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Chapter 7

GEOLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY O F THE NILE BASIN

7.1 GEOLOGY
7.1.1 The E q u a t o r i a l Lakes P l a t e a u
The o l d P r e c a m b r i a n f o r m a t i o n s o f East A f r i c a have been d a t e d between, s a y ,
4 0 0 , a n d more t h a n 3000 m i l l i o n y e a r s . Of t h e s e f o r m a t i o n s t h e Nyanza S h i e l d i s
t h e one l o c a t e d i n t h o s e p a r t s o f Uganda and T a n z a n i a w i t h i n t h e N i l e B a s i n .
T h i s s h i e l d c o m p r i s e s r o c k s of t h e G n e i s s Complex of N o r t h e r n Uganda and of
o t h e r s y s t e m s o f North-Western Uganda and C e n t r a l T a n z a n i a and h a s a predomin-
a n t l y east-west t r e n d . The Nyanzian s y s t e m i s t h u s made up of b a s i c , i n t e r -
m e d i a t e and a c i d v o l c a n i c r o c k s w i t h i n t e r b e d d e d s e d i m e n t s of c o a r s e m a t e r i a l .
The d e p t h o f t h i s s y s t e m e x t e n d s some t h o u s a n d s of metres and i s developed
a r o u n d Lake V i c t o r i a ( s e e map, F i g . 7.1.) where i t s r o c k s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
i n t r u s i v e g r a n i t e s . I n some o t h e r p a r t s of Uganda, Kenya and T a n z a n i a t h e s y s t e m
c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f b o u l d e r c o n g l o m e r a t e s , mudstones and q u a r t z i t e s . Where t h i s
i s t h e c a s e t h e s y s t e m i s c a l l e d K a v i r o n d i a n , and i n some l o c a t i o n s i t s i m p l y
rests on t h e Nyanzian f o r m a t i o n s . The r o c k s of b o t h s y s t e m s , t h e Nyanzian and
t h e K a v i r o n d i a n , form p a r t o f t h e Nyanza S h i e l d ( S a g g e r s o n , E . , 1972).
I n Uganda t h e Buganda-Tor0 r o c k s , p r e d o m i n a n t l y a r g i l l a c e o u s , occupy a broad
a r c e x t e n d i n g from t h e n o r t h e r n s h o r e s o f Lake V i c t o r i a t o t h e Ruwenzori i n t h e
w e s t e r n , a s w e l l a s t h e n o r t h e r n and e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f Lake Kyoga. The series
known a s t h e Karagwe-Ankolean, which i s t h o u g h t t o b e 1400 m i l l i o n y e a r s o l d ,
c o n s i s t s o f metamorphosed r o c k and i s a b o u t 10000 metres t h i c k . T h i s s e r i e s
o c c u p i e s t h e m a j o r p a r t of t h e a r e a w e s t of Lake V i c t o r i a and t h e b o r d e r s w i t h
Rwanda and B u r u n d i . The Karagwe-Ankolean series i s s e p a r a t e d from t h e s o u t h -
w e s t e r n s h o r e o f Lake V i c t o r i a by t h e Bukoban s y s t e m , a s shown on t h e map, F i g .
7.1. The l a t t e r s y s t e m c o m p r i s e s s a n d s t o n e s , s h a l e s , q u a r t i z i t e s and conglome-
r a t e s o v e r l a i n by marles and l i m e s t o n e o r s a n d s t o n e .
T h e r e i s h a r d l y any e v i d e n c e of P a l a e z o i c r o c k s i n t h o s e p a r t s of Uganda,
T a n z a n i a and Kenya which l i e w i t h i n t h e B a s i n o f t h e N i l e R i v e r . The same remark
h o l d s f o r t h e J u r a s s i c and C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d s o f t h e Middle and Upper Mesozoic
ages.
The movement of t h e r i g i d b l o c k of A f r i c a l e d , among o t h e r s , t o g r e a t f r a c -
t u r e s on t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e c o n t i n e n t and l o c a l l y e l s e w h e r e . The g i g a n t i c
t r o u g h s which e x t e n d from n o r t h t o s o u t h and c o n t a i n t h e E a s t e r n R i f t V a l l e y ,
a r e o c c u p i e d i n p a r t by t h e E a s t - A f r i c a n Lake s y s t e m (Stamp, L . D . , and Morgan,

W.T., 1972). The E q u a t o r i a l N i l e s y s t e m s u b s e q u e n t l y d r a i n s t h e t e c t o n i c a l l y

and y e t v o l c a n i c a l l y a c t i v e Ugandan P l a t e a u a r e a where many d r a i n a g e changes
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/ M a j o r F a u l t s a n d Crush Zones

Fig. 7 . 1 . G e o l o g i c a l map of t h e catchments of t h e Equatorial Lakes

 295

have been c a u s e d by r i f t - a s s o c i a t e d g e o p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . I t i s t h u s supposed

t h a t t h e d e p r e s s i o n o c c u p i e d by Lake V i c t o r i a w a s formed i n t h e Miocene p e r i o d ,
whereas Lake Kyoga seems t o have e x i s t e d s i n c e t h e P l i o c e n e p e r i o d (Saggerson,
E., 1 9 6 2 ) . These two l a k e s have become l i n k e d t o g e t h e r a s a r e s u l t o f t h e sub-
sidence of t h e Albert depression. This event has l e d t o t h e conclusion t h a t the
Upper V i c t o r i a N i l e is p r o b a b l y a v e r y young r i v e r formed i n t h e P l e i s t o c e n e
p e r i o d , as i s t h e A l b e r t N i l e (Hepworth, J . , 1964).
The d e p o s i t s of t h e P l e i s t o c e n e p e r i o d o f t h e Q u a r t e r n a r y age c o v e r a g r e a t
p a r t o f t h e A l b e r t a n d Edward t r o u g h s and c o u l d w e l l e x c e e d 1200 m i n t h i c k n e s s .
They a r e a r g i l l a c e o u s r o c k s w i t h which mud v o l c a n o e s , s a l t and gypsum d e p o s i t s
a r e a s s o c i a t e d . I n some p l a c e s t h e y a r e o v e r l a i n by t h e S e m l i k i S e r i e s d e r i v e d
from t h e outwash o b t a i n e d from t h e W e s t e r n - R i f t margin.
The T e r t i a r y t o R e c e n t p e r i o d i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r i t s v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y . The
v o l c a n i c r o c k s a r e m i l d l y t o s t r o n g l y a l k a l i n e , c o n t a i n i n g , among o t h e r s ,
b a s a l t s . They h a v e g i v e n r i s e t o e x t e n s i v e l a v a p l a i n s o r are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e m a j o r c e n t r a l v o l c a n o e s s u c h a s Mounts E l g o n , Kenya and K i l i m i n j a r o .

7.1.2 The N i l e i n t h e Sudan

The Basement Complex i n t h e Sudan forms o v e r t w o - t h i r d s of t h e rock-exposures
t h e r e . I t c o n s i s t s o f i g n e o u s and s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s o u t of which t h e p l a t f o r m
was c a r v e d . I n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e Sudan t h e r o c k t y p e s t h a t p r e v a i l a r e
c r y s t a l l i n e s c h i s t s , gneiss, limestone, graphite-slate and q u a r t z i t e o f v a r i o u s
d e g r e e s of metamorphism. These a r e i n t r u d e d by i g n e o u s r o c k s . I n t h e n o r t h -
e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e Sudan t h e r e a r e non-metaporphic sediments a s s o c i a t e d with
v o l c a n i c r o c k s . The Basement Complex of t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e Sudan c o n s i s t s
of g r a n o b l a s t i c - f o l i a t e d g n e i s s w i t h f e l s p a r s i n t r u d e d i n t o f o l i a t e d p a r a s c h i s t s
and p a r a g n e i s s e s .
The p l a t f o r m , on which t h e Nubian S e r i e s o f q u a s i - h o r i z o n t a l s a n d s t o n e s and
mudstones was d e p o s i t e d , i s o f f o l d e d metamorphic s e d i m e n t s w i t h i n t r u d e d vol-
c a n i c r o c k s (Andrew, G . , 1948).
The Sudan was i n u n d a t e d by t h e s e a d u r i n g t h e Upper P a l a e o z o i c and Mesozoic
a g e s , a t which t i m e t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f p a r t o f t h e Nubian S e r i e s took p l a c e . The
P a l a e o z o i c s u c c e s s i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by s a n d s t o n e s w i t h a b l a c k s h a l e i n t e r -
c a l a t i o n , and i s c l o s e d by l i m e s t o n e (Sandford, K.S., 1935). These S e r i e s a r e
o v e r l a i n by t h e Nubian s h a l e s , mudstones and s a n d s t o n e s . The l a t t e r a r e r e g a r d e d
t o h a v e o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e Mesozoic a g e . They c a n b e found i n t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n
a r e a o f t h e Sudan ( c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e Libyan r e g i o n ) , t h e e a s t e r n a r e a ( c o n t i n -
u a t i o n o f t h e Abyssinian-Arabian-Somalian a r e a ) and w e s t of t h e Bahr e l J e b e l i n
t h e well-known Y i r o l b e d s (see t h e g e o l o g i c a l map, F i g . 7 . 2 . ) .
96Z
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The sea c o a s t r e t r e a t e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e Eocene p e r i o d . T h i s w a s followed

