam e his p ro p erty or t h a t of his
r e s p n . v o f Ilu'st'-

exerted an

follow ers.

A Iroop of K enyas under th e ir h eadm an I b a u A n j cam e from th e

Upper K ayan to collect a q u a n tity of forest produce on th e M ahakam
th at would enable th e m to b u y s a lt and to b acco . T his th e y d id and
Raden G o n d o l p a id th em in k in d , b u t he advised th em to v is it th e
Sultan of Tengaron before th e ir d e p a rtu re and to leave th e ir goods
with him u n til th e ir r e tu r n . T he K enyas did th is , b u t on th e ir re tu rn
they were told t h a t e v e ry th in g h a d been stolen w h ile G o n d o l , relying
on Jiis w eapons, refused to m ake a n y com pensation. On th re e occa
sions lie sold one of h is slaves to th e Siangs of U pper B a r ito , w ho
were then in d e p e n d e n t, to be to rtu re d to d e a th on th e g ra v e s.

 30
E lsew here sim ila r se ttle m en ts h a d also sprung u p , so th a t it
w as n o t long before it w as an easy m a tte r for th e S u lta n to force the
B ahau headm en to sw ear allegiance to h im b y g ran tin g th em highsounding M alay title s . B a n g J o k refused a t firs t, b u t in 1899 he
becam e a fra id of us w hen w e a rriv ed from th e U pper r iv e r , because
of th e n u m b er of m urders he h a d c o m m itted . In T engaron he was
forced to sw ear allegiance and w h ilst g am bling w as robbed of every
th in g he h a d b ro u g h t w ith h i m .
T he re su lt of th is suprem acy of K oetei in a c o u n try , w hich
t i l l th e n , h a d been o u tw a rd ly peaceful n o tw ith sta n d in g th e m any
a n ta g o n istic elem en ts, w as re m a rk a b le . A d ra stic change to o k place.
A p a rt from d a ily fights an d m in o r crim es, I m ay m en tio n t h a t in
A ugust 1899, w hen B a n g J o k re tu rn ed from T en g aro n , he gave th e
K enyas and P u n a n s perm ission to go h e a d h u n tin g on th e R a ta ,
w here tw o M alays of th e B a rito and one B ahau w ere k illed w hile
th e n e x t m o n th th re e B andjarnese w ith large q u a n titie s of goods
w ere m urdered n e a r th e rap id s in th e M id M ahakam . S h o rtly a fte r,
tw o B uginese w ere k illed and a w om an in ju re d a t th e m o u th of th e
M erah. O ut of revenge th e fellow co u n try m en of these v ictim s
assem bled and k illed th re e B andjarese on th e R a ta in J a n u a ry 1900.
W hen th e K a y a n h e a d m a n , T a m a n D a u , a ctin g on th e advice of
B a n g J o k , h a d k ille d tw o B andjarese in th e U pper M edang, th e
la tte r w ith d re w from th e M a h ak a m . O ut of revenge th ey m urdered a
m an and in ju red a w om an on th e M ahakam in F e b ru a ry 1900 w hile
in M arch a B a rito -m a n k ille d a w e ll-to -d o B uginese on th e U pper
R a ta an d robbed h im .
The beginning of the Government Settlements in E ast Borneo.
W h ile th e B uginese and B a rito people w ere m ak in g serious
p re p a ra tio n s to fig h t on a large scale, new s w as received th a t
C o n tro le u r B a r t h w as going to e sta b lish his h e a d q u arte rs a t Long
Ira m in th e m id d le of th e u n se ttle d co u n try and th is a c tu a lly took
p lace in J u n e . T he h o stilitie s an d m u rd ers stopped im m ed iately
w ith o u t his ta k in g an y fu rth e r a c tio n .
N e x t y e a r, in 1901, an o u tp o st of arm ed n a tiv e policem en was
e stablished am ong th e K ay an s above th e w a te rfa lls and in th is w ay
th e w hole of th e M ahakam d is tric t w as placed under D utch ru le by
one E u ro p ean o fficial. T his occupation of th e upper riv e r e n ta ile d
K o e te is subm ission. A fter th e source of th e riv e r K ay an h ad
tw ice been tra v e rse d by civil service officials, a m ilita ry d etach m en t
w as posted th e re . T he esta b lish m e n t of D utch ru le w hich included

ractically the w hole of E a s t B orneo, has d u ring th e q u a rte r of a

rui'ihny which lias nince elapsed, never given rise to resistance or
rev o lt.

