(Escoe A.K.) Mechanical Design of Process Systems PDF

Mgchanica!
Design
of Process Systems
Volumel
Piping and
Pressure Vessels
A.Keith Escoe
Gulf Publishing Company

Book Division
Houston, London, Paris, Tokyo
Mechanical Dsign
of hocess Sy$erns
Volume
Piping ard
hesun \bsels
O 1986 by Gulf Publishing Compann Houston,'Ibxas.

rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This
book, or parts thereof, may not be reproducd in any form without
permission of the publisher.
Copyright
All
Library of Congrcss Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Escoe, A. Keith.
Mechanical design of process systems.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Chemical plants-Design and consbuction.
L Title.
TP155.5.E83
1986
6@.2' 8l
85-22005
ISBN G87201-562-9 (Vol. 1)

ISBN G 87201-565-3 (Vol. 2)
IY
Contents
Foreword
...,....vii
Fluid Forces Exerted on Piping Systems,
by John J. McKetta
.. , .... ...
Preface
Chapter 1
Piping Fluid
Mechanics
...........
ix
Basic Equations, I
Non-Newtonian Fluids, 5
Velocity Heads, 8
Pipe Flow Geometries, 22
Comoressible Flow. 25
Piping Fluid Mechanics Problem Formulation, 25
Example 1-1: Friction Pressure Drop for a
Hydrocarbon Gas-Steam Mixture in a Pipe, 27
Example 1-2: Frictional Ptessure Drop for a Hot

Oil System of a Process Thnk, 33
Example 1-3: Friction Pressure Drop for a Waste
Heat Recovery System, 42
Example 1-4: Pressure Drop in Relief Valve
Piping System, 43
Notation, 45
References, 45
81
Extraneous Piping Loads, 83

Example 2-l: Applying the Stiffness Method to a
Modular Skid-Mounted Gas Liquefaction
Facility,88
Example 2-2: Applying the Flexibility Method to
a Steam Turbine Exhaust Line, 95
Example 2-3: Flexibility Analysis for Hot Oil
Piping,96
Example 2-42 Lug Design, 98
Example 2-5: Relief Valve Piping System, 99
Example 2-61 Wind-Induced Vibrations of
Piping, 100
Notation, 101
References, 101
Chapter 3
Heat Transfer in Piping and Equipment
...
Jacketed Pipe versus Traced Pipe, 103
Tracing Piping Systems, 106

Traced Piping without Heat Tmnsfer Cement.
Traced Piping with Heat Transfer Cement.
Condensate Return. Jacketed Pipe. Vessel and
Equipment Traced Systems.
Heat Transfer in Residual Systems, 132
Chapter 2
The Engineering Mechanics of Piping
.,...47
Piping Criteria, 47
Primary and Secondary Stresses, 49

Allowable stress Range for Secondary Stresses.
Flexibility and Stiffness of Piping Systems, 52

Stiffness Method Advantages. Flexibility
Method Advantages.
Stiffness Method and Large Piping, 58

Flexibility Method of Piping Mechanics. Pipe
Loops.
PiDe
- Restraints and Anchors. 68
Pipe Lug Supports. Spfing Supports. Expansion

Joints. Pre-stressed Piping.
Heat Transfer through Cylindrical Shells.

Residual Heat Transfer through Pipe Shoes.
Example 3-1:
Example 3-2:
Example 3-3:
Example 3-4:
Thnk, 140
Example 3-5:
Tank, 142
Steam Tracing Design, 136
Hot Oil Tracing Design, 137

Jacketed Pipe Design, 139
Thermal Evaluation of a Process

Thermal Design of a Process
Internal Baffle Plates Film Coefficient. Film

Coefficient External to Baffles-Forced
Convection. Heat Duty of Internal Vessel
Plates. Outside Heat Transfer Jacket Plates.
Heat Duty of Jacket Plates Clamped to Bottom
Vessel Head. Total Heat Duty of Tank.
103
Example 3-6: Transient and Static Heat Transfer

Design, 148
Example 4-3: Seismic Analysis of a Vertical

Tower, 237
Example 44: Vibration Analysis for Tower with
Large Vortex-Induced Displacements, 241
Static Heat Transfer Analysis. Total Heat

Removal. Water Required for Cooling.
Transient Hear Transfer Analysis.
Moments of Inertia. Wind Deflections.
Example 3-7: Heat Transfer through Vessel

Skirts, 152
Example 3-E: Residual Heat Transfer, 154
Example 3-9: Heat Transfer through Pipe Shoe,
Example 4-5: Saddle Plate Analysis of

Horizontal Vessel, 249
Saddle Plate Buckling Analysis. Horizontal

Reaction Force on Saddle.
156
Notation,252
References,254
Notation, 156
References, 157
Appendix A
Partial Volumes and Pressure Vessel
Chapter 4
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure
Vessels
... . .....
Cafcufations
159
Longitudinal Bending Stresses. Location of

Saddle Supports. Wear Plate Design. Zick
Stiffening Rings.
Steel Saddle Plate Design, 174

Saddle Bearing Plate Thickness, 180
Design of Self-Supported Vertical Vessels, 180
Minimum Shell Thickness Reouired for

Combined Loads, 181
Support Skirt Design, 183
Anchor Bolts, 184
Base Plate Thickness Design, 186
Compression Ring and Gusset Plate Design, 189
Anchor Bolt Torque, 189
Whd Aralysis of Towers, 190
Appendix B
National Wind Design Standards
Appendix C
Properties of
Pipe.
,.....271
Insulation Weight Factors, 278
Appendix D
Conversion Factors
1t i
Wear Plate Requirement Analysis,
.....
. 303
Alphabetical Conversion Factors, 304
215
Example 12: Mechanical Design of Process

Column. 215
Synchronous Speeds, 31 1
Temperature Conversion. 3l 2
Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures, 313
Pressure Conversion Chart, 314
Sectron lt{omenls of Inertial lbwer Section

Stress Calcularions. Skirt and Base Plate
Design- Section Centroids. Vortex-Induced
vibrarion. Equivalent Diameter Approach
-{\S[
265
Weights of Piping Materials, 279
Seismic Design of Tall Towers, 209

\anical Distribution of Shear Forces.
Tower Shell Discontinuities and Conical Sections,
versus
.........
Criteria for Determining Wind Speed, 265

Wind Speed Relationships, 266
ANSI A58.1-1982 Wind Cateeories. 267
r'\'ind Design Speeds. Wind-Induced Moments.

$ ind-Induced Deflections of Towers.
l ind-Induced Vibrations on Tall Towers.
O\aling. Criteda for Vibration Analysis.
{-l:
.....25s
Partial Volumes of Spherically Dished Heads,

256
Partial Volumes of Elliptical Heads, 257
Partial Volumes of Torispherical Heads, 259
Internal Pressure ASME Formulations with
Outside Dimensions, 261
Internal Pressure ASME Formulations with Inside
Dimensions,262
Designing for Internal Pressure, 159

Designing for External Pressure, 160
Design of Horizontal Pressure Vessels, 166
Exanple
Index
A58.1- 1982.
vl
..
.... . ...
315
Foreword
proper respect in two excellent chapters on fluid mechanics and the engineering mechanics of piping.
The chapter on heat transfer in vessels and piping illustrates lucidly the interrelationship between process
and mechanical design. Every engineer working with industrial process systems will benefit from reading this
The engineer who understands the impact of process

design decisions on mechanical design details is in a position to save his client or his company a lot of money.
That is because the test of any process design is in how
cost-effectively it yields the desired product, and how
"cost" generally translates to "equipment": How much
will the process require? How long will it last? How
much energy will it consume per unit of product?
chaDter.
Although the author has made a herculean effort in

covering the mechanical design of pressure vessels, heat
exchangers, rotating equipment, and bins, silos and
stacks, it is true that there are omissions. It is hoped that,
as the author hints in his preface, a future volume might
be added covering multiphase flow, specific cogeneration processes, turbines, and detailed piping dynamics.
Still, at this writing these two volumes comprise an
outstanding practical reference for chemical and mechanical engineers and a detailed instructional manual
for students.
I recommend these volumes highly for each design engineer's professional library.
In this two-volume work on Mechanical Design of

A. K. Escoe has performed a monumental service for mechanical design engineers and
Process Systems,
chemical process engineers alike. It is presented in such

a manner that even the neophyte engineer can grasp its
full value. He has produced an in-depth review of the
way in which process design specifications are interpreted into precise equipment designs. Perhaps most
valuable of all are the extensive worked examples
throughout the text, of actual designs that have been successfully executed in the field.
The piping system is the central nervous system of a
fluid flow orocess. and the author has treated this with
John J. McKexa. Ph.D., P.E.

Joe C. Waher Professor of Chemical Engineering
UniversitY of Texas ' Austin
vii
Dedication
To the memory of my beloved parents, Aubrey H. Escoe and Odessa Davies Escoe; and to. the dedicated engineer, Dr. Judith Arlene Resnik, U.S. astronaut aboard
the ill-fated space shuttle Chnllenger (Flight
v|ll
5l-L).
d{ ry,'
heface to Volume I
This book's purpose is to show how to apply mechanical engineering concepts to process system design. Process systems are common to a wide variety of industries
including petrochemical processing, food and pharmaceutical manufacturing, power generation (including co-
felt that this book is a valuable supplement to any standard or code used.
The book is slanted toward the practices of the ASME
vessel and piping codes. In one area of vessel design the
British Standard is favored because it nrovides excellent
technical information on Zick rings. The book is written
to be useful regardless of which code or standard is used.
The intent is not to be heavily prejudiced toward any
standard, but to discuss the issue-engineering. If one
feels that a certain standard or code should be mentione.d, please keep in mind that there are others who
may be using different standards and it is impossible to
generation), ship building, and even the aerospace industry. The book is based on years of proven, successful
practice, and almost all of the examples described are
from process systems now in operation.
While practicality is probably its key asset, this first
volume contains a unique collection ofvaluable information, such as velocity head data; comparison ofthe flexibility and stiffness methods of pipe stress analyses; anal-
discuss all of them.

The reader's academic level is assumed to be a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering, but engineers with bachelor of science degrees in civil, chemical, electrical, or other engineering disciplines should
have little difficulty with the book, provided, of course,
that they have received adequate academic training or
experience.
ysis of heat transfer through pipe supports and vessel

skirts; a comprehensive method on the design of horizontal vessel saddles as well as a method to determine
when wear plates are required; detailed static and dynamic methods of tower design considering wind gusts,
vortex-induced vibration and seismic analysis of towers;
and a comparative synopsis of the various national wind
Junior or senior undergraduate engineering students
cooes.
Topics include.d in the text are considered to be those
should find the book a useful introduction to the application of mechanical engineering to process systems. Professors should find the book a helpful reference (and a
source for potential exam problems), as well as a practi-
typically encountered in engineering practice. Therefore, because most mechanical systems involve singlephase flow, two-phase flow is not covered. Because of
its ubiquitous coverage in the literature, flange design is
also excluded in this presentation. Since all of the major
pressure vessel codes thoroughly discuss and illustrate
cal textbook for junior-, senior-, or graduateJevel
courses in the mechanical, civil, or chemical engineering

fields. The book can also be used to supplement an intro-
the phenomenon of external pressure, this subject is only
ductory level textbook.

The French philosopher Voltaire once said, "Common
sense is not very common," and unfortunately, this is
sometimes the case in engineering. Common sense is often the by-product of experience, and while both are essential to sound engineering practice, neither can be
mentioned briefly.
This book is not intended to be a substitute or a replacement of any accepted code or standard. The reader
is strongly encouraged to consult and be knowledgeable
of any accepted standard or code that may govern. It is
ix
--*
learned from books alone. It is one ofthis book's eoats to

unite these three elements of "book learning," c6mmon
sense, and experience to give the novice a better grasp of
engineering principles and procedures, and serve as a
practical design reference for the veteran engineer.
Finally, I wish to thank Dr. John J. McKetta, professor
of chemical engineering at the University of Texas at
Austin, who had many helpful comments, suggestions,
and words of encouragement. I also wish to thank other

engineering faculty members at the University of Texas
at Austin for their comments. I must exDress thanks to
Larry D. Briggs for reviewing some ialculations
in
Chapter 4; and last, but certainly not least, I wish to express gratitude to William J. Lowe and Timothy W. Calk
of Gulf Publishing Company, whose hard work and patience made this book oossible.
A. Keith Escoe, PE.
.{
j&ir,,
Piping Fluid Mechanics
The study of fluid energy in piping systems is a comprehensive subject that could in itself fill countless volumes. This chapter is primarily concerned witl fluid energy dissipated as friction resulting in a head loss.
Although this topic is popularly known in industry as

"hydraulics," the term "piping fluid mechanics" is used
here to avoid confusion.
Pr
- Pz = V,t=- vrt + (y. _yr;1p

p
28"
c"
I and 2 refer to flow upstream (after

the flow process) and downstream (before the flow process), respectively, and
where subscripts
Pt
Pz
BASIC EOUATIONS
p
where
29"
P:
g"
,llr. + ,1ll^
(l-l)
F:
He:
HE:
Yr)
I =
change in static head (potential energy)
friction 1o* in
!JlQ,
cm (kg)
density, lb./ft3 or g./cm3

pressure, lb/ft2 or kg/cm2
conversion constant, 32. 17 (ft-lb./sec2lbr)
gravitational acceleration
g/9" :
dY:
change in velocity head (kinetic energy)
:dz
F
velocity, ftlsec or cm/sec
8":
change in pressure head
29"
(Yr
-r-
Vt^- V' :
The basic equation of fluid mechanics, originally derived by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, evolved from the
principle of conservation of energy:
,]V r ,{E
(r-2)
32.2 fllsecz,
cm/sec2;
1.0
height above datum, ft, cm
differential between height above datum and
reference point, ft, cm

head loss, friction loss, or frictional pressure
drop, ft-lbr/Ib., cm-kg6/g.
energy added by mechanical devices, e.g.
pumps, ft-lb/Ib., cm-kg/g.
energy extracted by mechanical devices, e.g.
The following are expressions of the Bernoulli equation when applied to various incompressible and compressible flow conditions:
Incompressible
flow-
p, - P.
- v.2
zE"
gc
Compre s sib le -i s othermal
turbines, ftlb6/1b., cm-kg/g.
Rewriting Equation l-1 along a fluid streamline between

points 1 and 2 with steady, incompressible flow and no
mechanical energy added or extracted results in
v,2
FJn
H X[
f low -
_[*l
[*l]
+F+HA+HE
(zz
- z,
Mechanical Design of Process Systems
Compre s s ib le -adiabati c f low
H [1 [' -
(,*J'.-"']
: xl' -FJ^ [*J]