by a v e r y l o n g p e r i o d o f e r o s i o n which r e s u l t e d i n t h e removal of t h e Nubian
S e r i e s from s e v e r a l p l a c e s .
The Upper Eocene p e r i o d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e r i s e o f t h e e a s t e r n p l a t e a u
and t h e Red S e a h i l l s and t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Red S e a . The rise of t h e p l a t e a u
was s u p p o r t e d by t h e e x t e n s i v e v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y which t o o k p l a c e i n t h e Upper
T e r t i a r y (Miocene) and which produced l a v a s capped by v o l c a n o e s ( s e e F i g . 7 . 2 . ) .
The h o l l o w r u n n i n g from s o u t h t o n o r t h as a r e s u l t o f t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e
e a s t e r n p l a t e a u i s now o c c u p i e d by t h e p l a i n t h r o u g h which t h e N i l e R i v e r r u n s
i n Egypt and t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e Sudan. The b o u l d e r y masses known as t h e
Hudi C h e r t S e r i e s b e l o n g t o t h e L o w e r T e r t i a r y . I t i s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e C h e r t
masses have t r a v e l l e d from some d i s t a n c e i n t h e u p s t r e a m t o t h e i r p r e s e n t l o c a -
t i o n . These masses c a n b e found east o f t h e A t b a r a mouth and n e a r Zeidab. The
d e p r e s s i o n s p e n e t r a t e d by t h e White N i l e V a l l e y , t h e Sudd r e g i o n and some p a r t s
o f t h e B l u e N i l e B a s i n h a v e been f i l l e d i n by d e p o s i t s s i m i l a r t o t h e f i l l of
t h e p r e s e n t d e s e r t a r e a i n t h e n o r t h . T h e s e d e p o s i t s a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e Umm
Ruwaba S e r i e s . They c o n s i s t o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d s a n d s w i t h o r w i t h o u t c l a y , w i t h
some g r a v e l d e p o s i t s . The Bahr e l J e b e l n o r t h o f J u b a f l o w s o v e r a f o r m a t i o n of
f l u v i a t i l e a n d l a c u s t r i n e s e d i m e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h i s series. They a r e l a i d down
i n a s u c c e s s i o n of l a n d d e l t a s w i t h e x t r e m e l y low s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t s . T h i s r i v e r
h a s a r e a s o n a b l y d e f i n e d v a l l e y as f a r a s t h e n o r t h of Mongalla. From J u b a t o
Mongalla t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c h a n n e l s e a c h w i t h marked l e v e e s . A s t h e p r o p o r t i o n
of t h e c o a r s e m a t e r i a l c a r r i e d by t h e r i v e r d e c r e a s e s , t h e r i v e r l e v e e s become
weaker and less e f f e c t i v e i n c o n f i n i n g t h e h i g h - f l o w w i t h i n t h e r i v e r s e c t i o n .
I n t h e Sudd r e g i o n t h e l e v e e s a r e mainly formed o f f i n e s a n d , whereas t h e back
swamp d e p o s i t s a r e composed o f s i l t and c l a y w i t h o c c a s i o n a l sandy l e n s e s .
The S o b a t j o i n s t h e White N i l e n e a r M a l a k a l . I t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e
g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of i t s b a s i n must have b e e n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e Blue N i l e .
I t may have o r i g i n a t e d i n p o s t - O l i g o c e n e times on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e E t h i o p i a n
Traps ( B e r r y , L . , and Whiteman, A . , 1968). The White N i l e from t h e Sobat j u n c -
t i o n down t o Khartoum h a s a v e r y s m a l l g r a d i e n t , which i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
s m a l l n e s s of f l o w v e l o c i t y i n i t . The v a l l e y i n t h i s r e a c h i s r a t h e r broad and
f o r most o f t h e d i s t a n c e t h e r i v e r i t s e l f h a s a w e l l - d e f i n e d channel.
The White N i l e i s j o i n e d by t h e B l u e N i l e a t Khartoum t o form o n e r i v e r . The
g e o l o g i c a l and g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e Blue N i l e i s an
a n c i e n t r i v e r s y s t e m . I t rises on t h e g r e a t v o l c a n i c p l a t e a u o f E t h i o p i a , which
i s formed by t h e l a v a s e x t r u d e d d u r i n g t h e O l i g o c e n e p e r i o d . Lake Tana i s sup-
posed t o have b e e n formed i n t h e P l i o c e n e and t h e Abbai canyon was e x c a v a t e d
d u r i n g t h e P l i o c e n e and P l e i s t o c e n e . I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t an o v e r a l l t e c t o n i c
p r o c e s s t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h e L a t e C r e t a c e o u s - L a t e Eocene i n t e r v a l , which l e d t o
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r o u g h l y p a r a l l e l c o u r s e s o f t h e B l u e N i l e , D i n d e r , Rahad and A t b a r a .
I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e A t b a r a a n d / o r t h e B l u e N i l e c o u l d n o t have
j o i n e d t h e White N i l e o r t h e Main N i l e d u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e d r y p e r i o d s . A s a
r e s u l t , t h e A t b a r a c o u l d n o t have f l u s h e d i t s s u s p e n d e d l o a d i n t o t h e Main N i l e .
I n s t e a d , i t was l a i d down i n i t s own p l a i n t o form t h i c k a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s . The
geology of t h e B l u e N i l e a t t h e R o s e i r e s a r e a was i n v e s t i g a t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e R o s e i r e s Dam. The bed-rock t h e r e i s composed o f a
v a r i e d a s s e m b l a g e o f metamorphic and g r a n i t e r o c k s , f o r m i n g p a r t o f t h e Basement
Complex o f t h e Sudan. Rock i s exposed f o r n e a r l y 8 km a l o n g t h e Damazin R a p i d s ,
b u t , f u r t h e r away from t h e r i v e r , o u t c r o p s a r e l i m i t e d t o l o c a l i n s e l b e r g or
j e b e l s . The o r i g i n a l f o r m a t i o n of t h e g n e i s s e s was f o l l o w e d by t h e emplacement
of e a r l y g r a n i t e s a n d p e g m a t i t e s . T h i s f o r m a t i o n was l a t e r i n t r u d e d w i t h g r a n i t e
s i l l s and p e g m a t i t e s . The e x t e n s i v e e r o s i o n which t o o k p l a c e i n a l o n g i n t e r v a l
of t i m e l e d t o t h e e x p o s u r e o f t h e bed-rock a t a number of l o c a t i o n s ( F i t t , R . L .
e t a l , 1967).
The B l u e N i l e , from R o s e i r e s n o r t h w a r d s , f l o w s a c r o s s i t s own s e d i m e n t s . Its
v a l l e y widens n o r t h w a r d s t o merge w i t h t h e G e z i r a P l a i n n o r t h of S e n n a r , though
t h e r i v e r i s s t i l l i n c i s e d below t h e g e n e r a l c o u n t r y l e v e l . The s u r f a c e o f t h e
G e z i r a i s c o v e r e d w i t h c l a y s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e some p a t c h e s o c c u p i e d by
dunes and s a n d - s p r e a d s a s a r e s u l t o f overbank f l o o d s . These sandy p a t c h e s a r e
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s h a l l o w d i s c o n t i n u o u s c h a n n e l s y s t e m s . Another f e a t u r e of t h e
G e z i r a P l a i n i s t h e c o m p a r a t i v e u n i f o r m i t y of t h e s u r f a c e c l a y s .
The G e z i r a P l a i n h a s b e e n formed by t h e d e p o s i t s b r o u g h t mainly by t h e
h e a v i l y l a d e n B l u e N i l e w a t e r . During i t s f l o o d , t h e B l u e N i l e may c a r r y i n s u s -
p e n s i o n up t o 3000 p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n of c l a y and f i n e s a n d , m o s t l y from
E t h i o p i a n s o i l s , p l u s a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f d i s s o l v e d l o a d . These s e d i m e n t s ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r o d u c t o f a g g r e d a t i o n by r i v e r s c a r r y i n g c o a r s e m a t e r i a l s ,
have f i l l e d t h e t h e n - e x i s t i n g d e p r e s s i o n s and e v e n t u a l l y produced a h e t e r o g e n -
eous a l l u v i a l f a n . The whole s t r u c t u r e i s mounted on a t h i c k l a y e r o f Nubian
s a n d s t o n e (100-150 m t h i c k ) , which was formed i n t h e L a t e o r Upper Mesozoic.
I n t h e Khartoum a r e a t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e a l l u v i u m i s v a r i a b l e , and i n some
s p o t s t h e r e a r e i n f i l l e d s c o u r p o o l s where t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e s e d i m e n t s may
e x c e e d 20 m . Terraces made up of c l a y and g r a v e l f l a n k t h e r i v e r i n t h e same
a r e a , however, and t h e s e t e r r a c e s narrow r a p i d l y n o r t h w a r d s t o w a r d s t h e 6 t h
Cataract.
West o f Khartoum t h e f o r m a t i o n known a s t h e qoz i s s p r e a d o v e r t h e low ground
of t h e w e s t - c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e Sudan ( D a r f u r and n o r t h e r n K o r d u f a n ) . T h i s f o r -
m a t i o n i s an a c c u m u l a t i o n of dune-sand c o n s i s t i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f q u a r t z
g r a i n s , a n d , p o s s i b l y , d e r i v e d from t h e Nubian S e r i e s .
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The Main N i l e n o r t h o f Khartoum f l o w s n o r t h i n t h e t e c t o n i c low b e h i n d t h e