The reason wJiy these people, who h ad never been v isite d

before (except by <i. M u l l e r who w as m urdered by th e m , in
1825) subm itted to D utch ru le , is n o t d ifficu lt to tra c e . I t is
based on the m u lu al close acq u ain tan ce of th e scientific E u ro p e an ,
as representative <>1 his civ ilisa tio n and th e D ayak in his
own environm ent . A sh o rt e x p la n a tio n w ill m ake th is clear.
Tin- M-ii-ntil'io ex p ed itio n of 1894, consisting of th re e scholars
ami i n \ Kuil as d o c to r, w as u n d er th e leadership of a civil
service official ami was to tr y and reach th e E a s t coast from th e
Kapoewas along I In- M ahakam . W ith an escort of 30 arm ed M alays
the trip was u n d e rta k en . A t th e w a te r shed th e rep o rts from U pper
Mahakam were s<> a In rm ing t h a t it w as decided to r e tu r n . The K ay an Dayaks of the K apoew as, w ho accom panied us as row ers and c arriers,
told mis th a t il, \\a-< lhe arm ed escort w hich h ad frightened th e p o p u
lation of Upper M ahakam . T hey gu aran teed to ta k e m e in s a fe ty , if
[ w fill on w ith o u t an arm ed e s c o rt. T his w as done on th e trip th ro u g h
Borneo in 1896/1897 w ith an E u ro p ean zoological collector, v o n
Hi.in ii ruLD, an E u ro p ean p h o to g rap h er, D em m eni and tw o Jav an ese
plant, collectors from B u iten zo rg . The w hole of th e eq u ip m en t w as
based on the collection of eth n o g ra p h ic a l, zoological, b o tan ic al and
geo log i ca 1 sp ecim en s.
W ii stayed for m o n th s w ith some of th e trib e s and these th en
accom panied us to th e ir rela tio n s fu rth e r on u n til K w i n g I r a n g of
Upper M ahakam escorted us to th e E a s t coast w here we arriv ed
after an absence of 15 m o n th s. T he interview w hich th is headm an
had w ith the a ssista n t resid e n t v a n A s s e n of K o e te i, m oved th e
Government to a d o p t m y proposal of m ak in g th e trip again to
ini i'duce a c o n tro le u r in th e U pper M ahakam d istric t and to try
and visit, the K enya trib e s in th e region around th e source of th e
river K ayan.
VI. the beginning of 1898 I therefore again rep aired to P o n tia n a k
in l h e com pany of th e c o n tro le u r B a r t h w ith four arm ed M alay
policem en, th e p h o to g rap h er D e m m e n i , a to p o g rap h ical su rv ey o r,
H iiii and zoological an d b o ta n ic a l collectors. H a v in g n a v ig a ted
Uie Kapoewas by ste a m b o at w e assured ourselves oF the assistance of
I h'1 Kayans and jo u rn ey ed w ith th em th ro u g h th e U pper K apoew as
ovi-i Dio w atershed an d w ere received by th e headm en on th e M aha
kam side, w ho h ad a lre ad y been inform ed of our ap p ro a c h . H ere w e
remained to arrange new scientific collections for w hich th e help of