+(22-z)+F
+HA+HE
where
\* /p\
l- | : l:l : general gas law
\Prl \rrl
k : .specific heat ratio (adiabatic coefficient),
/o
t- lt-
Cp :
sPecific heat at constant pressure,
Btu/lb.-'F
C, :
specific heat at constant volume, Btu/lb--"F
Equation 1-2 is the analytical expression that states a

pressure loss is caused by a change in velocity head,
static head, and ftiction head. The most cofirmon units
are "feet of head." lb. and lbr do not cancel out and the
expression is exactly "energy
(ft-lb) per pound of
mass."
In most industrial fluid problems, Equation 1-2
is
cumbersome to use, because the friction loss is the parameter most often desired. The friction loss is the work
done by the fluid in overcoming viscous resistance. This
friction loss can only rarely be analytically derived and is
determined by empirical data developed through experi-
mental testins
Forcing a fluid through a pipe component requires energy. This energy is expended by shear forces that develop between the pipe wall and the fluid, and to a lesser
extent among the fluid elements themselves. These shear
forces are opposed to fluid flow and require excess energy to overcome. Figure 1-l shows a simple version of
this phenomenon and illustrates how shear stresses increase in the radial direction away from the pipe center
line and are maximum within the boundary layer next to
the wall. Friction energy loss is a resuit of these shear
stresses next to the pipe wall. Excess loss in energy occurs because of local turbulence and changes in the direction and speed of flow. As a fluid changes direction,
energy is expended because of a change in momentum.
The methods used to determine energy loss caused by
wall friction are essentially the same, where the pipe
component is treated as a straight piece of pipe. However, the methods used to determine energy loss caused
by change in momentum differ, and a couple are described as follows.
Equivalent Length
In this approach to determining energy loss caused by
fluid momentum, a piping component is extended a theoretical length that would yield the same energy loss as the actual component. This length is called
the "equivalent length" because it is that length required
to obtain the same amount of friction pressure drop as
the piping component alone. The major problem with
a change in
dv
oy
x+c
---[,
9e a"] or1'1
rf>
--
Figure 1-1. Shear stresses in fully developed flow. Shown here are imaginary fluid elements "slipping" over one another.
Piping Fluid
this method is that the equivalent length for a pipe component varies with the Reynolds number, roughness,
size, and geometry of the pipe. All these par.rmeters
must be analyzed in using this method.
Velocity Head llethod

Since the excess head loss is mostly attributed to fluid
turbulence, the velocity head method is widely accepted
and is replacing the equivalent length method in fluid

calculations. Throughout this book, the velocity head ap-
Mechanics
into the piping system, the factor F in Equation 1-2 becomes the desired parameter. This friction loss is the
work done by the fluid in overcoming viscous resistance
and loss attributed to turbulence. The parameter F is
composed of two components, pipe wall friction and
losses for the various pipe fittings, pipe entrances, pipe
exits, and fluid obstructions that contribute to a loss in
fluid energy. These latter losses are described in terms of

velocity heads, K;. In solving for F in Equation 1-2, we
first obtain pressure loss attributed to pipe wall friction,
represented by
proach will be used.

The velocity head is the amount of kinetic energy in a
fluid, Y2l2g". This quantity may be represented by the
amount of potential energy required to accelerate a fluid
to a given velocity. Consider a tank holding a fluid with a
pipe entrance shown in Figure 1-2. We draw a streamline
By adding values of velocity head losses to Equation 1-3,

we obtain the lollowing for any piping system:
from point 1 of the fluid surface to point 2 at the pipe

entrance. Applying Equation 1-2 at point 1 we obtain the
followins:
1=
p
\,,
-AP.'
aP,
=.: eyll]
2e. \d/
:
t".
ILL
\u
(1-3)
.,,
)-r,l4I
.6c
(l-4)
flld
And applying Equation 1-2 at point 2 we have
Pr-P2_Pr_V22
PP2g"
in which the change in fluid pressure between points I
and,2 is Y ] l2g, or one velocity head. A pressure gauge
mounted on the pipe entrance would record the difference of pressure of one velocity head. This term is accounted for in Equation 1-2 by Y y2 - Y2212g..
Analyzing a simple conversion from potential to kinetic energy is an elementary procedure, as demonstrated. After the fluid passes through the pipe entrance
where
is the dependent pipe friction of the pipe of
diameter d over the length L, and DK; the summation of
velocity head losses. Equation l-4 provides the friction
pressure drop in a pipe for a steady-state incompressible
fluid of fully developed flow with a flat veiocity profile.
Examples of this equation are given after the terms in

Equation 14 are further explained.
The term (flld) (pV2l2g") expresses the amount of energy loss attributed to shear forces at the pipe wall and is
based on experimental evidence. It is a function of the
pipe component length and diameter and the velocity of
the fluid. Writing the relationship for friction pressure
drop as a result of pipe wall friction results in
-'p' -
[L
pV']
t+qd
2i-
where Fp,
L:
d:
'
'-J'
i.i"aion torr, pri

length of pipe, in.
corroded inside diameter, in.
The other terms are explained with Equation
1-1.
Equation l-5 may be expressed in various forms. To express flow rate in gpm (w) and d in inches use
FPf
0.000217 fLW/d5
(l-5a)
Equation l-5 is the most commonly used relationship

and is known as the Fanning equation. Dividing the
equation by p/144 yields feet of friction loss rather than
psl.
Figure 1-2. Storage tank.
The reader is cautioned in applying the friction factor

f, because it is not always defined as above and some au-
thors use 4f1 in place of f. If such factors are used, particular attention should be paid to the specific friction
factor chart used.
The friction factor f is dependent upon the dimensionless term expressing the roughness of the pipe (E/D,
where E is the depth of the pipe) and the dimensionless
Reynolds number
Nr"
dpV/M, where
l1,
is the absolute
viscosity of the fluid, inJb1-sec/ftz. The Reynolds number is the single most important parameter in fluid mechanics because it establishes flow regimes and dynamic
sirnilarity. The relationship between the friction factor f,
the pipe roughness, and the Reynolds number is shown
in the classic relationship given by Moody in Figure 1-3.
Figure l-3 may be presented in a more convenient
form as shown in Figure 1-4, where the relative roughness of the pipe is based on a single value of roughness.
This value of roughness must be an average value estimated to simplii/ the problem. The figures presented
herein are the best available until more reliable friction
factor data can be obtained and better understood

through use of new methods for measuring roughness.
Figure 1-3 is broken into three flow regimes-
laminar, transition from laminar to turbulent, and turbu-
lent. The Reynolds numbers establishing these zones are

2,100 for laminar, 2,100 to 3,000 for transition zone,
and 3,000 or more for turbulent
The basis for Figure 1-3 is the classic Colebrook equatron
|
r1r,
: -.^.to8ro Idd 2.51

[- " **,rpi
for (3,000 to 4,000)
<
NR"
(l -6a)
<
108
For laminar flow the friction factor is determined by the

simple expression
"64
(1-6b)
Nn.
.09
.08
.07
.05
.04
.06
.01
.o?
.0t5
.04
.01
.008
=-
.006
.03
oo4 :
003 :
002
.0015
^^,
-0008 -'
.0006
.01
.009
.008
? 3 4 56 I
2 3 4 56 Blo5 2 3 4 56 to7 \2
-q-s9l
r, -If* , o i' n., ,' ir *4r =
= f
'.
ff
Figure 1-3. Moody friction factors. (Repdnted from Pipe Friction Manual, @ 1954 by Hydraulic Institute. Data from L.
Moody, Frioion Faaors for Pipe Flow, permission of ASME.)
z J 4 56 8 rot
R?ynotds Nunber n"
F.
#( -8u
Pipe oiameter, in Fet
-/)
,=
Pipe Diafleier, in Inchs
-,/
Figure 1-4. Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction factors for complete turbulence. (Courtesy of Crane Company [5].
Data from L. F Moody, Friction Factors for Pipe Flow permission of ASME.)
Equation 1-6a, which describes the friction factor for

turbulent flow in pipe of any roughness, is a simple addi
tion of the Prandtl solution for smooth pipe and the von
Karman solution for rough pipe. The relationship holds
for the transition between rough and smooth pipe.
To solve Equation 1-6a for the friction factor f an iterative analysis is required because the function is nonhomogeneous and inseparable. There are several empirical
relations of f expressed as an independent separate function of f G/d, NR.), but with today's micro-computers
Equation l-6 can be solved more accurately and expediently with iteration.
-rll
Dimensional forms of Equation 1-4 are presented in

Table 1-1 [1], where the equation is conveniently shown
in various units that are used to solve fluid pressure loss
problems.
NON.NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
The Colebrook equation holds for fluids whose flow
properties are dependent on the fluid viscosity. These
fluids consist of all gases, liquids, and solutions of low
molecular weieht and are known as Newonian fluids. In
Plessure Ol?p,
Table 1-1
Dimensional Forms Used With Equation 1-4
ne
[11
r, ana
= rate -APr or pHr L

IrNr">2,ooo'r:[2
g
nvz
w {*-r^,.i
+
*
rr
'l
pt)pD
pD2 e
\
'l uoQ' cQP dQ pv'
/!& * ",. D4 pD
D2
.
"- \ D ' -L\J
Row
Conventlonal units
psl
w(Q)
psl
lb/h
(ft)
(gprn)
ln.
in.
tb/h
tn.
tn.
ln.
ln.
-AP(H'
e
ft
ft
lb/ft3
cp
ftls
HV
a
d
e
ft
lb/ft3
cp
ftls
psi
Units and constants

Metric units
(f9
inHrO[60"F]
ln.
(acfm)
In.
in.
bar
kg/s
mm
in.
rnm
ft
a,b,c,d,e
D
HI
9,266
mm
mm
kg/m3
mPa-s(cp)
kg/m3
kg/m3
Pa-s
Pa-s
m/s
bar
8.106
m/s
m/s
tb/f13
kglm3
ftls
cp
ft/s
ft/min
mPa-s(cp)
m/s
in. H2O
bar
0.02792
8.106 x 106
1,000
ft
6.316
0.05093
64 1aY ^
= pipe diameter
= \lbisbach friction factor
= frictional head loss
(m)
(m3/s)
cp
psr
50.66
0.4085
Pa
kg/s
m
m
lb/ft3
ft
50.66
0.4085
64.35 x p
t2
a=
number of velocity heads
ical behavior.
Non-Newtonian fluids are those in which the viscosity
alone does not define their rheological behavior. Sucir
fluids are solutions composed of solid particles that ex_
pand. Clay and very dense slurries are examples of non_
)iewronian fluids. The flow properties of suih fluids are
a function of the particle characteristics, e.g., size and
flexibility and thermal expansion.
Purely viscous non-Newtonian fluids are classified
into dree categories: time-dependent and time-indepen_
dent and viscoelastic. A time-dependent fluid displays
slo*' changes in rheological properties, such as thixbtr-o_
pic fluids that exhibit reversible structural chanses. Several ty,pes ofcrude oil fit inro this category. Anoiher rype
of tinre{ependent non-Newtonian fiuid is rheooectic
fluids- Under constant sustained shear, these fluidi. rate
of srrucrural deformation exceeds the rate of structural
decav. One such category of fluids is polvester.
Rheqectic fluids are less common than thixotrooic flu-
379.0
1.273
183.3
1.273 x106
1.204
106
piF
Newtonian fluids the viscosity alone defines the rheolos_
ids.
ft
bar
(L/s)
lb/ft3
cp
2.799x10-7 1.801x 10-5 4.031 x l0-5 2.593 x 10-3

t2
t2
12
12
6.316
0.05093
9,266
loglqQ27etD+(?/NR"o)],'
2xttr
length
frictional pressure drop
volumetric flowrate
Reynolds number
velocity
106
1,000
1.273
1.273
2xlo5
HV =
=
:
=
m
m
Pa
0.8106
0.08265
r.273
1.273
1.273
1.273
19.61xp
velocity head
pipe roughness
fluid viscosity
fluid density
Time-independent fluids that are purely viscous are

_
classified as. pseudoplastic, dilatant, Bingham, and yield-
pseudoplastic fluids. ln pseudoplastic

fluids an intinitesimal shear stress will initiate motion and the ratio of
shear stress with velocity decreases with increasins ve_
locity gradient. This type of fluid is encountered in iolu_
tions or- suspensions of fine particles that form loosely
bounded aggregates that can break down or reform witL
an increase or decrease in shear rate. Such solutions are
aqueous dispersions of polyvinyl acetate and of an acrv_
clic copolymer: aqueous solutions of sodium carboxy_
methyl cellulose, and of ammonium polymethacrylatl;

and an aqueous suspension of limestone.
In dilatant fluids an infinitesimal shear stress will start
motion and the ratio of shear stress to velocity increases
as the velocity is increased. A dilatant fluid ij characterized by an increase in volume of a fixed amount of dispersion, such as wet sand, when subiected to a deforma_
tion that alters the interparticli distances oI its
constituents from their minimum-size confisuration.
Such fluids are titanium dioxide particles in waier or su-
':bl&,,
Piping Fluid
crose solution. Dilatant fluids are much rarer than

pseudoplastic fluids.
ln Bingham fluids a finite shearing stress is required to
initiate motion and there is a linear relationship between
the shearing stress-after motion impends-and the velocity gradient. Such fluids include thickened hydrocarbon greases, certain asphalts, water suspensions of clay,
fly ash, finely divided minerals, quartz, sewage sludge,
and point systems.
Yield-pseudoplastic fluids are similar to Bingham fluids, but the relationship between the excess shearing
stress after motion impends and velocity gradient is nonlinear. Fluids in this category are defined by their rheograms, where relationships between the shear stress and
rate of shear exhibit a geometric convexity to the shear
stress axis. Such fluids are many clay-water and similar
suspensions and aqueous solutions of carboxypolymethylene (carbopol).

Viscoelastic fluids make up the last category of nonNewtonian fluids. The term "viscoelastic fluid" is applied to the most general of fluids-those that exhibit the
characteristic of partial elastic recovery of the fluid
structure. Whenever a viscoelastic fluid is subiected to a
rapid change in deformation, elastic recoil oi stress relaxation occurs. Many solutions exhibit viscoelastic
properties under appropriate conditions-molten polymers, which are highly elastic; and solutions of longcharged molecules, such as polyethylene oxide and poly-
acrylamides. Processes such as coagulation, oil-well

fracturing, and high-capacity pipelines rely on polymeric
additives to cause pressure drops. Viscoelastic fluids exhibit the "Weissenberg effect," which is caused by normal stresses and produces unusual phenomena, such as
the tendency of the fluid to climb up a shaft rotating in
the
Mechanics
100,000 the following empirical relations can be used

for determinins the friction factor:
(Ni") b"
where bn
n=
0.0019498 (n)-45"
(7.8958
Typical values for
"y
l0-7) (a") 182.1321

and n are given in Table 1-2 [3].
Values for "y and n not available in literature must be de-
termined by viscosimeter measurements.