u p l i f t e d r i m of t h e c o n t i n e n t - t h e Red S e a h i l l s . The i n t e r p l a y of long-con-
t i n u e d t e c t o n i c a c t i v i t y , r i v e r p r o c e s s e s o f e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n , and t h e
e f f e c t s o f c l i m a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s , o v e r t h e l a s t one m i l l i o n y e a r s o r s o , combine
t o p r o d u c e a complex g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e a r e a .
From Khartoum t o t h e 6 t h C a t a r a c t t h e N i l e f l o w s l a r g e l y o v e r t h e Basement
Complex and Nubian f o r m a t i o n s ( s e e F i g . 7 . 2 . ) . North o f t h e 6 t h C a t a r a c t (known
a s S a b a l o k a ) t h e v a l l e y widens a g a i n . I n t h e Shendi a r e a t h e s u r f a c e i s d e v e l o -
ped mainly on t h e Nubian f o r m a t i o n . The t e r r a c e s f l a n k i n g t h e r i v e r t h e r e c o u l d
b e up t o 5 km w i d e . The r i v e r r u n s i n a n o r t h e r l y d i r e c t i o n on Nubian s a n d s t o n e
a s f a r a s Ed-Darner, where t h e Basement Complex a p p e a r s a g a i n .
I n t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e 5 t h t o t h e 4 t h C a t a r a c t t h e r i v e r r u n s a c r o s s t h e
Basement Complex. Between t h e s e two c a t a r a c t s t h e r i v e r f a l l s some 90 m . The
r i v e r bed t h r o u g h o u t t h e major p a r t o f t h i s d i s t a n c e i s r o c k y . The Basement con-
s i s t s o f g n e i s s e s , s l a t e s and m a r b l e .
The r i v e r v a l l e y i n t h e s e c t i o n from t h e 4 t h t o t h e 3 r d C a t a r a c t h a s been c u t
s i n c e t h e E a r l y P l e i s t o c e n e times. Towards Dongola t h e r e i s an e x t e n s i v e g r a v e l
and s i l t t e r r a c e , w e s t o f which t h e Nubian f o r m a t i o n i s c o v e r e d w i t h c o a r s e
g r a v e l f o r a d i s t a n c e of n o t less t h a n 10 km w i d e . The 3 r d C a t a r a c t i t s e l f i s
composed o f g n e i s s w i t h marble v e i n s o r i e n t a t e d t o t h e west. North of t h i s
c a t a r a c t t h e r i v e r p a s s e s between two mounts o r h i l l s , e a c h a b o u t 380 m h i g h .
The o t h e r f e a t u r e o f t h i s a r e a i s t h a t t h e Nubian f o r m a t i o n and t h e Basement
Complex a r e c u t by dykes and v o l c a n i c n e c k s a t some p l a c e s .
The N i l e r u n s t h r o u g h t h e Basement Complex i n t h e s e c t i o n from t h e 3 r d t o t h e
2nd C a t a r a c t . Halfway between t h e s e two c a t a r a c t s , t e r r a c e s have been d i s t i n -
g u i s h e d a t 1 5 and 30 m above t h e p r e s e n t f l o o d p l a i n l e v e l . Both t e r r a c e s a r e
c o v e r e d w i t h c o a r s e g r a v e l . The Semna C a t a r a c t , famous f o r i t s N i l o m e t e r (see
C h a p t e r l), i s formed of h a r d g n e i s s and c r u s h e d g r a n i t e which c o n f i n e s t h e N i l e ,
from a b o u t 400 m w i d e , t o j u s t a 40 m wide c h a n n e l .
I n g e n e r a l , v e r y l i t t l e s i l t i s d e p o s i t e d by t h e N i l e i n t h e Sudan e x c e p t
d u r i n g o c c a s i o n a l overbank f l o o d s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , f l o o d s t e n d t o s c o u r r a t h e r
t h a n d e p o s i t i n t h e Sudan and much of t h e s c o u r p r o d u c t i n t h e form of suspended
m a t t e r u s e d t o b e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e N i l e D e l t a , a t l e a s t i n t h e pre-High Aswan
Dam e r a . The r i v e r v a l l e y from t h e 2nd C a t a r a c t t o t h e s o u t h e r n f r o n t i e r of
Egypt i s c u t i n Nubian s a n d s t o n e w i t h o u t c r o p p i n g of i g n e o u s and metamorphic
r o c k s a t some p l a c e s , s u c h a s Aswan.

7.1.3 The N i l e i n Egypt

D u r i n g t h e A r c h e o z o i c and P r o t e r o z o i c e r a s (some 500 m i l l i o n y e a r s ago) t h e
s u r f a c e of Egypt was c o v e r e d by i g n e o u s , metamorphic and c r y s t a l l i z e d r o c k s such
 300

a s g r a n i t e , g n e i s s and s c h i s t . F o l l o w i n g t h a t t i m e t h e K e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a c o v e r e d
a l l t h e s u r f a c e of Egypt and a c o n s i d e r a b l e area of t h e Western Desert and t h e
Sudan f o r a l o n g p e r i o d e s t i m a t e d a t between 300 and 325 m i l l i o n y e a r s . I n t h a t
p e r i o d , t h e P a l a e z o i c e r a , b i o l o g i c a l sea s e d i m e n t s were d e p o s i t e d . Most of thew
however, were washed o u t by w e a t h e r i n g f a c t o r s , w h i l e some o t h e r d e p o s i t s were
b u r i e d down under t h e s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s which came l a t e r . The f o s s i l s of t h a t
e r a , some of which a r e s t i l l p r e s e n t i n S a i n a i , b e l o n g t o t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s
p e r i o d . A t t h e e n d o f t h a t p e r i o d t h e sea r e c e d e d f o r a l o n g t i m e r a n g i n g b e t -
ween 50 and 75 m i l l i o n y e a r s . The r e c e s s i o n of t h e sea was f o l l o w e d by a s u b s i -
dence o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e a r e a o f N o r t h A f r i c a , i n c l u d i n g Egypt and t h e Sudan.
Consequently, t h e s e a w a t e r f l o o d e d t h e s u b s i d e d p a r t s f o r a p e r i o d of 5 0 t o 75
m i l l i o n y e a r s d u r i n g t h e Mesozoic e r a , t h e r e b y d e p o s i t i n g a l a y e r of a b o u t 1500
metres i n t h i c k n e s s of s a n d s and p e b b l e s , b u t f r e e from f o s s i l s . The l o w e s t one-
t h i r d o f t h i s l a y e r was d e p o s i t e d i n t h e J u r a s s i c p e r i o d and t h e r e m a i n i n g two-
t h i r d s i n t h e C r e t a c e o u s p e r i o d . The l o w e r h a l f of t h e l a t t e r i s known a s Nubian
sandstone.
By t h e e n d o f t h e Mesozoic e r a t h e sea r e c e d e d g r a d u a l l y and a number of
changes t o o k p l a c e i n t h e C a i n o z o i c e r a (50 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o ) . Most o f t h e s u r -
f a c e i n Egypt s u b s i d e d d u r i n g t h e Eocene p e r i o d , t h u s p e r m i t t i n g t h e s e a once
more t o f l o o d t h e c o u n t r y and t o d e p o s i t l a y e r s o f c a l c a r e o u s s t o n e s . These
d e p o s i t s have formed t h e c h a i n o f h i l l s e a s t and w e s t o f t h e N i l e V a l l e y . Again,
t h e s e a r e c e d e d t o a b o u t C a i r o i n t h e Olegocene p e r i o d . A number o f minor
c h a n g e s f o l l o w e d d u r i n g t h e Miocene, P l i o c e n e and P l e i s t o c e n e p e r i o d s .
A s i m p l i f i e d g e o l o g i c a l map of Egypt i s shown i n F i g . 7 . 3 . The g e o l o g i c a l
d i v i s i o n s shown i n t h i s map occupy t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s ( S a i d , R . , 1962):