 32
th e in h a b ita n ts w as o b tain e d and p ro p erly rew ard ed . F re q u en t
v isits to o th er trib e s also helped to stre n g th e n th e m u tu a l confidence.
I t w as n o t u n til th e follow ing y ear t h a t K w i n g InANGwas able to
co n d u ct us to th e E a s t Coast w here w e a rriv ed in Ju n e 1899. The
c o n tro le u r and his m en now left th e ex p ed itio n in order to rep o rt
to th e G o v ern m en t; in Ju n e 1900 he s e ttle d dow n a t Long Iram as
c iv il official of U pper an d Mid M ahakam . I t m u st be rem em bered
t h a t p rev io u sly none of these trib e s w ould w ork for strangers and
even now th e y m a in ta in e d th e o p inion t h a t th e y and th e ir headm en
led us w here w e w a n te d to and w here th e y th o u g h t i t ad v isab le.
T his w as c e rta in ly a g u aran tee for our sa fe ty , b u t a g rea t obstacle
to our m o b ility w as th e ir h ig h ly developed feeling of resp o n
s ib ility . W e could go now here t h a t our h osts th o u g h t it a t all
d a n g e ro u s.
T rip to the K e n y a s .
I t w as also for th is reason t h a t th e p rep a ra tio n s for th e trip took
a y e a r. On th e one h a n d a ll th e trib e s of th e U pper M ahakam w ished
to v is it th e U pper B oeloengan, th e ir o rig in al co u n try Apo K a ja n ,
w ith m e , b u t on th e o ther h a n d th e y w ere g re a tly a fraid as th ere was
only one m an w ho h ad ever been th ere a n d th e rela tio n s h ad not
im proved as a re s u lt of th e head h u n tin g ra id s carried o u t by both
s id e s . In a d d itio n th e ir custom s p rev en ted th em from u n d e rta k in g a
jo u rn ey w ith o u t d e ta ile d p rep a ra tio n s of a religious and household
n a tu re . O nly K w i n g I r a n g and his K ay an s accom panied us
in S eptem ber 1900. T he o u t trip took u n til O ctober and our
s ta y am ong th e K enyas u n til D ecem b er, w hen th e re tu rn jo urney
w as com m enced in th e com pany of several p ro m in e n t K enya headm en
w ho w ere opening up th e w ay for th e ir people to safer and therefore
cheaper m a rk e ts for s a l t , to b a c c o , co tto n e t c . On th e ir tra d in g trip s
to th e riv e r B a ta n g -R ed ja n g and th e riv e r B arom th e y h a d h ith e rto
alw ays been am bushed b y th e H iw ans of these p a rts . Now th a t
th ere w as a pow er on th e M ahakam w h ich m a in ta in e d o rd e r, m ore
an d m ore K enyas descended to th e M ahakam for tra d in g p u rp o se s,
especially now t h a t ow ing to th e free co m p etitio n am ong th e m e r
c hants of a ll n a tio n a litie s a t Oedjoe T epoe, to ta lly different prices
w ere ask ed . T he opening of a G overnm ent s a lt w arehouse c o n tri
b u ted in no sm all a degree to th is s ta te of a ffairs.
In th e U pper M ahakam th e a rriv a l of our sm all com m ission in
1898 h earten ed th e p o p u la tio n , especially w hen w e w ere able to free
it of a few troublesom e strangers w ho h a d sought safety am ong its

mpnib',|X im'l 1*l0n i,*,1,'iec*

h o s p ita lity . T he headm en did n o t feel
c a p a b l e o f b a n i s h i n g 'hese stran g ers them selves.
E v e n t ho 1 n i l i i n g s , w ho live a t th e h ig h est p a rt of th e riv e r,
soon c a m e d o w n in larire p a rtie s to ta k e a d v an tag e of th e new orderly
situation.
,lii!-l I lie p r es en ce of a c o n tro le u r a n d a b o u t 50 arm ed
n a t i v e
p o l i c e m e n in a d is tric t tw ice as large as H o llan d w as su ffi

cient t o a w a k e n a f e e l i n g of peace, h ith e rto unknow n, in th e h e a rt

of every f a m i l y ; t h e y w ere a ll able to w ork peacefully a t th e ir
a g r i cu l t ur a l puisuil- ; a n d clothes and im p o rta n t item s of th e ir d a ily

food ii.'ix c b e c o m e m m - h cheaper.

A s re gard s J n g i e n e , w ith such a scattered p o p u la tio n , w e have
to face trem endous

<|il'l iculties in order to in tro d u ce lastin g im prove-

n i c n l s . I ' m : m e d i e i m > v a c cin a tio n for infectious diseases and th e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a duel or a t Long Ira m w as a ll t h a t could be done in
tlii. ilnor.Lion

al I.lie m om ent. I t created c e rtain co n ditions w hich

h e l l e r th a n of o ld , w hen th e sick fell a p rey to th e

iiiuiix l ranger s w h o by selling quack m edicines assured them selves
o f an e x c e l l e n t s o u r c e o f incom e.

were

very

inueli

L e y d e n , A p r i l LU'Jh .

N . li. For the present d ay work done b y th e G overnm ent in the m e

dical ui if1 h ygien ic field see the p u b lication : Control <? endemic diseases in
the Ntlherlunds Indies ig z g .
The effacl of W e ste rn in flu en c e .