Figure 1-5 shows the rheological classification of non-
Newtonian mixtures that behave as single-phase flow.

The reader is urged to refer to Govier [4] for further information on non-Newtonian fluid or other complex
mixtures. Usually, the mechanical design of process systems does not involve non-Newtonian fluids, but knowledge of them and their peculiarities is a must if the need
anses.
MULTI.PHASE
SINGLE PHASE
TRUE HOMOGENEOUS
fluid.
For any time-independent non-Newtonian fluid, Metzer and Reed [2] have developed the following generalized Reynolds number fraction:
=
N*"
D'
U2-np
(1-7)
"l
where D :
U :
p :
^l :
:
n:
For
Np"
n:
PLASTIC C OILAIAI.II
pipe
ID, ft
average bulk velocity, ftlsec
density, lb,/fC
generalized viscosity coefficient, lb./ft
gc c 8n-r (see Table 1-1)
sec
experimentally determined flow constant,
for a Newtonian fluid
empirical constant that is a function of
non-Newtonian behavior (flow behavior
index), 1.0 for Newtonian fluids
//g"
1.0 and C : p/g", Equation 1-7 reduces to

Du p/p for Newtonian fluids. For 2,100 < NR"
Figure 1-5. Rheological classification

that behave as single phase fluids [4].
of complex mixtures
Mechanical Design of Proces: Slstems
Tabte 1-2
Rheological Constants tor Some Typical Non-Newtonian Fluids*
ol Fluid
23.3% Illinois yellow clay in water
Rheological Constants
n
0.229
of Fluid
0.863
0.67 % carboxy -methyf cellulose
(CMC) in water
1.5% CMC in water
3.0% CMC in water
33% \me water
10% napalm in kerosene
4% paper pulp in water
54.3% cement rock in water
o.716
0.121
0.554
0.566
0.920
0.171
2.80
0.983
0.520
1. 18
0.575
0.153
6.13
18.6% solids, Mississippi clay in

water
14.3 7o clay in water
2l .2% clay ln \nater
25.0% clay in water
31.9% clay in water
36.8% clay in water
40.4% clay in water
23% Iime in water
0.331
* Reproduced by permission: A. B. Metzner and J. C. Reed, AICHE Jownal,
l,434 (1955\.
VELOCITY HEADS
Returning to Equation 1-4, let's focus on the term
EKi. This term represents the excess velocity heads lost
in fluid motion due to fluid turbulence caused by local
turbulence at the pipe wall and change in flow direction.
The latter is the greatest contributor to the DKi term.
When a fluid strikes a surface and chanses flow direction. it loses momentum and. therelore. Jnergy. Considering the 90' elbow in Figure l-6, we see that the fluid
changes direction from the x to the y direction and imparts reactions Fx and Fy, each a function of the pressure
and velocity of the fluid. End conditions of the elbow determine some of the velocity head loss, that is, where the
fitting is a "smooth elbow" or a "screwed elbow." A

smooth elbow is one that is either flansed or welded to
the pipe such that a smooth internal srirface is encoun-
0.022
0.350
0.335
0.185
0.251
0.1'16
0.132
0. 178
0.105
0.0344
0.0855
0.2M
0.414
1.07
2.30
1.04
increased velocity head loss.
Analytical determination of velocity heads can only be

accomplished in a few simplified cases. The values for
velocity heads must be determined and verified empirically. Comprehensive listings of such velocity head (K)
values are given in Figures 1-7 t5l, 1-8 [5], 1-9 [6], and
1-10. Using these values in Equation 1-4, you can analyze most cases of friction pressure drop for pipe under
24 inches in diameter. For pipe with diameter greater
than 24 inches, an additional analysis must be made in
solving for the velocity head term. This method, presented by Hooper [7] is called the "two-K method."
TWO.K METHOD
As explained previously, the value of K does not depend on the roughness of the fitting or the fitting size,
but rather on the Reynolds number and the geometry of
the fitting. The published data for single K values apply
to fully-developed turbulent flow and K is independent
of N*. when N^. is well into the turbulent zone. As Nq.
approaches 1,000, the value of K increases. When Na"
< 1,000, the value ofK becomes inversely proportional
to NR". In large diameter pipe ( > 24 in.) the value of NRe
must be carefully considered if values of 1,000 or less
are encountered. The two-K method accounts for this dependency in the following equatron:
K1/Np"
:
K- :
d:
where K1
flow.
Rheological Constanis
tered by the flow. In a screwed elbow there are abrupt

changes in the wall causing local turbulence and henie
K:
Figure 1-6. Reactions on an elbow induced by a change of
13I
+ K- (1 + lid)
(1-8)
K for the fitting of NR" : I

K for a large fitting of NR" : oo
internal diameter of attached pipe, in.
kxt
:i. a.t'- ;;t:
continued page 22
:::a*a;=-:;i{ilif/r td
nt-*":m
Represenlolive Resisfonce Coeflicients (K) for Volves ond Fittings

PIPE FRICTION DATA FOR CTEAN CO'\AMERCIAL STEET PIPE
WITH FIOW IN ZONE OF COMPIETE TURBUTENCE
t/^n
3/q"
.o27
.o25
Nominol Size
Friclion
Focfor ( fr.)
.o23
I Y4"
1Y2"
.o22
.021
2V2.3"
.0r9
.018
FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING
.o17
"K"
.01 6
.01 5
8.10"
12-16"
t8-24"
.014
.01 3
.ot2
FACTORS'
FOR VALVES AND FITTINGS WITH REDUCED PORT
o.s(in9(, -
t/\2/^1
rz=
o'r
Ba
Kr=
tr
,,
Kz=
Formula
lA
K,- o r !sin
z , Formula
i(r
- trt + (r -
)2
tJ'|
"iG-p)\f"#
Kr
lf
a4
k.
Kr= j.n - 0(Formulaz 'Formula+) uhen d = r8o"
/.\
6(sin+(I - P)'?
K, _ ,__]____184
2
|,
K.
a2\2
K,
Kz=
K,+O [o : (, - g') + (t - 9')']
Kr
R4
^
Kr=SO *Formr.rla I + Formula
d,r
lJ \2
az_\d,J
12\
"
1I
_au
Subscript
K"=
Kr +sin3[o.a 0
P\ +2.6 (t
dennes dimensions
and coefncients with reference

02)2)
SUDDEN AND GRADUAI. CONTRACTION
to
the smaller diameter.

Subscript 2 refers to the larger
SUDDEN AND GRADUAT ENI.ARGEMENT
E;l
0<
+5".........K, - Formula
45" <e< r8oo...Kr
= Formula z
0.
4to. . .. . . . ..K2
- Formula
45o<0< r8o-. . .Kr = Formula 4
Figure 1-7A. Selected Crane Company velocity head values. (Courtesy Crane Company [5].)
10
SWING CHECK VATVES
GATE VAIVES
Wedge Disc, Double Disc, or Plug Type
TL
fNr,
r-L-r
FI-/f F
Et#
JLI I.-+ -ffa-rlf
. ts
= r,0 =
o.
...........
K' :
-/r
P< r and 0 < 45o ........K2: Formula

B< r and 45"<0< r8oo...Kz - Formula
K:
K:sof,
rcof7
Minimum pipe velocity

(fps) for full disc lift

(fps) for full disc lift
=)5vv
-a8!V
LIFT CHECK VAIVES

GTOBE AND ANGTE VAIVES
If: B: r...Kr=6oo/z
9. r.. .K, = Irormula 7
If: B:r...Kt=l+ofr
Minimum pipc r tlocitr itp.; ior full .lisc Iifr

: F p2 \,/ v
lf:
lf
A-t.. Kr=sjfr
9=
tr
r...K,:
B<
r.
;s fr
K, = Irormula
Minimum pipe velocicy (fps) for fr-rll disc
: t4o B|V V
TIITING DISC CHECK VALVES
l--4-lV
I z++ll l-
l'F
i
If
: A=r...lit=riofr
t
Ftr-IF
If: B:r...Kr:S5fr
All globe ancl angle valves,

hcthcr rcducccl scat or throttled,
Ii: 13 < r. . .l(2: Formula 7
Sizes
zto 8'...K:
Sizes ro to t+'...K:
Sizes 16 to 18". . .K =

(fps) for full clisc lift -
Figure 1-78. Selected Crane Company velocity head values. (Courtesy Crane Company [5].)
li:il- -:::i::
lift
8t'-n*"
40
+.[
830
:E
.4
20
llo
t.o 2.o 3.O 4.O 5.o
6.0
VBLoCITY-FPllxl03
< 45. ora ( 22.50

Kr = 2.6(1 - B'?)2 sin e
lf d
ll 45" < 0 <
SHADED AREA UNDER CURVE

CORRECTION FACTOR,
1800 or 22.50
<o(90o
FITTINC AND PIPE
K'=(1 -0"f
IS
CRITERIA FOR UULTIPLYING
A,BY lHE
VALUE OF
It
COI4PONENT .
CORRECTION FACTOR TABLB
. td,d=arcslnl-
d,ll=- 0
\21 /2
Figure 1-9. Correction factor.
Figure 1-8. Calculated Crane K-values for concentric conical

diffusers are tabulated in Table l-6.
T./1
Dl
(
_l_
\,-,/
,l
TWO.MITERED ELBOW
1.0
0
Figure 1-10A. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
'*
11
FOR EACH
12
n =number
ot
1Eo
miters
or segments
smooth ell
mitered ell
.5
644+
t.o
1.5
R/o
Figure 1-108. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
h*":ns
Piping Fluid
2<.-
-V-
<*3
+s"(o<go.
an
az/og
Figure l-10C. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
'4
Mechanics
13
on=
9/og
Figure 1-10D. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
Piping Fluid
\sri
\7
tAl
| |I
aR = or
Ai= A2: A3
/ag
Figure 1-10E. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
Mechanics
15
16
on
or/ag
Figure 1-10F. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
k-...n*
Piping Fluid
OR: O1/o3
Figure 1-10G. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
'*
Mechanics
17
18
Mechanical Desisn of Process Svstems
o*= 02/o3
2----->
-_)>
Figure 1-10H. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
k*--=*
Piping Fluid
--v'.
---)t
-->2
OR= 01/O3
Figure 1-101. Velocity heads for change of flow l6l.
' 'drF'
Mechanics
19
-llt-
2--+
----)3
Kzg
on=
oz/o,
Figure 1-10J. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
it -
'I[||,,'
or:
o.'
/o3
Figure 1-10K. Velocity heads for change of flow [6].
21
Small pipe fittings have more surface roughness and

abrupt changes in cross sections, making Kl insignificant
at values of Nr" ) 10,000. For this reason, the new
Crane method is recommended for pipe diameters 24 in.
and less. Comparison of the methods for elbows is depicted in Figure 1-11. Table 1-3 lists Kr and K- values.
The two-K method is preferred over the equivalent
length method because in large, multi-alloy sysiems the
equivalent length method could predict losses 300% too
high, resulting in oversized pumps and equipment. With
laminar flow, the equivalent length method predicts head
losses too low. Also, in the equivalent length method,
every equivalent length has a specific friction factor associated with it, because the equivalent leneths are derived from the expression L. = K D/t.
The Hydraulic Institute's widely used K-factors are
good for l-in. to 8-in. pipe, but result in errors in larger
piping.
The disadvantage of the two-K method is it is limited
to the number of values of K1 and K- available, shown
in Thble 1-3. For other fittings, approximations must be
made from data in Table 1-3.
Table |-3
Constants for the Two-K Method I7l
Filting Type
Kl
Standard (R/D : l),
screwed
Standard (R/D
1.5), all
typqs
90"
(R/D
This relationship applies to noncircular cross sections

flowing full or partially full, oval, rectangulat etc., but
not to extremely narrow shapes, such as annular or elongated openings, where the width is small relative to the
length. In such cases the value of Rs is approximately
one-half the width of the passage.
The value of 4RH is substituted for d in Equation 1-4.
**"
: r,1*,
Thble l-4 provides hydraulic radii for various cross

sections.
800
0.20
: l 5)
4-Weld
(22t/2") 800
o.27
5-Weld
Elbows
Standard
all types
(R/D
(18") 800
: l),
0.25
500
0.20
500
500
500
0.15
0.25
1,000
0.60
1,000
0.3s
1,000
0.30
Long-radius
: 1.5), all types

Mitered, 1 weld, 45"
Mitered, 2 weld, 22rlz"
(R/D
Standard (R/D
screwed
Standard (R/D
:
:
1),
l),
Long radius
(R/D : 1.s), all
types
In using Equation 1-4 the geometry of the flow area

must be considered if the area is noncircular. In calculating the Reynolds number and the diameter for a noncircular cross section, the hydraulic radius is applied:
hydraulic radius
0.25
(90") I,000 1.15

(45') 800 0.35
3-Weld
(30') 800 0.30
flanged/welded
800
2-Weld
elbows
PIPE FLOW GEOMETRIES
R11
0.40
1-Weld
Mitered
180'
cross-sectional flow area

wetted perimeter
800
1),
flanged/welded
Long-radius
(R/D
K-
Used
as
etbow
Tees
Runthrough
tee
Standard, screwed
Long-radius,screwed
Standard, flansed or
welded
Slub-in-type
200
1.00
150
100
0.10
0.50
0.00
p:
300
0.10
p:0.e
500
0.15
1.000
1,500
1,000
1,000
0.25
4.00
2.00
2.00
0.25
2,000
10.00
Full line size,
ball,
1.0
Reduced trim,
plug
Reduced trim,
p=0.8
Globe, standard
Globe, angle or Y-type
Diaphragm, dam type
Butterfly
Lift
Swing
Tilting-disk
= 1.5 values for R/D 5 pipe bends,

Use appropriate tee values for flow through crosses.
Note: Use R/D
500 0.70
800 0.40
800 0.80
branch 1,000
Screwed
Flanged or welded
Stub-in-type branch
Gate,
Check
0. 15
800
1,500 1.50
1,000 0.50
45' ro 180'.
< - -8l
23