Geologic d i v i s i o n A r e a , km2
P l e i s t o c e n e and R e c e n t 165 000
P l e i o c e n e , Miocene and O l i g o c e n e 136 000
P a l e o c e n e and Eocene 204 000
Cretaceous 130 000
Nubian s a n d s t o n e ( m a i n l y C r e t a c e o u s ) 290 000
I g n e o u s and metamorphic r o c k s 95 000

Total : 1 020 000

The p l a t e a u s which make up t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e s u r f a c e of Egypt c o n s i s t ,

i n t h e extreme south-west, of metamorphic r o c k s and g r a n i t e s . These a r e c o v e r e d
i n a n o r t h e r l y d i r e c t i o n by g e n t l y i n c l i n e d s e d i m e n t s , g i v i n g r i s e a s a r e s u l t
of w e a t h e r i n g , t o g r e a t f l a t - t o p p e d , t a b l e - l i k e h i l l s . North o f t h e s o u t h e r n
o u t c r o p s of a n c i e n t r o c k s a r e found t h e wide s t r e t c h e s of Nubian s a n d s t o n e , t h e n
n o r t h w a r d , wide e x p a n s e s of l i m e s t o n e .
 301

1-1 Nile Alluvium 1-1 . . . .... . Eocene

...................
Nubian Sandstone

Recent a n d Cretaceous Archrean (Igneous

Pleistocene .... and Metamorphic)

Fig. 7.3. Geological map of E g y p t (with minor approximations)

 302

The p r i n c i p a l o a s e s i n t h e Western Desert a r e t h e Kharga and Dakhla Oases.

Each o f them rests on Nubian s e d i m e n t s c o n s i s t i n g of a l t e r n a t i o n s of c l a y s ,
s h a l e s , s a n d s and s a n d s t o n e s . These s e d i m e n t s have been g r a d u a l l y exposed as a
r e s u l t of e r o s i o n . The p l a t e a u b o r d e r i n g t h e Kharga O a s i s on t h e n o r t h and east
i s o f C r e t a c e o u s and Eocene r o c k s , which c o n s i s t e s s e n t i a l l y of l i m e s t o n e . E r o -
s i o n i s c l a i m e d t o have removed some 200 t o 300 m of t h e s e l i m e s t o n e s t o expose
t h e u n d e r l y i n g Nubian f o r m a t i o n s . These are t h e f o r m a t i o n s which c o n t a i n t h e
i m p o r t a n t a q u i f e r from which t h e w a t e r o f t h e o a s e s iS drawn ( P a v e r , G . L . , and
Pretorius, D.A., 1954).

The geology o f t h e c o a s t a l d e s e r t of E g y p t , t h e d e s e r t a r e a w e s t and east o f

the N i l e D e l t a , and t h e g e o l o g y of t h e Red S e a h i l l s w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d and
r e p o r t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h water s u p p l y i n t h e Middle E a s t campaigns d u r i n g
World War 1 1 . F o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e r e s u l t s of t h o s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h e
r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e s i x a r t i c l e s which were p u b l i s h e d by S h o t t o n , F.W.,
and by P a v e r , G . L . , 1946.
The N i l e j u d g e d by i t s p r e s e n t form a p p e a r s t o b e made up of s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t
s y s t e m s which became j o i n e d a t a much t o o l a t e s t a g e i n g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y . Each
of t h e s e s y s t e m s i s r e l a t e d t o a d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r a l s e t t i n g a n d / o r a d i f f e r e n t
g e o l o g i c a l p e r i o d . The N i l e i n Egypt began t o form i t s v a l l e y i n t h e Upper
Miocene a g e . The t h e n N i l e , E o n i l e , c u t i t s g o r g e a t a much lower l e v e l t h a n t h e
p r e s e n t s e a l e v e l . The bottom o f t h e canyon formed by t h e E o n i l e r e a c h e d d e p t h s
from 170 m i n Aswan t o more t h a n 2500 m n o r t h of C a i r o a n d t o even g r e a t e r
d e p t h s i n t h e n o r t h e r n Delta embayment ( S a i d , R . , 1 9 8 2 ) . A s a r e s u l t of f a u l t s
and s h i f t s t h e E o n i l e changed i t s c o u r s e from n o r t h - w e s t t o a more n o r t h e r l y
course.
I n t h e Lower P l i o c e n e t i m e t h e E o n i l e V a l l e y became c o v e r e d w i t h t h e s e d i -
ments b r o u g h t by t h e s e a a s i t advanced a l o n g t h e v a l l e y as f a r as Aswan. L a t e r ,
s e d i m e n t s were b r o u g h t by t h e P a l e o n i l e , d u r i n g t h e Upper P l i o c e n e some 3.2
m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . The s e d i m e n t a t i o n was v e r y much augmented by t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n
of t h e Red S e a h i l l s v i a t h e t h e n e x i s t i n g Wadis, which c a r r i e d t h e s e d i m e n t -
l a d e n t o r r e n t s of w a t e r , By t h e end of t h e P a l e o n i l e s e d i m e n t a t i o n , t h e E o n i l e
canyon was c o m p l e t e l y f i l l e d up and t h e D e l t a s u r f a c e became more or l e s s even
w i t h a g e n t l e northward s l o p e .
The i n t e r v a l from a b o u t 1 . 8 5 m i l l i o n t o 0.7 m i l l i o n y e a r s ago i s c l a i m e d t o
be a p e r i o d of g r e a t c o o l i n g and d r y n e s s i n E g y p t . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e
Paleo-Proto-Nile ( t h e t h e n N i l e i n E g y p t ) c e a s e d t o flow and Egypt i t s e l f became
a d e s e r t . The a b r a d e d m a t e r i a l was t r a n s p o r t e d by t h e blowing wind and began t o
form t h e l a r g e d e p r e s s i o n s i n t h e Western Desert. D e p o s i t i o n of g r a v e l s and
s a n d s w a s q u i t e a c t i v e i n t h e P r o t o n i l e p e r i o d , t h a t i s , from 0 . 7 t o 0 . 5 m i l l i o n
 303

y e a r s a g o . The d e p o s i t e d m a t e r i a l took t h e form o f t e r r a c e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e

modern N i l e V a l l e y .

The t e c t o n i c movements which took p l a c e from t h e e n d of t h e P r o t o n i l e p e r i o d

up t o a b o u t 125 000 y e a r s b e f o r e p r e s e n t h e l p e d t o form some h y d r a u l i c connec-
t i o n between t h e N i l e i n Egypt ( t h e P r e n i l e ) and t h e E t h i o p i a n P l a t e a u . Accord-
i n g l y , much l a r g e r f l o o d s and s e d i m e n t s were c a r r i e d by t h e P r e n i l e t h a n by t h e
P r o t o o r by t h e P a l a e o - P r o t o N i l e s . A s a r e s u l t , a l a r g e d e l t a was d e v e l o p e d ,
w i t h s e d i m e n t s e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e s e a . One can t h u s c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e N i l e D e l t a
o c c u p i e s a g r e a t t e c t o n i c d e p r e s s i o n , and i s bounded on b o t h s i d e s by g r a v e l l y
p l a i n s which r i s e up t o 100 m above mean s e a l e v e l . On t h e e a s t e r n s i d e , t h e
D e l t a r e g i o n i s bounded by a major upwarp zone which o c c u p i e s most of North-
C e n t r a l S i n a i . T h i s i s f o l l o w e d i n a n o r t h w a r d d i r e c t i o n by a downwarp zone
which o c c u p i e s most of t h e D e l t a r e g i o n and t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n p a r t of S i n a i .
T h i s downwarp zone i s a f f e c t e d by a number of f a u l t s . The p l a i n s on t h e e a s t e r n
and w e s t e r n s i d e s of t h e D e l t a merge i n t o t h e e l e v a t e d t a b l e l a n d s ( h i g h e r t h a n
200 m above mean s e a l e v e l ) , which a c t a s w a t e r s h e d a r e a s . The e a s t e r n t a b l e
l a n d s a r e d i s s e c t e d by a number of Wadis which a c t d u r i n g r a i n y s e a s o n s a s
d r a i n a g e a r t e r i e s . The s e d i m e n t a r y s e c t i o n i n t h e D e l t a h a s an e x p e c t e d t h i c k -
n e s s o f more t h a n 10 000 m ( S h a t a , A . , and El-Fayoumy, I . , 1969).

The P r e n i l e was s o v i g o r o u s t h a t i t s h i f t e d i t s c o u r s e t o t h e e a s t of what used

t o b e t h e c o u r s e of t h e P r o t o n i l e , though y e t w e s t of t h e p r e s e n t c o u r s e of t h e
Nile. The l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h e P r e n i l e p e r i o d , which t e r m i n a t e d some 125 000
y e a r s b e f o r e p r e s e n t h a d b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by u p l i f t s which l e d t o reduced
r i v e r f l o w i n E g y p t . T h i s was f o l l o w e d by t h e P r e - N e o n i l e , which l a s t e d from
125 000 t o 30 000 y e a r s b e f o r e p r e s e n t . I n t h e w e t e p i s o d e s of t h i s p e r i o d heavy
r a i n f a l l s r e s u l t e d i n c o a r s e s a n d and g r a v e l d e p o s i t s . The L a t e Acheulean
p l u v i a l was an i m p o r t a n t one and i t ended some 35 000 y e a r s a g o . The P r e n i l e
s e d i m e n t s were l a i d down by t h e r i v e r and t h e f i n a l s h a p e of t h e p r e s e n t N i l e
V a l l e y was formed ( S a i d , R . , 1 9 8 2 ) . The N e o l i t h i c p l u v i a l l a s t e d from about
10 000 y e a r s t o , s a y , 5 000 y e a r s b e f o r e p r e s e n t . The c l i m a t e t h a t p r e v a i l e d
t h e n was s o w e t t h a t t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of Egypt had an a n n u a l r a i n f a l l of 100 t o
300 mm ( S a i d , R . , 1 9 8 1 ) . A t p r e s e n t t h e a n n u a l r a i n f a l l a t t h e same p l a c e i s
practically n i l .
The above d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e r e g r e s s i o n and t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e s e a d u r i n g
t h e C a i n o z o i c e r a , and t h e development of t h e c o u r s e of t h e r i v e r d u r i n g t h e
s u c c e s s i v e g e o l o g i c a l p e r i o d s c a n b e s e e n i n F i g s . 7.4 a t h r u ' f.
304

a. locene Period b. Oligocene Period c. Miocene Period

d. End of Miocene Period e. End of Pliocene Period f . End of Pleistocene Period

F i g . 7.4. R e g r e s s i o n and t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e s e a d u r i n g t h e C a i n o z o i c e r a

7.2 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL

7.2.1 Groundwater i n Kenya, Uganda and T a n z a n i a
I n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n i t h a s been mentioned t h a t some a r e a s i n t h o s e p a r t s
of Kenya, Uganda and T a n z a n i a which are s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e N i l e B a s i n a r e
covered w i t h Precambrian r o c k s . I n t h e s e a r e a s it is only t h e shallow water
b e a r i n g l a y e r s c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e t h a t y i e l d w a t e r u n l e s s w e l l s o r h o l e s are
d r i l l e d t o d e p t h s u s u a l l y of more t h a n 100 m .
I n t h e v o l c a n i c a r e a s between t h e e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n R i f t V a l l e y s , h i g h e r
y i e l d s of w a t e r c a n b e e x p e c t e d from t h e h i g h l y e l e v a t e d g r o u n d s . Groundwater,
on t h e c o n t r a r y , i s q u i t e s c a r c e i n many o f t h e s e d i m e n t a r y a r e a s , p a r t l y due t o
t h e low r a i n f a l l and p a r t l y b e c a u s e of e x c e s s i v e e v a p o r a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y , most
of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r - i f available - i s of r e l a t i v e l y poor q u a l i t y .
D r i l l i n g of s h a l l o w w e l l s a n d w a t e r h o l e s i s p r a c t i s e d for w a t e r s u p p l y t o
v i l l a g e s a n d s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s . P r o b a b l y 90% of t h e d r y s e a s o n demands i n t h e
a r i d p a r t s o f T a n z a n i a a r e s u p p l i e d by w a t e r h o l e s and w e l l s . The w a t e r - b e a r i n g
f o r m a t i o n s a r e o f t e n found on t h e s l o p e s of t h e b e d r o c k h i l l s and t h e y c o n s i s t
of g r a v e l , s a n d , l a t e r i t e s , g r a n i t e ( c r e v i c e s ) and c a l c r e t e . The v a l l e y s them-
s e l v e s a r e c o v e r e d w i t h mbuga c l a y s a s shown i n F i g s . 7 . 5 a and 7 . 5 b .
Some of t h e l e a d i n g f i g u r e s of t h e s h a l l o w w a t e r w e l l s a s p r a c t i s e d i n
T a n z a n i a a r e a s f o l l o w s (D.H.V., 1976 and 1 9 7 8 ) :
 305

Maximum d e p t h o f w e l l = 10 m
S p a c i n g between w e l l s 5-10 m
I n t e r n a l diameter 1.25 m
Operation hand pump
Duration 10 h r s / d a y
Volume of pumped water 6-10 m3/day
Number of c o n s u m e r s / w e l l 250 i n h a b i t a n t s

d Spring or pool
Bedrock h i l l +water level
B M b u g a clay
B w a t e r b e a r i n g layer

F i g . 7.5. Shallow water-bearing f o r m a t i o n s i n T a n z a n i a (D.H.V., 1976)

7.2.2 Groundwater i n t h e Sudan

I n g e n e r a l , w a t e r i s n o t e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d u n d e r n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
Sudan. T h i s i s q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e s i n c e t h e g r o u n d w a t e r s u p p l i e s depend on
t h e r a i n f a l l and on t h e l o c a l geology of t h e area from which water h a s t o be
e x t r a c t e d . When t h e s o i l h a s a low a b s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of t h e
r a i n f a l l r e m a i n s on t h e s u r f a c e and i s l o s t by e v a p o r a t i o n . I t i s o n l y i n a few
p l a c e s t h a t g r o u n d w a t e r s u p p l i e s depend on t h e r a i n f a l l a t some d i s t a n c e from
t h e l o c a l underground r e s e r v o i r .
I n t h e w e s t e r n p a r t of E q u a t o r i a P r o v i n c e r i v e r s may r u n d r y , b u t i f i t
happens t h i s w i l l b e f o r a s h o r t t i m e . I n s u c h a c a s e s u p p l i e s c a n be o b t a i n e d
from p o o l s o r s h a l l o w w e l l s i n s t r e a m b e d s . I n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e same
p r o v i n c e t h e h i l l s a r e t r a v e r s e d by p e r e n n i a l , though s m a l l , s t r e a m s . The p l a i n s
r e m a i n , however, d r y i n t h e n o n - r a i n y s e a s o n . I n t h e p l a i n e a s t of t h e Bahr e l
J e b e l , g r o u n d w a t e r c a n b e found i n some l o c a l i t i e s a t d e p t h s of 40-50 m . I n some
 306

o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s where t h e s h o r t a g e c o u l d b e a c u t e , t h e water t a b l e c a n b e found