Screwed
Screwed tee
9d ell
Globe valve
Screwod
Line
flow
Regular
K1
10
0.8
6
0.3
rfi-I|l
r\
Long
radius
10
Branch
}J
flow
0.3
Flanged
D
FlangEd tee
Gate valve
Screwed
Flanged 90oell
K o.2
0.1
0.3
Long
radius
0.6
I
D
o.4
t\\_t
Branch
flow
p!"..ffi
Contraction
20
o'?FidG,i\
Square-odged inlet [24]
o.4
*Hl--
0.8
Regular screwed 45oell
K=o.b
0.6
ffi'=.err-r,rf(fia-r]
0.4
0.3
0.3
Inward ptojocting pipe
0.5
Enlargemnt
/(=1.0
Lonq radius flanged 4soell
(:;
*-1---lJ/,
0.3
K
0.00'
0.02
0.04
0.06
0_10
0.15&up I
For
(,
0.1
0.5
0.28
o.24
0.r 5
0.09
o.o+
p= lmall diamete./larse dismerer

K based on velocity in slnatter pipe
based on main pipe
see
table
'Sharp{dged
for orifice. l40j
Hydraulic inltitote [24]
.........,......
crane
It2l
[,liller. based on water at 6
ft^
132]
Figure 1-11. Velocity head values for common piping components [1]. (Reprinted by special permission from Chemical Engineering, @ 1978, by McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York.)
'd
24

E
Swing chock valve

Screwed
F nninqfricrlon lactor for fllribl. m6.tl
n tLtLtt-
hc.
Il4l
flilj-ll-lH;E
Tvoictl
.T
,I
0.6 '1
24
0.
9 o.12
0.08
dimh'ioo3
Nomimr LDr LE
u tL
tize {in.l
{in.l
1/2 0.520 0.250
314 0.750 0.275 0.04t04
t.000 0.187
r
1.500 0.200
r1n
2.O@ 0,161
2
2.962 0.143
3
4.000 0.081
4
106
Feynolds number, /VF"
Head loss in conical diffuse6
Flanged
4 6
10
1.2
tr9l
1.0
o.e
Angle valve
Scre$red
6l-
4l-
Ir
,t-
P, des.
,I llIl
0.3
0.6
Head loss in circular
147l
63
Flanged
mite6
K= 1.2 (1 -cos0
Screwd return bend
Pf0g cock
valve lr9l
Buttertly
valve ll9l
Flanged return bend

0
dk
Figure l-11. Continued.
to'
0.05
0.29
2o'
r.56
lo"
11.3
60"
206.0
anste ber@en pipe axis and plus cock axis
to'
o.24
o.52
20"
+0"
1.54
10.8
6o'
I18.0
5"
is
angle between pipe axit and llapper plate
where Y 1214a12 : 0 for incompressible flow since

a?- @, the term ar2 multiplied by the fluid density pl is
the bulk compressibility modulus of the fluid and gives
Table 1-4
\ralues ot hydlaulic radius (RH) for various Cross
Sections
Cross Section
the pressure change for the fractional change in density.

Values of the bulk compressibility modulus for various
substances are given in Appendix A. The term a1 is the
velocity of sound waves propagated in a compressible
medium.
RH
As Equation 1-9 shows, the velocity of the fluid is

compared to the fluid velocity of sound in the term V1'l
4a12. If this ratio is small, compressibility effects can be
ignored because the error is the difference between this
term and unity. This analysis is valid only for barotropic
fluids, which are typical of most industrial applications
involving flow of gas through a nozzle and the flow of
water in conduits or over obstacles.
Compressibility effects of a fluid are small when the
fluid velocity is small, compared to the fluid sonic velocity. If V1/al is equal to 0.3, the error in the velocity is
less than I % when using the incompressible assumption.
For ambient air, this limitation corresponds to a velocity
of 300 ftlsec without causing significant error.
The phenomenon ofnonsteady flow is somewhat more
complex than that of steady flow. The acceleration or deceleration of liquid particles immersed in a two-phase
solution is one such example. The time required for the
nonsteady phenomenon to occur is compared to the time
reouired for a sound wave to traverse the flow in which
substantial differences in velocity occur. If the time dif-
L-
IN/
E+=
0.153 Di
ferences are small, then the incompressible Bernoulli

equation (Equation 1-2) may be applied.
PIPING FLUID MECHANICS PBOBLEM

FORMULATION
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
The preceding analysis assumes steady and incom-
:::ssible fluid flow. This is a reasonable assumption

:jce most liquids are steady flow, but frequently the as.-nption is valid for gases. Because some liquids and all
:-ies are compressible, a criterion is needed to deter-,ne what percent of error is incurred assuming constant
:::1Slty.
-\n estimate of the error can easily be made for a baro::pic fluid-a fluid whose density is a function of pres-
.-::.
:
.:id
Sabersky and Acusta [8] have shown that for a

Vr, static pressure R and density
stream of velocity
mat
(1-9)
To solve piping fluid problems a firm understanding of

basic equations and units is essential. The units should be
carefully defined and used throughout the calculations.
Thble 1-5 presents reasonable velocities for various services used in mechanical systems. These velocities are
only guides intended to give the reader foresight for trial
values and are only for mechanical systems; for such

values of chemical processes the reader should consult
chemical engineering sources.
Viscosity
Widely misunderstood and often improperly applied,
viscosity is perhaps the most recondite of all the properties associated with fluid mechanics. However, a clear
conception of this physical property is critical to the suc-
26
Table 1-5
Reasonable Velocities
Feet per Second
Liquids
2to5
Service water mains

General service water piping
Boiler feed water piping
Heat medium oils
4 to l0
6 to 13
2to6
2to6
Lubricating oils
Gases
Low-pressure steam heating
70 to
139.53 cp at 90'F
54.725lb^/tr
ij!-.
lb,-rT,
(rry )r)cP /o.oooozol\
:2. iz,
|1 r ., /=
lbrsecr
Natural gas
100
150
to
(s4.72s)
165
165 to 400
100 to 150
330
r:
0.0017
70
Air, 0 to 30 psig
:ft2
sec
ft2
35
0.00001076e
cessful design of hydraulic systems and rotating equipment that transport fluids (see Chapter 6).
Viscosity is the property of a fluid to resist flow. Consider how much more freely and easily gasoline pours
from a container than does black strap molasses. In fluid
mechanics terminology, the heavier, bulkier nature of
molasses is caused by the fluid's high shear stresses.
These high shear stresses make the molasses very resistant to flow.
The fundamental measurement of flow resistance is
the dynamic or absolute viscosity. In the cgs (centimetergram-second) system of units the basic unit of viscosity
is the poise, which is equal to one hundred centipoises,
(For a detailed explanation ofhow absolute viscosities of
fluids are determined, the reader should consult a basic
text on fluid mechanics.) The centipoise (cp) is now the
standard unit of absolute viscosity, but because other
units are still used, as illustrated in some of the examples
scattered throughout this book, methods for converting
to and from centipoises are provided. With the centipoise, one must be careful in using the English system of
units when converting to the kinematic viscosity. Illustrating this conversion we have the following:
E
fP
0.0017 -::-
40 to 60
30 to 50
Forced draft ducts

Induced-draft flues
Chimneys and stacks
Ventilating ducts
p=
15 to 70
and process piping
Low-pressure steam mains

High-pressure steam mains
Steam engine and pump piping
Steam turbine piping
p=
Thus, ifone has a fluid such as a fuel oil (see Example

6-1), which for a given temperature has an absolute viscosity of 139.53 centipoise, we calculate the kinematic
viscosity, z, in the English system of units as follows:
il
centistoke
159.261 centistokes
sec
Since the kinematic viscosity is a function of the fluid

density, the above value is only valid at the specified
temperature of 90'F. In the metric system the kinematic
viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity by the specific gravity. This is only for the metic system of units.It is a common mistake in using the English
system of units to compute the kinematic viscosity by dividing the absolute viscosity by the specific gravity of
the fluid. Equipment manufacturers often use other units
of viscosity. One ofthe most widely used units is the Seconds Saybolt Universal (SSU). This unit represents the
number of seconds required for sixty cubic centimeters
of liquid at a constant temperature to flow through a calibrated orifice. For liquids of high viscosity a larger orifice is used and the unit applied is termed Seconds Saybolt Furol (SSF). It is customary to specify these units of
viscosity at standard temperatures.
The following are formulas for converting SSU's and
SSF'S to centistokes. Below the value of 32 the SSU is
undefined and below the value of 25 the SSF is undefined. Throughout this book, the centipoise and the centistoke are the standard units of absolute and kinematic
viscosity, respectively. Where the need arises, the centistoke is converted to SSU.
SSU to centistokes
absolute viscosity, centipoise
= i.0 lb-sec/ft2 = 478.7 poise = 4.787 centipoise

: kinematic viscosity, centistokQ2
: & 8", for the English system of units
Wnefe gc = JZ.|t
w=
fr-lh
aa---------a
lDrSeC'
mass density of the
t:
:
,/
For32(t(99,
For
fluid, lb./ft3
Seconds Saybolt Universal

centistokes
t)
100,
6.2261
:
- P7
t
o.zzu
- !1
t
*( ----L'
with COz in steam. The properties of the mixture are as

follows:
SSF to centistokes
::
Seconds Saybolt Furol
Rrr 25
( t(
5rt>40,
39,
p=
p=
lR4
2.24r - -:- :
t
2.16t
60
=
- -:-t
v
v
EXAMPLE l.l: FRIGTION PRESSURE DROP

FOR A HYDROCARBON GAS.STEAM
MIXTURE IN A PIPE
An amine still reboiler boils off a hydrocarbon gas{eam mixture that flows in a 3M ss line connecting the
:eboiler with an amine still tower. It is desired to deterrine the maximum pressure drop in the line as shown in
Fieure 1-12. The sas is a small tract of amine immersed
Figure 1-12. Amine still reboiler hydraulics.
e:
0.01322 cp
0.085 lb/ft3
0.0015 in.
10 PSig
The velocity head approach is used in determining the

friction pressure drop. The line shown in Figure 1-12 is
coming off two nozzles on top of the reboiler and merging at a tee before entering the amine still tower. The dimensions shown are identical with both sides coming off
the reboiler nozzles (exemplified by the word "TYR"
meaning for both sides). To solve this problem, we must
apply Equation l-4. To use this equation, we divide the
connecting pipe into three components (see Figures
1-13-l-15)-an 18-in. f portion with W = 25,291 lbl
hr a24-in. d portion with W : 25,291lblhr; and a24in. d with W : 50,582 lb/hr, Equation 1-4 is applied to
each portion and the pressure drop for each is added to
FLUID ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE PHAS FLOW
coNFtq!84[!9X.
L,,
(z'.- a"\
y-
rerzr\H
r{z'-j"\ + (r'-et) ,
(=#l)
(o.,s$$
1'- z"
iE;G'dr;BrE-vEEcrw
E
REYNoLDS
scttEOULE
tcs
p7
1, 1s.7
No=
ov
Ki= No oF ver-ocrri ems;

DEpENDENT ptpE FRtcrtoN
K VALUES ILD = 5OK, D=rNStDE D|AMFTEFtfrll
PIPE ENTRANCE
=.ov/,
= rt6
lL= o,ot32? cp
= o,O85 Lb/cu tl
y=
1, I L'l
I'
= O,OOI5 in
p
FOR COMPONENTS:
)*,
- tr'6
+i,+81#
f"*",i,"'(##) =
SERVICE
FoR sERvtcE
GAS OR LIOUID
LINE NUMBER IE"6 PoRTt oN
?1.x ta" u FFUSER (cs/{rRrc).

t6" t R 90' ELL =
80
o,079
o, oza
o,7
*=,..,u
f=
D: 17' 50
[p= o, O?9
v = *9,18'1
NpE= 690,49/
o,otl
W=
2sz9t
in.
psi
1y
".
Q=
tt/nr
Figure 1-13. Fluid analysis for single phase flow-gas or liquid.
PAGE
_OF _
FLUID ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE PHASE
..r-
'
(i'-o') + (1'-t
tv/1i']1
""n #n"cr.z\
i,,''
SERVICE
FEASOMBLE VELOCITY
FOR SERVICE
Gfi],,)
REYNOLDS
21,++2
LR ELt s
'tli =
2+076
++
^.,2
KI=NO OF VELOCITY HEADSiK= .ov72
fl
prpe
rRrctroH =
DEPENDENT
FOR COMPONENTS:
rwo 9d
OR
NO= DVM'
K vALUEs [LD= soK,D=tNStDE DIAMFTERlft]l
)*,
GAS
+ (rg'' rr"\ = 2+'- o
raszgr\E(#c'"J
("
LINE NUMBER
coNFtquRAI!9!L
L,.=
FLOW
- K- o,1?o
322
o.o?s
P=
y
lL=
o,ot
cp
Lb/cu
= 21.C78 t'
6 = OOOI5 1n.
/=p= - 23,5
;n.
o,O29
[p=
y
= 21a12
ll
1si
191"".
t+,t17.r25
o.oll
Q=
w= ZS29l
tyn
flow-gas or liquid.
Figure'l-14. Fluid analysis for single phase-gpm
FLUID ANALYSIS FOR SINGLE PHASE FLOW -
CONFI6URAT1ON
lt
Z''tt"
= 2,9l.1
cAS OH
LtOUtD
LINE NUMBER
Sh
=
"4q
<2."
rs'srz'tiF (=za!=ai
fo,oa,iS
K vALUEs ILD= 50K,D=tNstDE

FOF
)*,
h*l\ru.(ffi
DTAMFTER
tftll
COMPONENTS:
coMatNtNG
PIPE ExtT
FLOV'I
=
TEE,
)*=
t2
2,2
r7,s84
lL=
P=
t=
e=
O.ol32? co
O.O?S Lb/cu tr
?-91'7 n'
o,OOl5 in
04<
!r- --:::_tn.
Ap= oQ6,
5'1, 884
V=
psi
.11rl"""
NRE= l.o2A,35+. esp
t=
otol3
Q=
111r= So
Sg2
.L/rrr
--gpm
Figure 1-15. Fluid analysis for single phase flow-gas or liquid.
the other portions to give the total frictional pressure

drop for the line (For velocity head value of concentric
conical diffusers, the reader is referred to Thble 1-6).
The calculations are as follows.
Lr
6.167
Table 1-6
K-Values tor Concentric Conical Diffusers
ft
d2(in.) d1(in.) L(in.)

p
(6.72
10-4)(0.01322)
(8.384
lr1:50)r, 1+r.+tzr
\ tz I
=DVP:
p
(8.884
80
tl2
a
secro.oasl k
rr-
10-6)
Sch
80
3lc x
;lb'
n-sec
Sch
690,491.450
f:
_2 ron,^ [{g
"-
1-6a)
0.014
'0.014)-05
flPf =
(?.
8.452
: -2 logr0 [(2.317 x
:
(3.072
10-5)l
10
5)
r'.l#
:I
0.373
0.225
0.099
0.009
(4e.487),
fr lh
H*)
SC'lD6
lP1,
L. :
_\p.
12.758
3.000 10.661
2.469 0.957
Itlq
2.469 1.278
ztlz x
lt/z 2.469 1.500
2.469 2.067
40
3.068 0.957
1V+ 3.068 1.278
3 x lyz 3.068 1.500
3.068 2.067
2tl2 3.068 2.467
tt
514,177.125 and
f =
0.014
0.022
0.436
0.297
0.131
0.055
3.500 12.474
3.500 9.796
3.500 7.957
3.500 3.292
0.406
0.237
3.500 14.816
3.500 12.944
3.500 8.221
0.454
0.143
0.013
o.
o8r
H ei
0.337
0.11 I
3.500 4.9@
0.028
lV+ 3.548 1.278 4.000 16.484

lUz 3.548 1.500 4.000 14.833
3t/2 x 2
3.548 2.067 4.000 10.668
zth 3.548 2.469 4.000 7.151
3.548 3.068 4.000 3.440
0.559
Sch
40
+ o.72ol
- [(0.014X24.07s)
t (23.s0)
I
(
44zf
!(, * *-)
fr lh
SC'lD1
c--,-..,&
lc 2.067 0.742 3.000
Sch
40
Similarly,
\R" :
Q.121
Sch
9-929 O.t
24.078
0.957
2x ll/c 2.067
2.067 1.278 3.000 7.556
llz 2.067 1.500 3.000 5.423
* ,"--'l
,rol
ft
0.036
1.500 0.546 2.500 10.999

3lq 1.500 0.742 2.500 8.720
1tl2 x
1.500 0.957 2.5W 6.235
lUq 1.500 1.278 2.500 2.545
Sch
,o.oss,
0.126
0.318
0.153
0.040
tlz
80
(l -4)
(0.014X6. 167X12)
(17.50)
3lt 0.742 0.423 1.500 6.104

tlz 0.742 0.546 1.500 3.746
1.278 0.546 2.000 10.545

r.278 0.742 2.000 7.701
1.278 0.957 2.000 4.603
Sch
80
I r/4
40
-ro,
0.302
0.423
Sch
-8.537
0.014
Kr
0.225
1X
* _?r_]
[3'7 NR"(f)"'l
,fl-05
tlc 0.546
ls 0.546
d(deg)
4s 0.957 0.423 2.000 7.672

1lz 0.957 0.546 2.000 5.898
3lc 0.957 0.'742 2.000 3.081
80
Let
x l0 6)-]!L
It-sec
Sch
0.449
0.210
0.093
0.010
32
Table 1-6 continued
Table 1-6 continued
Size
dr(in.) dl(in.) L(in.) d(deg)
40 ltlz 1.500 4.026 4.000 18.406

2.067 4.026 4.000 r4.r74
4 x 2tl2 2.469 4.026 4.000 11.223
3.068 4.026 4.000 6.878
31lz 3.548 4.026 4.000 3.425
Sch
2.067
Ztlz 2.469
5x
3.068
3t/z 3.548
4.026
402
Sch
2.469
3.068
6 x 3tlz 3.548
4.026
5.047
40
Ztlz
s.u'l
5.000 17.338
5.047 5.000 14.940
5.047 5.000 1r.4r4
5.U7 5.000 8.621
5.U7 5.000 5.860
6.065
6.065
6.065
6.065
6.065
5.s00 19.08
5.500 15.810
5.500 13.228
5.500 10.682
5.500 5.310
0.609
0.345
0.197
0.055
0.088
7.981 r7.2s0 15.000 17.997

10 10.020 r7.2s0 15.000 13.946
18 x 12 11.938 17.250 15.000 10.199
14 13.250 17.250 15.000 7.662
16 15.250 r7.250 1s.000 3.823
wt8
10
12
20x 14
16
l8
std
0.023
4.A6 10.020 7.000 25.350 0.703

5.M7 10.020 7.000 20.807 0.514
6.065 10.020 7.000 16.409
7.981 10.020 7.000
0.295
5.047 11.938 8.000 25.511

6.065 11.938 8.000 2r.535
12x
7.98t 11.938 8.000 14.319
10 10.020 11.938 8.000 6.885
0.674
0.051
0.197
0.027
std
10
12
14
24x 16
18
wt
13.250 13.000 t6.042

7.981 13.250 13.000 1r.692
14x 10 10.020 13.250 13.000 7.136
12 rr.938 13.250 13.000 2.892
Srd
wr
26
std
wt6
16
6.065 15.250 14.000 19.150
7.98r 15.250 14.000
x 10 10.020
r5.U7
15.250 14.000 10.765

12 rr.938 15.250 14.000 6.793
14 13.250 15.250 14.000 4.096
0.449
0.214
0.059
0.005
0.604
0.356
0.157
0.046
0.011
10.020
11
.938
0.125
0.058
0.008
0.180
0.108
0.036
0.005
13.250
0.194
0.092
0.030
0.004
23.250
23.250
23.250
r5.2s0 23.250 20.000 1t.537

17.250 23.250 20.000 8.627
20 19.2s0 23.250 20.000 5.739
Sch
40
20.000 8.627
20.000 s.739
20.000 2.866
14 1,3.250 21,.250 20.000 11.537

22x 16 15.250 21.250 20.000 8.627
18 r7 .250 2r.250 20.000 5.739
?0 19.250 2r.250 20.000 2.866
Sch
40
20.000 10.533
0.275
10.020 2t.250
12 1 1.938 2r.250
0.257
0.151
7.981 19.25Q
10.020 19.250
11.938 19.250
13.250 t9.250
15.250 19.250
17.250 19.250
0.496
l0
wt
3.068 7.981 6.000 24.168 0.726

3t/z 3.548 7.981 6.000 21.680 0.618
4.026 7.981 6.000 19.243 0.476
8x
5.V7 7.98t 6.000 r4.r52 0.229
6.065 7.98t 6.000 9.188 Q.O74
l0x
wt8
srd
0.537
0.388
0.205
0.100
0.035
Sch
40
L(in.)
std
403
Sch
d2(in.) d10n.)
Kr
Sch
12 r1 .938 25.250
14 13.250 25 .250
16 15.250 25.250
t8 r'1 .250 25 .250 24 .W0 9 .s94
20 19.2sO 2s.2s0 24.000 7.181
22 2t.250 25.250 24.0W 4.780
24 23.250 2s.2s0 24.000 2.388
0.169
0.079
0.026
.123
0.057
0.018
0.003
0
std
Wr
14
16
l8
30x
20 19.2s0 29.250 24.W0 12.025
0.174
24 23.2s0 29.250 24.000 7.181

26 25.2s0 29.250 24.000 4.780
28 27 .2s0 29.250 24.WO
0.044
0.014
0.002
APt,
Table 1-6 continued
Size
dr(in.)
L(in.)
d1(in,)
@(deg)
K1
Srd
\\i
6.961 O.'
Total Friction Pressure Drop for Line
APl
16
:
=
33
APr,
APr,
AP;,
(0.029
AP
0.005
0.061)
pst
18
20
_\
AP1
24 23.250 33.250 24.Un p.025

26 25.250 33.250 24.000 9.594
0.141
4.780
0.011
30 29.250 33.250
32 31 .250 33 .250
24.000
24 .NO
0.078
0.001
Std
\\'t
18
EXAMPLE t-2: FRIGTIONAL PRESSURE

DROP FOR A HOT OIL SYSTEII OF A
PROCESS TANK
used in the manufacture of roofing products. To maintain

the coating mixture at the required temperature, external
20
24 23.250 35.250 24.W0 14.478

16x
26 25.250 35.250 24.000 12.025
0.207
0.128
7.181
4.780
0.032
0.010
2.388
0.001
30 29.250 35.250 24.000

32 3t .250 35 .250 24 .000
34 33.250 3s.250 24.000
24
26
30
32
34
36
1\l
6.695 O"'
A pressure vessel storage tank contains 6,000 gallons

of filler coating that must be maintained at 370'F to be
16
Srd
22
23.250 41.250 24.000 22.024

25 .250 41 .250 24.000 19 .47 |
29.250 41.250 24.000 14.478
31.250 4r.250 24.000 12.025
33.250 41.250 24.000 9.s94
35.250 41.250 24.000
7.181
jacket coils are placed on the outside shell and bottom

head as well as four internal coils inside the tank with an
agitator. The tank is depicted in Figure 1-16 and the hot
0.4s4
0.339
0.161
0.098
0.053
0.024
:P,. = 0.005 psi

'-. : 2.917 ft
\r. :
't:
rP.-
1,028,354.250 and
(0.013x2.917)
(23.s0)
f = 0.013
2.201
(o.oss)
(s4.884F
-i1Fl",ooJ
ft lb.
r,.r
r'
--7-a-\J-.-/
SC'lD1
Figure 1-16. Process surge tank. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
34
oil system in Figures l-17, l-18, and 1-19. It is desired

to determine how much frictional pressure drop will be
incurred for the entire tank so that pump sizes may be
selected.
Bottom Head Hot Oil Supply
Hot Oil Entrance from the 2-in. Header and Flow

Through Station 1. (Figure 1-U):
The tank is divided into two systems-the hot oil supply system and the hot oil return system. Each system
connects to the three components-the four internal coils
inside the tank, the outside shell jacket coils, and the
jacket coils connected to the bottom head-and each of
the three components must be analyzed separately.
gpm ,l/
"1,
30 spm
Bottom llead System

A 2-in. pipe header supplies hot oil to the six inlet
jacket nozzles and returns hot oil from six outlet iacket
nozzles. The supply nozzles are designated by an S and
the return nozzles by an R. We will analyze the supply
system. The piping system is divided up into "stations,"
which are points designating flow change due to separating fluid. Each line following a station must be analyzed
separately because the flow rate decreases after the flow
separates in the tee. We will consider the pressure drop
from point A to B, since that path involves more stations
and the maximum amount of pressure drop.
Yt,, z.s'
I
For Q
L
o
p
: 36 gpm
: 26.5 in., p = 0.15 cp, e : 0.0018
:2.067, p = 58.7 lb/ft3
: (6.72 x 10-4)(0.150) : 1.008 x 10-5
lb./ft-sec
(36)
'
sd (___u, ){_1.'"
min \7.479 gal/ \60 sec
3.442 ft.lsec
g=11h"x31a"
C=11h"x1,
D=2"xEa"
E=2" x1"
F=2'x1112"
Figure 1-17. Process surge tank bottom head coils.
Pipiry Fluid Mechanics
___.1
Figure 1-18, hocess surge tank-shell coiis Qooking south).
35
rl
tl t^
JI r3-
qq.\
7sm
0l Il-
{t
{t-\| \t
\l
NI
|\l
t\l
| \l
_l
t\
tt\
-@
Figure 1-19. Process surge tank-shell coils (ooking north).
fm&----*
Nn"
_DVp_
P
"I
?8\o"*"
(t.oo8
x lo )
L:
osD*
4.0
v_
-tD'
ft
.io\
'--'
sar
rc
\ltgi
rnin \7.479.9aU \60 sec/
ilrt I
(J.JJbtrn.'t-......_l
n-sec
37
2.869 ft/sec
\144 in.'/l
:3,452,9\0
l{q!q'!)
I
(1o
-z
roe,o
ffi
2.51
DVp
K=
Branch flow tee
aP,:
_
.-
(dLL.
0.78
1.
90" LR ell
Flow-lhru tee
or,^
''
,.r6al
:K:
:K:
[ro.o+orr+.orrtzt
Q.067)
.-^-. lb {r.6oe]'
_^ ^-^.. fc I I ft,
, l.fil
=
n'
0.126 n.t
Z Hot Oil Fl.ow from
Hot Oil Fbw from Station 1 to Station 2:
Station 2 to Station 3:
I 1ftr ll
I min
min V.a79 ga| \60 sec
12.036)in.,
18gpm
(ril!.lo
Nn" : \r2 l
22t,657
t tt'.1
\144 in.J
r'
o.ru sec
rss.zr P
fi'
(1.008
l8
10
4)
th
-j:'
n-sec
sec' \r+4 ln.'/
lrql
rr ft lb'
-'--'-'sec2
..^. sal
tlxl-l-ll
'--'
()d. /)
APr,
0.186 psi
30
*,.orol
lbr
sec'lDf
., -Q,-*-Q,-
e8lJwtfi{-'
0.570
0.910
,rrta j:b:l'-
--l!'
n-sec
K-factors
rh
rr2 / rfi2 \
/5R?\::11
M)\2:L | -" I
'-' ,ftr.- -. ss62 \144 in.2/
$rr :
4)
1.480
(2.067) *
[to.o+oxz.zoelt
10
,7U
D")#
rzr
:0.040
0.46
287
a,sa.;,
sec
(fl0.5
+ (-0.78)
\-
rzz
0.78
12
[/o.oora\
I
z.st
l\-0.
i
-2 logp 3r -
K-factors
67lr,,z.sost
(1.008
_\
a,qsz,srol(D\
0.040
Pipe entrance
12
2.837 ftlsec
oore\
a
l\ r:+ 1
* z.st
[/o
(flo
-z
rnrsvltf
[-
'oc'o
1ft
I ft3 \/1 min\

'oi" \2.+zs s"il \60 '*/ =
/ t e'z \
(0.864)in.,tfr1n}/
,,^,
t"'
ca1
4.457 ftlsec
:0.M2
K-values
o 2-in.
ltlz-in. LR ell
Nn. =
t#)o,0.0",
(1.008
o
. - "'
[(9
t' - e'i],u,
* _
.
P4
0.607
(o0
0.607)]
(0.368)
_ o.o'
1)
or,,
2.51
*
[ 3i tz26seo]flri
o.oar + 0.53
lr/2-in.
x f-in.
reducer
et-
p,)] _
0.8 sin [(6.23s)(0.593)1