a t d e p t h s o f 100 m or more.
The underground s u p p l i e s i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e Sudan are o f t e n q u i t e
poor b e c a u s e of t h e e x t r e m e l y low p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e c l a y c a p c o v e r i n g t h e s u r -
f a c e of t h e p l a i n s . The i s o l a t e d h i l l s ( i n s e l b e r g ) which p r o t r u d e t h r o u g h t h i s
a q u i c l u d e a r e u s u a l l y s u r r o u n d e d by c o n e s of c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l , which are h i g h l y
permeable. I n s u c h h i l l s , l o c a l s u p p l i e s c a n be found i n p o o l s and i n w e l l s
located near the foot.
Water s u p p l y by w e l l s i s w i d e l y p r a c t i s e d f o r d o m e s t i c p u r p o s e s and f o r
r a i s i n g l i v e s t o c k i n t h e Gash D e l t a i n Kassala P r o v i n c e . Water i s drawn from t h e
w e l l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r and o t h e r w e l l s f u n c t i o n o n l y s e a s o n a l l y . R e p l e n i s h -
ment o f groundwater is a c c o m p l i s h e d a n n u a l l y by f l o o d i n g t h r o u g h c h a n n e l s t a k i n g
from t h e c a n a l s . The b a s a l t c o u n t r y of Gedaref h a s water i n j o i n t s i n t h e l a v a ,
b u t t h e d e e p e r l a v a s have no open j o i n t s and are d r y .
The t h i c k a c c u m u l a t i o n s of c o n s o l i d a t e d s a n d s , g r a v e l s and c l a y s i n t h e
d e p r e s s i o n s i n t h e Kordofan P r o v i n c e c a r r y water. Some o f t h e s e d e p r e s s i o n s ,
however, have t o o s a l i n e water f o r consumption. The m a r g i n a l a r e a s o f t h e s e
d e p r e s s i o n s have no water t o a d e p t h of 100 m o r more, e x c e p t c l o s e t o t h e h i l l s
where t h e Wadis s p i l l o u t on t o t h e outwash f a n a t t h e margin o f t h e p l a i n . The
a r e a s which have been g e o l o g i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as q & f r e q u e n t l y have s m a l l
s h a l l o w s u p p l i e s a t t h e f o o t o f t h e s a n d s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e s u p p l i e s i s
mainly dependent on t h e b u r i e d t o p o g r a p h y . I n t h e s o u t h e r n h a l f of t h e u n d u l a t -
i n g c o u n t r y t h e number of w e l l s s u p p l y i n g good w a t e r h a s been s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s -
ing.
The v o l c a n i c a r e a s of t h e D a r f u r P r o v i n c e are s i m i l a r t o t h e b a s a l t c o u n t r y
of G e d a r e f . The s a n d s t o n e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e Nubian S e r i e s are c o n s i d e r e d a s a
s o u r c e of f a i r l y deep groundwater ( e . g . t h e a r e a between El-Nahoud and E l -
F a s h e r ) . The groundwater s u p p l i e s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s f a i r l y good.
The t u b e w e l l s which a r e l o c a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e G e z i r a r e g i o n g i v e t h e p i e z o -
m e t r i c l e v e l s . These have been i n t e r p o l a t e d t o g i v e t h e c o n t o u r s of t h e p h r e a t i c
s u r f a c e a s shown i n F i g . 7.6. (Salaam, A . , 1966). The c o n s i s t e n c y of t h i s map
h a s been q u e s t i o n e d by E a g l e s o n , P . , and M i l l e r , S . (1983).
I n t h e n o r t h e r n d e s e r t r e g i o n o f t h e Sudan t h e r e a r e two groundwater r e s o u r -

ces. One i s a permanent groundwater r e s e r v o i r i n t h e s a n d s t o n e s of t h e Nubian

S e r i e s ( s e e t h e map, F i g . 7 . 2 . ) . I t u s u a l l y e x i s t s a t a f a i r l y c o n s i d e r a b l e
d e p t h from t h e s u r f a c e though i t c o u l d be l o c a l l y b a r e d by e r o s i o n t o form some
o a s e s r e s t i n g on a mudstone l a y e r . The o t h e r s o u r c e i s formed by l o c a l concen-
t r a t i o n s of s u b s o i l w a t e r d e r i v e d from l o c a l r a i n s and mainly s u p p o r t e d by
s e e p a g e from f l o o d s . I n t h e w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e a t h e groundwater
r e s e r v e s a r e r e l i a b l e and p l e n t i f u l when compared t o t h e e x i s t i n g demand on
 307

them. These r e s e r v e s r e c e i v e , however, modest amounts o f r e c h a r g e , c h a r a c t e r i -

z i n g such waters as mainly non-renewable. Only i n t h e a r e a along t h e N i l e , b e t -
ween Dongola and Wadi H a l f a , due t o i n f i l t r a t i o n o f t h e N i l e and Lake Nasser
i n t o t h e banks, a c o n s i d e r a b l e area o f renewable groundwater w i l l become a v a i l -
a b l e ( G i s c h l e r , C.E., 1979). I n t h e a r e a s c o v e r e d w i t h c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s , which
are mainly t o t h e e a s t , r e s o u r c e s are much more r e s t r i c t e d , e x c e p t a l o n g t h e
l i n e of major Wadis. As s u c h t h e y are dependent o n t h e o c c a s i o n a l f l o o d s . Thus,
t h e y i e l d o f a r e s o u r c e o f t h i s t y p e i s roughly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s i z e of t h e
catchment area upstream o f t h e w e l l - p o i n t and t o t h e r a i n f a l l . Obviously, t h e
s a l i n i t y o f water i n c r e a s e s w i t h d i s t a n c e from t h e head due t o e v a p o r a t i o n .

Fig. 7.6. P h r e a t i c s u r f a c e ; El G e z i r a , Sudan (Salaam, A . , 1966)

308

7.2.3 Groundwater i n Egypt

7.2.3.1 Groundwater i n t h e Western Desert
The Nubian B a s i n , p a r t of which h a s a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
t h e groundwater i n t h e Sudan, c o v e r s a s u r f a c e a r e a o f a b o u t 1.8 m i l l i o n km2.
T h i s b a s i n e x t e n d s t o Egypt w e s t o f t h e N i l e , t o t h e e x t r e m e n o r t h - e a s t o f Chad,
and t o s o u t h and e a s t e r n L y b i a .
The geology of t h e Western Desert i n Egypt h a s been e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r . The
Nubian B a s i n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s extreme a r i d i t y . The i n h a b i t e d p a r t o f i t
i s a s e r i e s o f o a s e s . The most i m p o r t a n t o a s e s i n Egypt a r e t h e Kharga, Dakhla,
F a r a f r a , B a h a r i y a and Siwa.
A number of t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n and f l o w o f groundwater i n t h i s
d e s e r t have been p u b l i s h e d . According t o B a l l , J . , (1927) t h e o r i g i n and s o u r c e
of t h e a r t e s i a n w a t e r s u p p l y of t h e o a s e s i n Egypt i s a v a s t s u b t e r r a n e a n s t r e a m
o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e E r d i and Ennedi r e g i o n on t h e b o r d e r between t h e Chad B a s i n
and t h e N i l e B a s i n i n t h e Sudan. T h i s underground w a t e r f l o w s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
of t h e n o r t h - w e s t , n o r t h and n o r t h - e a s t .
H e l l s t r o m , B., (1940) d e v e l o p e d t h e f l o w n e t shown i n t h e map, F i g . 7 . 7 a .
T h i s map a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e Sudan. The works o f B a l l
and H e l l s t r o m were d i s c u s s e d i n a p a p e r which was p r e p a r e d by t h e Survey D e p a r t -
ment of Egypt (Murray, G.W., 1 9 5 2 ) . The f a c t t h a t was s t r e s s e d i n t h i s p a p e r i s
t h a t t h e groundwater f l o w i n g f r e e l y i n t o t h e o a s e s h a s n o t h i n g t o do w i t h t h e
Nile. I t i s merely f o s s i l w a t e r i n p r i s o n e d i n t h e Nubian r o c k s f o r s e v e r a l thou-
s a n d s o f y e a r s ; t h e l o w e s t l a y e r o f a l l groundwater may d a t e back t o t h e
P l i o c e n e . The age of t h e groundwater h a s r e c e n t l y been d e t e r m i n e d a t some l o c a -
t i o n s u s i n g l4C and was found t o o r i g i n a t e from 40 000 t o 20 000 y e a r s BP
( b e f o r e p r e s e n t ) , i . e . from t h e l a t e Acheulean p l u v i a l . Not much g r o u n d w a t e r
f o r m a t i o n took p l a c e i n t h e S a h a r a i n t h e i n t e r v a l between 20 000 and 14 000
y e a r s BP.
The p e r i o d from 14 000 y e a r s BP t o p r e s e n t times i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p o s t -
p l u v i a l humid p h a s e w i t h t h e humid p e a k s a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h a r i d p h a s e s . A l l t h e
younger w a t e r s o r i g i n a t e from s h a l l g r o u n d w a t e r s ( S o n n t a g , C . , e t a l , 1976).
Groundwater moving d o w n h i l l , r e a d i l y f l o w s i n t o C r e t a c e o u s , Eocene and
Miocene s t r a t a ; d o i n g so, i t u s u a l l y becomes c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h s a l t . The a n a l y -
s i s o f t h e w a t e r h a s shown t h a t i t i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l y m i n e r a l i z e d , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y i n i r o n , c a r b o n a t e s and sodium c h l o r i d e , w h i l e t h e g a s s e s c o n t a i n a t l e a s t
some hydrogen s u l p h i d e and p o s s i b l y c a r b o n d i o x i d e . T h i s q u a l i t y of water c a l l s
f o r h a v i n g t h e w e l l c a s i n g a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d by p r o t e c t i v e c o a t i n g s ( P a v e r ,
G.L., and P r e t o r i o u s , D . A . , 1954). The same r e f e r e n c e estimates t h e groundwater
e x t r a c t i o n from t h e Kharga and Dakhla o a s e s o n l y a s f o l l o w s :
 309