0.166
0.611
: [,oq?!u1'uo]t't, * 0.u,,]
.-^
lb .^ ^^-.. n, / r ft, \
{r.6J /)'
.*r- h44 i" j-l
ftr
z1zz.z1
rocro
l\ o0s7
sin
,. _ 0.8
--- [c(l -
r.v
(J6. -.
/)
APr,
-r
lb''4
/
K-values
Q*:18-:0.667-K:0.53
Dr:
x 1o-) .lb'
ft-sec
:0.051
Flow-thru tee
0.368
0.8 sin [(5.423)(l
^R -
or.a
226,889.525
1u9'
Ir rr o\2
= l- -^"1 =
\2.M7
!!y
Flow-thru tee
. o, 6 = 0.5lAn:
Ar
-_
_ = 1.0=K :0.87
Q*: *Q: = _:_
t2
A3
Dr:0.:rt+0.87:1.181
Sec' lDf
0.063 Ott
Z Hot Al
*r:I
Flow from Station 3 to Station 4:

6 gpm
(0.051x1.0x12)
(r .049)
r. 1811
,l
r1
---A
t!'
l2x't
,<o
-spm
12
+6
rr lb
r,,,
,.t', fC / t t'
sec \t+a
-oFm
fr-lh
SC'-lD6
1"31
O.222 psr
Piping Fluid
E Hot Oil
Flow from Station 4
to Exit B:
(58.7)
rh
ft;
Mechanics 39
(3.612F
rr2/ rcz\
**- |rfri".,I
tcrrr!jq.SC'-lD;
APq
0.405 Ott
Total friction pressure drop from entrance A to exit B:

Path (Figure
L:2ft
/
\/r -i"\
1ft3 t-l
sal
/4\
\"/ min t-t
\7.479 ga| \60 sec/
-
_ 3.612 ftlser
(0.533)in.'(+)
a rsa.zr'tt'I
{o't'lo,r.utl'sec'
\12l
:
@
@
@
@
@
A4.449
Entrance
APl psi
0.186 psi
to station 2
0.126 psi
statioo 2 to station 3
0.063 psi
station 3 to station 4
0.222 psi
O.zlO5 psi
1.002 psi
Flow from
Flow from
Flow from
Flow from
station
Dot, =
1.002 psi = Total frictional pressure drop

from entrance A to exit B
statioD 4 to exit B
Shzll mils-Soutft ride (Figure 1-18)

Station
1^
1-17)
A thru branch flow tee
1-
(o0.5
0.055
35spm
2
I-values
l-in. x
3/a-in. reducer
sin [a(l - F1] _

,. _ 0.8
_____7-_
:
.
0.8 sin [(3.081X1

(0.361)
0.0'[8
3-90' LR ells
3(0.025X30)
2.25O
Pi1r exit
E* :
o.o+s + z.zso
&r, _
-
l(0.055x2.0)(12)
1q
- 0.601I
o.7
o" =:.r : 42 : 0.167
Qr
Kr = -0.032
Header entrance = K = 0.78
station 1 : K = -0.03
K : O.75
:
42
Q:
epm
'L = 10ft;/ = 0.15cp;d = 2.067in.
p:58.7 lb/ft3;6 = 9.9613
V = 4.016 ff/sec; f : 0.020; Nr, : 402,829
APr : 9.195 *'
Station 2-
1.0
to^szat
+ r.ooo =
+
3.2esl
3.298
35 gpm
28 gpm
40
n. 1
Qr: ::] = JJ
.-:0.200
Qr
Kaz = -0'03
L = 5in. = 0.417 ft;d = 2.O67 in.
Qa : 35 epm
Y : 3.346 tusec; f : 0.020; Nn : 335,691
AP, : g.gg1 n"t
Station
Station
5-
3-
9:1:o.soo
14
Qr
L: 10ft
Krz : 0.015
v = 1.339 ft/sec;,f :
Nn":134,276
APs : 9.914 O.t
0.021
Friction pressure drop from station 6 to coil entrance
Q3
28 gPm
Q:.128
:o.zs
Qr
L = 10ft
d : 2.O67 rn.
v : 2.677 ft/sec; K32 :
Nr":268,553
f : 0.020
APr : 6.952 n.'
Station
-0.036
43
21 gpm
I
Tspm
14gpm
Q:1:o.rgr
2l
Q:
&z = -0.030
L:5in.:0.417ft; d = 2.067 ln.

: 21 epm
V = 2.008 ff/sec; f : 0.021
Nn' = 201'415
AP+ : g.ggt O.t
Qr
o^:Qt=ro
Qr
&r = 1.28
x
K = O-129
K : 0.311
K : 0.048
K : 18(0.025) : 0.450
2-l1lz-in.90" LR ells, K = 2(30)(0.021\ : 1.2@
1-1-in. 90" LR ell, K : (30X0.023) = 0.690
1-3l+-in. 90. LR ell, K : (30X0.025) : 0.750
Exit into coil, K : 1.0
Q = 7 gPm; L : 7 -25 f7
F.- = 5.168
!K
:
. For 2-in. { pipe, d 2.067 in.
For 2-in.
1tlz-in. reducer,
l-in. reduceq
l-in. x 3/a-in. reducer,
r/+-in. plug valve,
lrlz-in.
L:7in.:0.583ft
K:
V=
1.049
0.669 fl:/sec
n.
Nr":67,138
= 0.333
QR::r
\J3
f:0.023
AP
0.0M psi
o For lrlz-in. d Pipe, d : !.610 in.

L:3ft
K : 1.571
V : 1.103 ftlsec; Nx" : 86,195;
f : 0.023
:
AP 0.016 psi
o For 1-in. { pipe, d : 1.049 in.
L:Zft
K = 0.738
V : 2.599 ftlsec; Nq" : 132,292',
f : 0.024
AP : 0.055 psi
. For 3/a-in. { pipe, d : 0.824 in
L :2ft
K : 2.2O
Y : 4.Zll ft/sec; Nx" : 168'416;
f:0.025
AP
is
!s\
llP
0.195 psi
station
0.001 psi
+ 0.052 psi +
i-!-Z
\--
(0.004
station
0.016
O.OOS
psi
3
+
station 4
0.055
+ 0.330) psi
o, : Q' :
o.5ool
L = roft
Qr
K:z = 0.015
14 gpm
Q3
1.339 ft/sec; N3"
AP 0.014 psi
:
v :
:
134,2'16:
f:
Total Drop for Shetl Coil on South

Side
Shell
coils-Nonh side (Figure 1-18)
Sration
13
+ 21spm
;'il]
r 14 gpm
0.021
Friction pressure drop from station 2 to coil entrance:
station 6
station 5
I-t" :
0.001 psi
--/-
\-!-
station
0.014 psi
Station
0.330 pst
Toral frictional pressure drop from station 1 to bottom shell
.nil
Kr: -0.030
L: 10ft
Qr : 21 gpm
p:58.7 lblff; p :0.015 cp; e:0.0018;
d : 2.067 \n.
V = 2.008 tusec; Nr" : 201,415t f : 0.021
AP1 : g.g3g O.'
n.
o" : lll
= 1.0: K,, = 1.28
r)^
For 2-in. x 1-in. reducer, K : 2.538
1-in. x :/q-in. reducer, K = 0.048
3/4-in. plug valve, K : 0.450
Exit into coil, K : 1.0
For l-in. 90" LR ell, K = 0.690
For l-in. { pipe, d : 1.049 in.
4'l
: 4fr,
V = 2.599f1/sec; f : 0.024
Q
7 gPm, L
K 0.738
Ns.:132'292
AP
For
2-i'].0
EXAIIPLE l-3: FRIGTION PBESSURE DROP

FOR A WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM
A gas turbine manufacturer specifies that the maximum back pressure on the unit used in this system be 10
in. of water pressure, therefore, the waste heat recovery
0.079
system should be designed so that the frictional pressure
pipe:Q:7gpm,L: llft
K:2.538
V : 0.669 tusec
Nn":67'138.184
f : 0.023
Ap : 0.0t1psi
drop does not exceed 10 in. of water. The system is

shown in Figure l-20.
Turbine exhaust dntq
for outside air ot 6l)'F
Temp. ofexhaust gas
For3A-in.
opipe:d
L:
0.8241
V:
2 ft:
= 1.450
4.211 tusec
Nn":168'416
f : 0.025
: 0.245 psi
Ap
tt :
0.0759
L:
l2O
ft;
th
0.030 psi + 0.014

= \-!-\-.-/
station
(0.011
e=
psi
N""
VDP,
t'
station 2
0.079
0.245)psi
2.108
station 3
sr
AP
0.3'19
psi
O.OOOO+Z
Nn:
B{SS
STAC
0.03
cp
(commercial steel)
0.00015
10-5
'|
-lb
ft-sec
a(4t.25)i".
sec
(2.108
131 fusec
\3,600 sec/
Side
Maximum friction pressure drop in supply system is incurred at bottom head coil line with AP : 1.002 psi.
V=
a = 0.0759 lb {--!t
ft-hr
fl 1t.0)
Toml Drop for Shell Coil on North
.n
coil is
l-r AP
795"F;
.':. \0.4132) lb/n-hr

--l=
It-hr
Total frictional pressure drop from station 1 to bottom shell
sr
I | ftin./I {0.031) !ftJ

\12
10
5)
-.!!rr-sec
662,224
i(
42'6 670 9a
4zV srD
Figure 1-20. Waste heat recovery system.

From Equation l-6a,
For 42-in. d portion,
, : log,o I
n o!goo38j
-:*
10.00001I + :-:
-2
ri
rttot /
t
K.*r
0.770 + 3.161
From equation l-4,
f:0.0130
op = ILL*
D=
41.25
in. =
..
fL
D
(0.0130)(120)
3.438
+ 0.340
rr)ey
I2e,
, "-,1
1- +,zt1l
ur = [(0.0130)(I20)
t(3.44)
L
I
^,r..4
3.438
ior
K1/Np.
+ K-
(l + '/d)
straight pipe, 42-in.
..
fL
d
(0.0130)(120
AP
For l0
rt"
2\32.2)
fr
".
(144)
sec'
ft x
ft x
42-Lrr.
o,
nKr K- nK800 800 0.25 0.25
150 150 0.50 0.50
Kr
I
r
R.un-thru tee
sec'
fr2
ln.'
--:-
transition piece,
th
tsrtterfly valve
il
D:68.571 in.: L = 4.0ft: K:0.615
3.438
es and Fittings
0.75
950
( _
(r 3r .oo,12
-19,
30)
ii-\'alues
\:lr
to.oiU
0.271 psi
section
4.271
\d -
ft
From Equation 1-8,
t :
qso
-" | (0.75) /ll I _lr\ = 0.770
662.224 \ 4t.251
*
- [<o.ot:ot<+.ot
| 5.714
=
0.005 psi
AP
0.005 osi t27.912t
i.De entrance at turbine nozzle
l .000
0.161
1.000
1.000
.lrste heat recovery unit entry duct
l-rck exit
'
0.140 in. H2O

AP thru heating coils
Total
rl-in.dx30-in.d
2132.2)
AP
Itirer K-values
(0.031r: (47.458), j ,
Itsec'
o u,rl
fr2
I
:fr
psi
2 in. H:O
0.140
9.704 in. HrO
<
l0 in. allowed
sec'1144) =
ln.'
in
H,O ar 62.F
'::::::L
7.564 tn.
AP
ff2
in. + 2.000 in.
OI
AP
3. 161
:rr
a rectangular duct,
i.=ab/2(a+b)
EXAMPLE I-4 PRESSURE DROP IN RELIEF

VALVE PIPING SYSTEM
:-'r round pipe,
i. =
Di4
a+b
68.571
in.
2(10)ft (4)fr
l0ft+4ft
_ < ",,
r,
Equivalent circular diameter
Relief valve piping systems are designed to have minimum pressure drop. In this application the plant rules
stipulate that the pressure drop will not exceed 3 % of the
valve set pressure. The system is to have two valves,
shown in Figure 1-21.
The relieving fluid is Freon 114 and the flow rate is W
:243,755lblhr. First we compute the velocity heads, or
K-values.

The total pressure drop for 6-in. and 4-in. lines
Pr
3.869 psi
Set pressure
+ 5.935
205 psi
psi
Pr
9.804 psi
%^P:#:4.8vo>3vo
Consider moving 6-in. x 4-in. swages above gate valves
and making 90" LR and gate valve 6-in., as shown in Figure
1-22. Recomputing the K-values we have
K : 30 fi : 30(0.015) : 0.4s0
K : 8ft : 8(0.015) : 0.120
Entrance, K : 0.780
Tee, K : 0.900
6-in. 90' LR ell, K : 0.450
6-in. gate valve, K = 0.120
6-in. x 4-in. swage, K : 0.019
6-in. 90' LR ell,
6-in. gatevalve,
D*:
Figure 1-21. Relief valve piping system.

For 6-in.
60
ft =
60(0.015)
60'
From Figure 1-7,
0.,141)(sin 30')05
0.194
4-in. d 90' LR elbow,
k:
30
ft
30(0.015)
1.019
0.450
4-in. gate valve,
8(o.ol5)
o.l2o
6-in. d line from entrance thru swage, Lo
: I :
Entrance,
1.0
K:
+r( = 8ft :
0.78
ft
\-r
LtK : 0.'78 + 0.90 + 1.019 : 2.699

AP : 3.869 psi; Np" : 14,931,929
V : 37.002 tusec; f : 0.01741
4-in. line from swage to relief valve, L4
Dr
ft
= o.oso+o.l2o =
0.570
5.935 psi; NRe =22.494.325
:83.973 ftlsec: = 0.01913
AP
10
ft
The pressure drop in the system in Figure 1-22 does

not exceed 37o \p to the relief valve as the plant rules
require, thus, Figve l-22 is the final configuration.
Latet in example 2-5, we will examine the structural integrity of the system.
6:d,:4.@6=o.ao+
' d2 6.065
0.5(l
205
0.900
6-in. x 4-in. swage nipple = 0
K:
line from entrance through swage, Lo
AP = 4.869 psi: Ns. : l4,g3l,g2g

V : 37.N2 ft/sec; f = 0.01741
Vo AP :4869 : 0.024 = 2.470 <37o
6-in. tee
K:
z.zas
Flgure 1-22. Relief valve piping system.
The Engineering Mechanics of
:
a. :
AR :
b. :
c:
d=
D:
sonic velocity of sound waves in compressible

medium, ft/sec
rheological variable, dimensionless
ratio of branch area to header area, dimensionless
experimentally determined flow constant where
c plE" for a Newtonian fluid
inside diameter (lD) of pipe. in.
f:
F:
g:
g"
Ha:
He:
k
K
KL
n'
=
:
:
=
=
Nr" :
P:
Rn :
u=
v:
Y:
inside diameter (ID) of pipe,

friction factor, dimensionless
ft
:
6:
d
"y
angle, degrees
ratio of smaller diameter of pipe fitting to larger
p=
y=
cr
diameter
generalized viscosity coefficient lb'/(ft)Gec)
absolute roughness or effective height of pipe wall
irregularities, ft
absolute (dynamic) viscosity, centipoise
kinematic viscosity, centistokes
angle, degrees
head loss, friction ioss or frictional pressure

cm(kgr)
droo. ft(.br) .
'. lb.
cm/sec-
English system conversion factor, 32.17
lbt
energy added by mechanical devices, e.g.
pumps, ft(lb)/Ib.", cm(kg)/g.
energy extracted by mechanical devices, e.g.
turbines, f(lbr)nb*, cm(kg)/g.
specific heat ratio (adiabatic coefficient), Co/C,
velocity head, (ft)(lb)/lb*
velocity head for a large fitting at Np" = o
length of pipe or piping component, in.
Reynolds number, dimensionless
l!lt9,
REFERENCES
g.
gravitational acceleration constant, 32.2 ftlseczl
pressure,
kgrlcrfi
hydraulic radius, ft, in'

average bulk velocity, ftlsec
velocity, lblt(, kgrlcrfi
height above datum, ft, cm
45
Greek Symbols
NOTATION
al
Piping
1. Simpson, L.
2.
3.
L.
and Weirick, M.
L.,
"Designing
Plant Piping," Chem. Eng., April 3, 1978.