Kharga Dakhla
Approximate y i e l d o f s h a l l o w w e l l s , m i l l i o n m 3 / y r 38.7 92.7
Approximate y i e l d o f deep w e l l s , m i l l i o n m3/yr 3.8 16.8
- -
T o t a l a n n u a l w i t h d r a w a l , m i l l i o n m3 42.5 109.5

Hellstrom, B . , (1940) e s t i m a t e d t h e groundwater s u p p l y t o t h e Q u a t t a r a

d e p r e s s i o n a t a b o u t 3 . 1 m i l l i o n m3/day or 1130 m i l l i o n m3/yr and t h e permea-
b i l i t y of t h e Nubian s a n d s t o n e t o l i e between 2 . 4 x and 2 . 4 x m/day.
The Government o f Egypt h a s u n d e r t a k e n a programme f o r e x p l o i t i n g t h e ground-
w a t e r r e s e r v o i r , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e a r e a o c c u p i e d by t h e Kharga and Dakhla o a s e s .
S i n c e 1959 t i l l r e c e n t l y t h e number of w e l l s d r i l l e d t h e r e h a s exceeded 350
w e l l s w i t h d e p t h s r a n g i n g between 400 and 1200 m. A s a r e s u l t of t h e e x t e n s i v e
w i t h d r a w a l of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r , t h e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e w e l l s h’as f a l l e n
by more t h a n 30 m , w i t h t h e o b v i o u s consequence t h a t many o f t h e w e l l s have
c e a s e d t o f l o w f r e e l y ( a r t e s i a n ) . T h i s a l a r m i n g s i t u a t i o n h a s drawn t h e a t t e n -
t i o n of t h e E g y p t i a n G e n e r a l Desert Development O r g a n i z a t i o n , a s w e l l as o t h e r
o r g a n s and i n d i v i d u a l s .
The f u t u r e o f t h e groundwater d i s c h a r g e i n t h e Kharga and Dakhla Oases was
f o r e c a s t e d t i l l t h e y e a r 2000. Using t h e f l o w n e t o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d by
H e l l s t r o m and more r e c e n t d a t a , t h e s t e a d y g u a r a n t e e d r e c h a r g e w a s e s t i m a t e d a t
a b o u t 204 m i l l i o n m 3 / y r , of which 6 4 m i l l i o n t o El-Kharga and 140 m i l l i o n t o
El-Dakhla. I n s t a l l a t i o n of pumps w a s r e p o r t e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e d i s c h a r g e of wells
i n t h e s e two o a s e s by 15% and 7 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y (Hammad, Y . H . , 1969). Also, t h e
h y d r o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e groundwater r e s e r v o i r u n d e r l y i n g t h e Dakhla O a s i s
were e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d and r e p o r t e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y of Land R e c l a m a t i o n , Egypt
(Shahin, M . , e t a l , 1 9 7 0 ) . A more r e c e n t f l o w n e t h a s been p r e p a r e d ( s e e F i g .
7.7b.). From t h e r e c e n t d a t a i t was found t h a t t h e groundwater d i s c h a r g e s
t h r o u g h n a t u r a l s p r i n g s , d r i l l e d w e l l s and l o s s e s due t o e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n
from a r e a s c o v e r e d by n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n and due t o l e a k a g e have been e s t i m a t e d
a s included i n Table 7 . 1 .
I n t h e c o u r s e of t h e l a s t few y e a r s many a model s t u d y h a s been c a r r i e d o u t
w i t h t h e aim of a r r i v i n g a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s of groundwater which can p o s s i b l y b e
withdrawn under t h e c o n s t r a i n t o f maximum l i f t of 100 m below t h e ground s u r -
f a c e . I t h a s been r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t o t a l a n n u a l e x p l o i t a b l e w a t e r i s a b o u t
1350 m i l l i o n m 3 f o r t h e n e x t 50 y e a r s . T h i s amount i s d i s t r i b u t e d as 140, 1 8 2 ,
363, 509 and 156 m i l l i o n m 3 / y r f o r t h e S i w a , B a h a r i y a , F a r a f r a , Dakhla and
Kharga O a s e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
 fl Fresh w a t e r , "LEDITERR ANEN
Salt water contact
-2oO'Piezometric level

I /' ? 59 l ? O l ? O kr
7E;O 30

Fig. 7.7a. Flow net in Sahara aquifer (Hellstrom, Fig. 7.7b. Flow net in the Western Desert of Egypt
B., 1940) (Ezzat, M., 1976)
 311

TABLE 7 . 1 T o t a l d i s c h a r g e of w e l l s a n d n a t u r a l l o s s e s i n Western Desert (Ezzat,

M.A., 1976)

Discharge of Natural Total

Area
w e l l s , m3/day l o s s e s , m3/day m3/day

Siwa O a s i s 120.000 300.000 420.000

Q u a t t a r a Depression 1.400.000 1.400.000
F a r a f r a & B a h a r i y a Oases 145.000 400.000 545.000
Dakhla O a s i s 557 .OOO 141.000 698.000
Kharga O a s i s 225.000 190.740 416.000
South Kharga a r e a 100.000 100.000
Total 1.047 .OOO 2.531.740 3.579.000

7.2.3.2 Groundwater i n t h e E a s t e r n Desert

T h e r e i s t o o l i t t l e known a b o u t groundwater e x t r a c t i o n from t h e a q u i f e r
u n d e r l y i n g t h e E a s t e r n Desert. N e a r l y a l l o f t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n b e l o n g s
t o t h e d e s e r t between t h e N i l e D e l t a and t h e Suez C a n a l , some p a r t s of t h e
S a i n a i P e n i n s u l a a n d t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n d e s e r t o f Upper E g y p t . T h e s e a r e a s used
t o b e , and p r o b a b l y a r e s t i l l , o c c u p i e d by m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .
The w e l l s and b o r e h o l e s e x i s t i n g between t h e D e l t a and Suez C a n a l w e r e i n v e s -
t i g a t e d and r e p o r t e d by S h o t t o n , F.W., ( 1 9 4 6 ) . According t o t h i s s o u r c e t h e y
w e r e 7 3 i n t o t a l and t h e d e p t h t o w a t e r t a b l e v a r i e d between 2 m a n d 75 m , and
t h e y i e l d was i n t h e r a n g e of between a few hundred t o more t h a n 40 000 g a l s / h r .
Some water h o l e s w e r e d e s c r i b e d as y i e l d i n g v e r y sweet w a t e r and o t h e r s were
abandoned b e c a u s e t h e water w a s b r a c k i s h o r s a l i n e .
F o r t y b o r e h o l e s i n t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n d e s e r t of Upper Egypt were a l s o i n v e s t i -
g a t e d . I t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t s u p p l i e s from 1000 t o 5000 g a l s / h r of good q u a l i t y
water are o b t a i n a b l e by b o r e h o l e s a l o n g t h e N i l e V a l l e y . C o n t r a r i l y , s u p p l i e s i n
t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d s e d i m e n t a r y f o r m a t i o n s between t h e N i l e and t h e Red S e a a r e of
low y i e l d and o f bad q u a l i t y . I n some l o c a t i o n s t h e d e p t h t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e i n
t h e Nubian s a n d s t o n e c o u l d r e a c h 80 m below t h e ground s u r f a c e . S u p p l i e s of 500
t o 1000 g a l s / h r d r i n k a b l e w a t e r a r e o b t a i n a b l e by b o r e s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m
i n d e p t h i n t h e Wadis t r a v e r s i n g t h e Pre-Cambrian a r e a , w e s t of t h e w a t e r s h e d ,
a l m o s t midway t h e l i n e between Qena, on t h e N i l e , and S a f a g a , on t h e c o a s t of

t h e Red S e a . S i m i l a r s u p p l i e s a r e o b t a i n a b l e e a s t of t h e w a t e r s h e d , b u t t h e
q u a l i t y o f w a t e r t e n d s t o be b a d . The sodium s u l p h a t e i n p a r t i c u l a r r e a c h e s a
h i g h l e v e l . The s u p p l i e s o b t a i n e d from t h e c o a s t a l s e d i m e n t a r y s t r i p a r e
e x t r e m e l y p o o r b o t h i n q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y ( P a v e r , G.L., 1 9 4 6 ) .
7.2.3.3 Groundwater i n Upper Egypt
The c l i f f s which bound t h e c o u r s e of t h e N i l e R i v e r i n Upper Egypt a r e made
up of e i t h e r l i m e s t o n e o r s a n d s t o n e . The c o n t a c t s u r f a c e between them and t h e
 312

v a l l e y , i n which t h e r i v e r h a s c u t i t s c o u r s e , forms t h e boundary o f t h e a q u i f e r

system. Such a n a q u i f e r h a s been formed by t h e d e p o s i t s b r o u g h t up by t h e N i l e
d u r i n g t h e w e t p e r i o d s . The a q u i f e r c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t t y p e s :

u n c o n f i n e d , occupying a l m o s t o n e - q u a r t e r o f t h e s u r f a c e a r e a of Upper Egypt and

semi-confined, o c c u p y i n g t h e r e s t o f t h e area. The l a t t e r i s o v e r l a i n by a r e l a -
t i v e l y t h i n l a y e r of s i l t , loam and c l a y . Both t y p e s o f a q u i f e r s a r e b u i l t u p ,
however, o f t h e same materials: g r a d e d s a n d s a n d g r a v e l s .
L i t h o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n s a c r o s s t h e V a l l e y a t some l o c a t i o n s are shown i n F i g .
7.8., ( A t t i a , F. e t a l , 1 9 8 3 ) . The s t u d y o f t h e l i t h o l o g y , and t h e a n a l y s i s o f
t h e pumping-test d a t a have l e d us t o t h e r e s u l t s i n c l u d e d i n T a b l e 7 . 2 ( S h a h i n ,
M., 1 9 8 3 ) .