Metzer, A. B. and Reed, N. C. A.l.Ch.E. Jownal,
vol. 1, no.434, A.S.M.E., New York, 1955.
Rase, H. F., Piping Design for Process Plazts, John
Wiiey, New York, 1963.
4. Govier, G. W. and Aziz, K.,

5.
The Flow
of Complex
Mixtures in Pipes, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.,

Huntington, New York, 1977.
Crane Co., Technical Paper No. 410 Flow of Fluids,
Crane Co., New York. 1981.
HVAC Duct System Design, SMACNA,
6. SMACNA,
Vienna, Virginia 1981.
7. Hooper, B., "The Two-K Method Predicts Head

Losses in Pipe Fittings," Chem. Eng., Ang. 24,
1981.
8.
Sabersky, R. H. and Acosta, A. J. Fluid Flow-A

First Course in Fluid. Mechanics, The MacMillan
Company, New York, 1964.
Static and dynamic analyses require clear and precise

c.efinition of terms-their misuse can often lead to mis:-;nderstandings, a problem the engineer greatly appreciThe application of engineering mechanics to piping
"tes.
:s mainly referred to in industry as "pipe stress analy-.rs." However, the term is not comprehensive enough
recause engineers are usually more concerned about
:orces and moments exerted on equipment than stress.
Cerrainly, stress is a concern and is discussed along with
rtier
These forces and moments are controlled by structural

supports attached to the piping using pipe supporrs ro
control forces and moments in the pipe and attaching
components bring up two fundamental concepts-stiffness and f lexibility-which are discussed later in this
chaDter.
phenomena in the chapter.
PIPING CRITERIA
-{nother popular term used in industry is "piping flex-:ility analysis." The word flexibility can pose a prob-em because in the stiffness method of analysis
In analyzing piping mechanics, the following parameters must be considered:
it is actu-
-:lh the structural stiffness of pipe supports, rather than

:ieribility, that is important. For this reason the term
-'piping
flexibility analysis" is avoided.
piping
component is any constituent part of a piping
-\
.-, stem, of any finite length of pipe-a valve, flange, el:\.\\\'. pump, or anything else within the piping system.
llping is supported for various reasons-an obvious one
-rng to counteract the force of gravity-and to begin to
-:rderstand the applications we must start with some baa.: concepts.
Consider a piping component as shown in Figure 2-1.
i{:re we have a three-dimensional axis system with the
: rmponent-a short length of straight pipe-subjected to
1. The appropriate code that applies to the system.
2. The design pressure and temperature.

3. The type of material.
4. The pipe size and wall thickness of each pipe
5.
6.
7.
rrces and moments about each axis. The forces and moare considered as vector quantities and often ex::essed in terms of resultant vectors. For convenience
u'ill express resultant vectors in terms of a resultant
:.ror
operator defined as follows:
'
:
8.
:.nts
::
\.\.2)
-je
-J
: ,tll*-Z
com-
ponent.
The piping geometry including movements of anchors and restraints.

The allowable stresses for the desisn conditions set
by the appropriate code.
Limitations of forces and moments on equipment
nozzles set by API, NEMA, or the equipment manulacturers.
Metallurgical considerations, such as protecting
material from critical temperatures, like carbon
steel below its transition temperature.
For any piping system, these criteria must be considpiping system, it is not always necessary. For example, a
system having only two terminal points and pipe of uni
form size does not require a formal analysis if the following approximate criterion is satisfied:
ered and satisfied. While it is sufficient to analyze a
(2-1)
resultant force and moments change in magnitude
direction along the length of the piping system.

47
Figure 2-1. An element in a pipe wall is subjected to four

SIrESSES.
onlv code that is different from the ASME codes is the

Geiman DIN code, where the basis of yield is different'
The code basis and theories of yield are discussed later'
Reeardless of what ASME codes are used, the user is
cauti6ned that the codes are written by ASME to be
euidelines and not design handbooks. The intent of the
lodes is merely to set minimum rules and procedures for
desrgn. This does not include operation ofplants' Operationil problems are not intended to be governed by
ASME codes. Such problems as bowing of the pipe and
geysering are considered operational and are not consrdered as design Phenomena.
Pioine codes-are not the only ones with which the desien'eniineer should be familiar. It would be expedient
utia n.t-pru if he or she is familiar with ASME Section
(2-2)
o?w""
where
D, =
-y =
L=
:
C:
:
outside diameter (OD) of piPe. in' (mm)

resultant of total displacement strains to be
absorbed by the piping system. in (mm)
developed length of line axis between
anchors, ft (m)
anchor distance (length of straight line joining
anchors), ft (m)
0.03 for U.S. units
208.3 for SI units, in Parentheses
Usually. however. the piping sysrem has either more

rhan two terminal points or not all of the previous cnterla
are met, and a formal analysis is required'
After the first five criteria are considered the next and
foremost factor to consider is Step 6-the allowable
stress of the pipe. To determine this, one must reter to
the appropriaie code that governs the piping system-' The
following are codes applicable to industrial piplng ln the
United States:
ASME 83l.
piping
Piping-governs
-Power
in the Power industries (e'g''
high-Pressure steam lines)

ASME B31.3-Ct emical Plant and Petroleum
RefinerY PiPing-governs PiPing sYstems used in the chemical
and Petroleum industrY

ASME B31.4-Zt qiid Petroleum Transportation
PiPing SYstems
ASME 831.5-RdiEeration Plnins . ^.

ASME 83l .8-C,as Transmission and ulstrloution PiPing SYstems
ASME Section |II-Nuclear PiPing'
Most foreign codes are similar to the ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) codes' particularlv as fai as the theoretical basis is concerned' lne
Also, the AISC (American Institute of

Steel Construction\ Manual of Steel Construction is
mandatory in the design of structural supports-a requirement that will be obvious later.
'The reader will notice a stark contrast between the
ASME and AISC philosophies of codes' The AISC Manual of Steel Constiuaion is intended to be a design handbook and is considered as such. AISC' unlike ASME'
covers all industries of steel construction, from the
buildine of tall office buildings to major chemical plants '
Unlike ASME, the AISC codes give a commenta'ry on
what bases are used in formulating the code and why
much
these bases were used' It cannot be emphasized too
civil
and
mechanical
crosses
mechanics
that engineering
A
States
United
in
the
known
as
aisiiplines
ensindrine
kniwleaee"of some of both is necessary to understand
the overill perspective of piping mechanics'
ln satisfuing Step 6 in the list of criteria, once the appropriate iodi is selected. the system must be analyzed
io ditermine if any portion of the system exceeds the allowable stress given by the code' The allowable stress
br the cide is' in the ASME and most foreign
of fail"i;;;
EoA... Uu."a on ttte maximu-m shear stress theory
itrit tft"ory is based orfthe fact that a material yields
"i".
when the maxihum sheir stress equals the yield stress'
data
This theory is in good agreement with experimental
for
and
rnO"i .,"ufv stati and iatigue stress conditions
vnl Di;. I and II.
reason has been adoPted'

this
--iince
tnowledge of thi different theories of yield is

pip-ing
noi dir""tly pertiient to industrial applications of
further
for
Ill
r."ft-i.., the reader is referred to Fairesstresses
are rewhat
note
to
pertinent
is
It
discussion.
cuired bv the codes in analyzing piping systems'
' An element of pipe wall subjected to four stresses ls
pressure
shown in Figure 2:i. The pipe is under internal
and the four stresses are as follows:
oL
oc
:
:
longitudinal stress
circumferential or hooP stress
The Engineedng Mechanics of
rR
Jr
:
:
radial stress
shear or torsional stress
The longitudinal stress is the sum of the following

dlree components:
l.
Bending stress induced by thermal expansion.

For straight pipe:
oB
M
: ,7
LM
Q-3)
For curved pipe:
oe: _M.|
LM
(2-4)
stress induced by the weight of the pipe.

(This stress should not be a consideration ifthe piping is properly supported and will not be considered in this analysis.)
,1. Longitudinal stress induced by internal pressure.
"' = Pi
:- =
lle
oBL
(2-6)
oP
circumferential or hoop stress is caused primarily by
::ernal pressure. Thus.
,- = P(D - 2Py)
2tE
(2-'7)
i ,: thin-walled cylinders op is negligible. However, for

--::k-walled pipe, the following relationship may be
--'d for determining the radial stress:
rozPo
rozri2(Pi -il --l- _- Gt:'5r
__
-
ic
,_
r,2P,
shere external pressure,
-T
|
Po)
P6
(2-6)
lZm
::ie
(2-11)
stress range reduction factor
for cyclic condition
Total no. of full temp.

cycles over expected life
<
<
<
<
<
7,000
14,000
22,000
45,000
100,000
Expansion stress, caused by thermal expansion, must

not exceed the allowable stress range, oo, and is defined:
oe=[@s)2+4(o)2]
(2-tz)
The piping codes further state that the sum of the longitudinal stresses caused by pressure, weight, and other
sustained loadings shall not exceed op. This also includes the longitudinal stress caused by internal pressure, op, defined above.
When torsional stress becomes significant, as in many
multiplane systems, the resultant fiber stress, or combined stress, is determined by the following:
t =
llor+
op
[4(o1),
(o1
op)r]05]
(2-13 )
0, we have
PBIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESSES
rilP; _ rotr,.P,
h: - ri2 (ro, - ar,)r
l::.ional or shear stress
f :
O.25 oe)
(2-s)
3ecause both longitudinal stress caused by internal pres.-re and bending stress act in the same direction,
49
Direct shear stress is negligible and is not considered

when caused by the piping temperature, because local
yielding or "creep" reduces the stress at piping components. Local strain hardening restricts the local yielding
and prevents the material from rupturing. This phenomenon of locai yielding reducing stress is termed "selfspringing," and has the same or similar effect as cold or
hot springing. The operating stress ("operating" is used
because it can be either hot or cold) diminishes with
time. This change in stress is compensated for by the allowable stress range, which is the sum of the operating
and down condition stresses and remains practically constant for one cycle. This sum is obtained as follows:
ot : f 0.25 o" i
2. Bending
Piping
(2-9)
is
(2-10)
torsion is generated in a multiplane system.
These two concepts are very important in analyzing

piping mechanics problems. A more detailed discussion
of the various types of primary stresses is given in Chapter 4. The reader is encouraged to review Chapter 4 for
an understanding of pressure vessels, as well as this
chapter for help in solving piping mechanics problems.
Secondary stresses are called self-limiting or selfequilibrating because as they increase in magnitude, lo-
50
cal yielding causes local deformation which in turn reduces the stresses. Self-springing is an example of this
ohenomenon.
-
Primary stresses are not selflimiting because as they

increase, local yielding does not reduce them. One example of primary stress is internal pressure. Under sufficient pressure a pipe will undergo local yielding and deform, but the stress will not diminish and the pipe wall
deformations will be excessive and unacceptable. For
this reason, it is necessary to assign lower allowable
stress limits to primary stresses than to secondary
stresses. This fact is extremely important, as prlmary
and secondary stresses are evaluated differently' and
have different allowable limits. It must be remembered
that piping and vessel codes give allowable stresses only
for primary sresses. Secondary stresses must be assigned allowable limits as shown in the following discus-
---:>
Figure 2-2. Stress-strain curve.
sion.
ALLOWABLE STFESS RANGE FOR