E
.-C
C
0
.-
-+
LEGEND
0
>
-
m]
y120
w
80 -
40+ :
. .. S a n d & Gravel

0 - Limes t o n e
-
-
40
00

Fig. 7 . 8 L i t h o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n s a c r o s s t h e N i l e V a l l e y i n Upper Egypt

The w a t e r b a l a n c e of t h e r i v e r s t r e t c h between Aswan and C a i r o , t h e water

b a l a n c e of t h e c u l t i v a t e d area t r a v e r s e d by t h e same s t r e t c h and t h e w e i g h t e d
a v e r a g e r e c h a r g e method h a v e been worked o u t . The e s t i m a t e d r e c h a r g e t o t h e
r i v e r was found t o be i n t h e r a n g e of between 1.33 mlrd m3/yr t o 2 . 6 7 mlrd m3/yr
f o r t h e p e r i o d from 1972 t o 1980.
 313

The downward p e r c o l a t i o n o f t h e e x c e s s o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r and t h e seepage

from h i g h - l e v e l c a n a l s a r e t h e two p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e s o f r e c h a r g e of t h e a q u i f e r
s y s t e m , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e post-High Dam p e r i o d .

TABLE 7 . 2 G e o h y d r o l o g i c a l c o n s t a n t s of t h e a q u i f e r s y s t e m u n d e r l y i n g Upper

Egypt

Aquifer Semi-confining l a y e r
Type of a q u i f e r
k , m/day D, m kD, m2/day S k ’ , mm/day d ’ , m C, day
Unconfined 40- 80 15- 60 1000- 5000 0 . 1 0 - 0 . 1 2 - - -
Semi-confined . 40-120 15-240 1000-20000 (5-50) 1-10 3-20 200-4000

7.2.3.4 Groundwater i n t h e N i l e Delta a r e a

The N i l e D e l t a a q u i f e r i s one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t groundwater r e s e r v o i r s
i n E g y p t . S y s t e m a t i c h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e D e l t a a r e a began i n
1954 and i s s t i l l underway. T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n so f a r h a s l e d t o some under-
s t a n d i n g of t h e groundwater p r o p e r t i e s , p a r a m e t e r s and movement i n t h e a q u i f e r
system t h e r e .
The a q u i f e r h a s r e c e n t l y been r e p o r t e d as c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
(Shahin, M . , 1983) and n o t o n l y of t h e u n c o n f i n e d t y p e ( S h a t a , A . , e t a l , 1969)
o r of t h e open-leaky flow s y s t e m ( F a r i d , M.S., 1 9 8 0 ) . The a p p r o x i m a t e b o u n d a r i e s
s e p a r a t i n g t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f a q u i f e r c a n b e s e e n from t h e map, F i g . 7 . 9 . An
i m p r e s s i o n a b o u t t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y and l i t h o l o g y c a n b e s e e n from t h e l o n g i t u d i -
n a l and c r o s s - s e c t i o n s which were p r e p a r e d by S o l a i t , M.L. (1964).
The g e o h y d r o l o g i c c o n s t a n t s of t h e t h r e e t y p e s of a q u i f e r u n d e r l y i n g t h e N i l e
D e l t a a r e a t o g e t h e r with those belonging t o t h e r e s e r v o i r connecting the Delta
and Upper Egypt a r e i n c l u d e d i n T a b l e 7 . 3 .
Each y e a r t h e N i l e D e l t a a r e a r e c e i v e s s o m e t h i n g l i k e 35 x lo9 m 3 of s u r f a c e
w a t e r from t h e N i l e f o r i r r i g a t i o n , i n d u s t r y and water s u p p l y . T h i s r e c h a r g e s
t h e a q u i f e r t h r o u g h i n f i l t r a t i o n o f e x c e s s i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r and t h r o u g h seepage
from an e x t e n s i v e network o f c a n a l s and d r a i n s . The water b u d g e t of t h e Nile
D e l t a a r e a h a s been s t u d i e d by a number of a u t h o r i t i e s r e s u l t i n g i n a r a n g e of
a q u i f e r r e c h a r g e volumes. T h i s r a n g e c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e r a n g e of 5 t o 10% of t h e
i n p u t v a l u e , i . e . from a b o u t 2 t o 4 mlrd m 3 / y r . Kashef, A . , (1983) s u g g e s t s
3 . 9 8 x lo9 m 3 / y r t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p o t e n t i a l water s u r p l u s f o r f u t u r e development,
u n l e s s u n a c c o u n t e d l o s s e s o r e r r o r s i n t h e e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s of t h e items com-
p r i s i n g t h e water balance appear i n t h e f u t u r e . Shahin, M . , (1983) h a s o b t a i n e d
a f i g u r e of 2 . 2 x lo9 m3/yr. Which f i g u r e i s more a c c u r a t e i s n o t t h e main ques-
t i o n . What i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t t h e a q u i f e r u n d e r l y i n g t h e N i l e D e l t a a r e a
r e c e i v e s a c e r t a i n r e c h a r g e a t t h e end of e a c h y e a r . That p a r t which does n o t
e s c a p e t o t h e sea o r f l o w h e r e and t h e r e t o any of t h e e x i s t i n g d e p r e s s i o n s
 314

r]
..... Phreatic Aquifer Confined A q u i f e r Leaky A q u i f e r

F i g . 7.9. The t h r e e t y p e s o f a q u i f e r u n d e r l y i n g t h e N i l e D e l t a a r e a and t h e

r e s i s t a n c e of t h e o v e r l y i n g c a p .

TABLE 7.3 Summary of t h e g e o h y d r o l o g i c c o n s t a n t s of t h e r e s e r v o i r s u n d e r l y i n g

t h e N i l e D e l t a and i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Upper Egypt

Aquifer Semi-conf i n i n g l a y e r
Type o f
aquifer
k , m/day D, m kD, m2/day S k', W d a y d ' , m C , day

Unconfined 50- 80 50-150 2500-12000 0.15-0.25 - - -

Semi-confined 25-100 100-250 2500-25000 (1-10) 1-3 8-20 3000-20000
Confined U N K N O W N <1 20-50 20000-50000
Greater Cairo 1000-10000 (1-28) 1-5 8-10 1500-10000

produces a rise i n t h e water t a b l e l e v e l . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t o p r e v e n t t h i s

r i s e by pumping t h e g r o u n d w a t e r . Would t h e pumping w e l l s b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e n as a
means of d r a i n a g e o r a s a means of e x t r a c t i n g w a t e r f o r , s a y , i r r i g a t i o n o r f o r
t h e two p u r p o s e s combined? The answer t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s depends p r i m a r i l y on
t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e pumped w a t e r and i t s v a r i a b i l i t y b o t h i n t i m e and i n s p a c e .
 3 15

The r e s u l t s which have b e e n o b t a i n e d from a very r e c e n t s t u d y on t h e s a l i n i t y

of t h e g r o u n d w a t e r i n t h e D e l t a a q u i f e r ( K a s h e f , A . , 1983) are r a t h e r a l a r m i n g .
They show a d e e p e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e s e a w a t e r i n t o t h e a q u i f e r t h a n i t was
e v e r t h o u g h t . The i n l a n d e x t e n t o f t h e zone of s a l i n e groundwater ( u n s u i t a b l e
f o r most p u r p o s e s ) , i n s t e a d of b e i n g a b o u t 5 0 km, h a s been s u g g e s t e d t o b e n o t
less t h a n 120 km from t h e sea c o a s t .

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