SECOI{DARY STRESSES
The most important secondary stresses are those induced by thermal expansion (or contraction) and surface
discontinuities, the latter being more relevant to vessels.
The most widely used approach in designing equipment'
vessels, and piping is to keep the induced stresses in the
elastic range. In the case of ductile materials, the elastic
range is well defined by the minimum yield point. Ductilehaterials are often used in piping systems subjected
to loads that induce secondary stresses. Materials that do
not have a well defined minimum yield point are designed on the basis of their ultimate yield strength, which
is the maximum tensile load divided by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen. The minimum yield
point is the tensile load required to develop permanent
deformation in the material. Materials that do not have a
well defined minimum yield point are generally not used
temperatures and
in piping systems
'Thus, subjected to extreme
to those materiapplies
this discussion
presiures.
yield
als with minimum
Points.
Consider the stress-strain curve shown in Figure 2-2'
Here the metal specimen is loaded to point A and then
unloaded. Because point A is the minimum yield point'
no deformation occurs because the material is still in the
elastic range. Now, consider Figure 2-3 where the material is loaded beyond point A' Because the minimum
yield point is exceeded, plastic deformation sets in that
permanently deforms the material to point B. When the
specimen is unloaded, er is the amount of permanent deformation, denoted by point C. Point B' is the theoretical stress point if the material had not deformed to point
B. Figure 2-4 shows a case where a specimen is loaded
Figure 2-4. Stress-shan curve.
inro the plastic region. For complete plastic deformation

to occur, the entire area ofthe pipe wall must exceed the
minimum yield point. This would not be acceptable in
practice because of permanent deformation and the pos-
sibility of rupture.
There are acceptable cases where the loads will fail between Figure 2-2 and Figve 2-3. This condition is
shown on Figtre 2-4, where part of the pipe wall is in
the elastic range and the other part is on the plastic region. For cases where the portion in the plastic range is
small compared with the portion in the elastic range, the
amount of permanent plastic deformation is imperceptible. For this reason, the distance between points A and B
m Figure 2-4 is small compared to Figure 2-3 because
the portion of material in the elastic range limits the
amount of permanent deformation . Thus , when the spec-
51
imen is unloaded, residual stresses are developed that

cause reverse yielding when the material exceeds the
compressive yield point. This is shown graphically in
Figure 2-5. The specimen is loaded to point A and an excessive load deforms it to point B. At point B, part of the
material is in the plastic range and the other portion is in
the elastic range. When the specimen is unloaded, the
stresses in the material go into compression shown at
point C. Residual stresses caused by the combination of
material in the elastic and plastic regions make part of
the material exceed the compressive yield point and the
specimen deforms from point C to point D. Upon application of the same initial tensile load, the material is
loaded to point E. Point E is larger in value and, thus, to
the right of point A, because the initial loading of part of
the specimen into the plastic range causes strain hardenB
I
tl
ll
,l
,l
STBAIN
Frgure 2-5. Stress-strain curve.
Piping
=>
52
ing and, thus, increases the minimum yield point of the

material. As excessive loads are applied, the minimum
yield point E is exceeded and the material deforms to
point F. As the material is unloaded again the initial process repeats itself and the stresses in the material move to
point G and then to point H as the compressive yield
point is exceeded.
Point Q represents the stress in the loaded condition after several loading cycles, and point P represents the
stress in the unloaded condition. It is possible that no significant plastic deformation will occur after many load
cycles. However, should stress values of Q and P exceed
the fatigue limit of the material, small cracks will propagate throughout the strain-hardened material. After the
small cracks appear, further cyclic loading will result in
brittle fracture failure. The stress magnitude P results
from the specimen being unloaded when the load condition, point Q, is reached. Thus, since Q is the tensile
stress opposite to the compressive stress P in the parallelogram OB'QR the sides OB' and QP are equal in
iength. Therefore, Q : 0.5 B'. Fracture by strain hardening will not occur if the theoretical tensile stress B'
does not exceed twice the minimum yield stress of point
A, and the magnitude of Q does not exceed the ultimate
yield strength of point A.
When a ductile material, that is a material with a defined minirnum yield point, is subjected to repeated loading, a certain behavior occurs. When a component, such
as a nozzle on a header pipe, is repeatedly loaded and
unloaded, the strain hardening makes the material
stronger from load cycle to load cycle. As the material
becomes harder, it is better able to resist yield. However,
the maximum point at which this repeated loading cycle
can occur is 2oyp. The stress o : 2ovp is the limit ofthe
maximum stress range. This process is called elastic
shakedown. that is. the material "shakes down" to an
elastic response, and undergoes deformations or strains
induced by loads beyond the minimum yield point of the
material.
It must be noted that at elevated temperatures the value
of 2oyp can be altered by hydrogen embrittlement. Carbon steel exposed to hydrogen at elevated temperatures
can fail during elastic shakedown because the hydrogen
combines with the carbon causing embrittlement.
The relationship between the maximum stress range
and the initial yield point can be expressed as
o1,s
where
This analysis indicates that the allowable stress should

be based on the yield point rather than ultimate strength.
The material's ability to revert into compression and
limit itself to the amount of permanent plastic deformation is termed "shake down." The material "shaking
down" limits the amount of deformation and, thus, has
an elastic response.
From this discussion, we see tlat there is a range of

allowable stresses available. Direct membrane stresses
are limited by oy, bending stress is limited by l.5oy, and
a limited, one-time permanent deformation from A to B
occurring from secondary stresses is limited by 2oy.
Table 2-l gives recommended values for design allowable stresses. As shown in ASME Section VIII, Division
I, paragraph UA-5e, different stress levels for different
stress categories are acceptable.
FLEXIBILITY AND STIFFNESS OF PIPING

SYSTEMS
There are two basic approaches to piping mechanics-
flexibility and stiffness. The former approach is more

common and easier to understand. Piping mechanics
(more popularly known as "pipe stress") is often referred to as "flexibility analysis," but it will become obvious in the following discussion that such a term is not
complete.
In the flexibility approach, the piping configuration is
made more flexible by using loops that allow the pipe to
Table 2-1
Allowable Stresses'
Pressure Component Design Conditions
l. Internal pressure . ....... oA
2. Internal Dressure
plus therinal loading . ... . 1.25 (oa * op)
3.
Temporary mechanical
overload
4. Hydrotest
.....
. . ...
l.33oa < oy
oo X hydrotest factor
Non-pressure Components Design Conditions
1. Pipe supports
and
connections other
than
bolts
2. Bolting
.. ...
.......
1.330a
Per AISC Manual of Steel
Construction considerable
savinss in material can be
incuried if high strength

bols are utilized, such as
Zoyp
MR :
YP :
(2-1,4)
maximum local stress range not producing

fatigue failure, psi
initial yield point of the matedal at the
operatrng temperature, psl
SA-193-87. Followins
AISC guidelines in n6n
pressure components
result in prudent
economical desisn.
'
Courtes) of American Socier) o[ Mechanica] Engineers
will
displace itself, resulting in lower stresses, forces, and

moments in the system. This method is often the most
desirable when relatively inexpensive piping material is
used (pipe elbows can be very expensive in alloy piping)
and space is available for the loop(s).
However, the stiffness method becomes quite important when the flexibility method is neither practicai nor
economical. When limited space reduces piping flexibility or makes it irnpossible or undesirable to use flexibility loops, restraining the piping using the stiffness of
pipe supports becomes the alternative. This approach is
gaining popularity with the increased use of modular designs of petrochemical plants, offshore platforms, and
other industrial facilities.
The following is a summary of the advantages of both
methods:
St iffne s s Me
l.
2.
thod Ady anta
Piping
A piping element has six degrees of freedom, three in

translation and three in rotation, as shown in Figure 2-6.
The amount of force or moment required to produce unit
displacement in each degree of freedom at points all
along the piping element is described mathematically as
the stiffness matrix. K. which is defined as
P:KU
where we have an elastic element subjected to a set of n
forces and moments
(2-ts)
the corresponding displacement of each
by the matrix
P1
is described
(2-r6)
g es
Requires less pipe fittings and is thus more economical than flexibility method, because pipe restraints required are far less expensive than the
number of fittings they replace. In alloy piping
these savings are enormous.
Requires far less space for piping, such as in modu-
Iar skid-mounted plants, offshore platforms,
53
and
Therefore, the stiffness matrix can be expressed
as
p
(2-17)
which can be in pounds per inch or foot pounds per degree. The relationship
ships.
3.
4.
Method is safer because in case ofa failure, such as

a leak in a weld crack, the pipe restraints can (and
have) kept systems from blowing apart.
Piping and system is more resistant to dynamic
loads, such as vibration and seismic shock loads.
Flexibility Method Advantages
1. Utilizes simpler pipe supports, and requires less

piping engineering skill.
2. Is more desirable in noncritical systems, e.g. exhaust and flare lines.
3. Many solutions do not require a computer. The
problems can be solved manually.
To better understand these two methods of piping me-'hanics, it is necessary to examine some basics of struc::rral analysis.
Stiffness is the amount of force or moment reouired to
:ioduce unit displacement. either translational or angu-
-.lr movement. The simplest concept of stiffness is to

::nagine using X pounds to compress a spring one inch.
Thus, the spring stiffness is in terms of pounds per inch.
This simple example illustrates translational stiffness.
Rotational stiffness can be thought of in a similar manner
as a spring that resists rotational movement, foot-pounds
rer unit degree of movement.
II
(2-18)
is defined as the compliance or flexibility matrix and can

be in inches per pounds or degrees per foot-pounds.
Thus, the stiffness K ofa system is the inverse of the system compliance or flexibility, C, that is, the piping system becomes more flexible, or less stiff than its initial
configuration
The system stiffness matrix, K, is made up of elements

that are either direct stiffness or indirect stiffness components. The direct stiffness component K;; is the value of
stiffness at the point i when the displacement U1 is produced by a force or moment P acting in the direction of
U1. The indirect stiffness Kij is the value
the point
of stiffness
at
j, with the displacement Uj acting in the direc-
tion ofj, due to a force or moment at another point i in

the direction of i. The indirect stiffness can also be
thought of as relative stiffness-those stiffness values induced by forces and moments in the system other than
the point in consideration. It is the combined grouping of
the complete direct and indirect stiffness values that
form what is called the "stiffness matrix." Each direct
and indirect stiffness is considered in the matrix when all
other matrix components are zero. Such as the system
described in the followins:
translational stiffness for a beam element fixed on one

end and pinned at the other end is
P:
tmi
HniHtrHl
iil]
*11-u:J
Q-1e)
lH ft: e ft [:
where the values K11, Kzz, Fv:z, K44, K55, and K66 are
known as direct stiffness values and all the other compon"rrt. u." known as indirect stiffness values' Each value
of U represents a unit displacement. The components ol
(a'tial
the stifiness matrix are ditermined by the nature
force, bending moment, shear force) of the force or moment inducin! unit displacement U at or arvay froT the
point in que.iion. To eifectively see how these stiffness
io-pon"nt, ur. utilized in practical applications'.we will
consider each type of force or moment rnduclng olsolacements, thai is, each component of the P matrix coriesponding to each value of the U matrix' Table 2-2 lists
in"'airect'uatues of stiffness induced by direct and indirect loadings shown in Figure 2-6. For analytic derivations, the rlader is referred to Przemieniecki [2]'
To illustrate how these concepts apply to piping mechanics, let us consider both a 4-in. schedule 40 pipe and
we
a 10-in. schedule 40 pipe shown in Figure 2-'7 He,re
a
to.
are considering two pipe spool pieces subjected
me
that
force F shown. Referring to Table 2-2' we see
-n't :
3EI
t_3
For the 4-in. PiPe,

K4
x 106) ${r.zr)
------GD3 ini
3(29
in.o
S,Oal.OO
P
m.
For the 10-in. PiPe,

3(29
Kro =
x lo) |rtoo.s)
(48)' in
ln."
'
r26,497.40Y
l/+
The force required to move the 4-in. pipe
lh
(5.687.66t .11 (0.25)
in.
1n.
in'
is
1.421.92 lb
To generate the same amount of force in a 10-in' pipe the

same length would have to move
|,421.92 lb
zo,qsl.+o
0.011 in.
!ln.
Figure 2-6. Pipe element.
Table 2-2
Stittness Properties ot Piping Elements
*"t
rl'>'*-
Ktt=Kr:?
->x
-(*--u
AF
r,,:r,,:4EL
K:r:IQr:K5r=Iqr=0
Kzz=Kqz:6tr=lQr=0
-""/
_- =
or,
tzEl
il-+ e)L3
^44:(l+o)L:
,, :
-lzBl
11 1oy rr
,. : - tzEr
^" rJi) IJ-
^.-_____________
TT
T/
f-l
&::ree:d#r,
Tu
,.
Ky :
Koq
6EI
.-=1+o)Ll
,=---.---=
/P
t"t
--(.4-=-Y/^-
f.r
.lffil
/,
o-------4
"(\YI
t<----_T+
r\55
466
(4 + O)EI
: .-);-L(r r:-=:
9,
Note: In all cases
-6FI
Krs=K:r=illo)U
l2Er
: rqi =
{1 + O)tr
l--------9)'
,/
\.t
Kla:K2a:0
K53
\-1._________J
A\l
l,k
r\
Kr::Kzs:0
ôr
K..
t"
lzBr
GALI
and
-K = cJ
-:L
lorsronal sunness
Kes
Kso =
(2
a)EI
L(l + O)
56
g
,r,
10Q SCHEDULE 40
FOR ONE END PINNED AND THE OTHER FIXED

K1o
K,, =
'
-3!.L-
))
K4
l1+olL'
a"q scHeoure
Figure 2-7. Comparative stiffness.
In other words, if the pipe itself moved because of ther-
mal expansion and theie was a restraint of a given spring

."tttuioing the movement, the 10-in' pipe would
"onrt-t
onlv have to rnonJ0.0l I in. to exert ihe same force as
the'4-in. pipe moving r/+ in' Thus' the l0-in pipe is
the 4-in' pipe, which is a
-ore tltun 2i ti-es stiffer than
the
.igrifi"-t point because it indicates that the larger
oiloine. the'less it must move to exert excessive forces
Iria rio."ntt on nozzle connections and pipe supports'
the pîpfi". ,fti, example it is obvious that the largeroften

fail
i*. tt'" *t"ut"t itte stiffness' Piping designersmove very
piping does not have to

toiealizJ that larger
-greit
ioads . This basic fact is important
much to generate
in ttt" OE ign of-pipe supports, particularly using the
-stiffness apProach.
iarrvine^the analysis further. consider the two piping

shown in Figure 2-8 This situation is
"oniit,itu,iont
similir to Figue 2-7 in that one end is fixed and the
other pinnedi'e., both systems have the same boundary
The segment-B-C is flexible enough to bend
"""Jit'i""..
with enough rotatidnal flexibility to consider tut "ld^::
piping is -luu'
a pinned j6int. lf the temperature ofthe
moves
B-C
f, the segment
M
a: (-1.75)do,o'ft = -o.o70in'
The force required to move a

0.070 in. is
Fq:
(5.687.66)
th
4-in
tO.OUOr in. =
schedule 40 pipe
398.14 lb'
Figure 2-8. Pipe size makes a significant difference in nozzle

loadins.s.
The force required to move

0.070 in. is
Fto
oz6,4s7.40r
a l0-in.
Itn. to.ozol in. :
schedule 40 pipe
Aluminum
exchanger
llange
8,854.82 rb
l ielding a moment of
vro:
(8,854.82)(4)
35,4r9.27tt-lbl2
l7,7o9.64ft-tb
at the nozzles A and B.

The 4-in. force of 398.14 lb would nroduce a moment
\'r1
(3e8.14)
at nozzles
! :
na.ze
of
uv
A and B.
It is clear that the 10-in. pipe would exert moments

ell above the allowable moments for most rotating and
stationary equipment. To reduce the loading at the nozzle, the engineer is faced with two options-make the
piping configuration more flexible or restrain the piping.
To fabricate the piping configuration to within a tolerance of 0.070 in. would be well beyond the practical
range of any fabricating shop.
First, we will analyze a case where space is premium
and there is not enough room to make the piping more
flexible. This requires using piping restraints to transfer
loads from the pipe to structural steel or concrete. Consider the piping system in Figure 2-9, where two aluminum heat exchangers are piped parallel to one another.
Here we use the fewest 90' elbows needed to give the
svstem enough flexibility to stay within the maximum aliowable stress range for the material at the given temperature. Piping restraints are then placed close to the heat
3\changers to transfer loads from the pipe to the steel instead of the nozzle of the exchanger.
Now, we analyze the component that makes the system
$ork-the pipe restraint at the equipment nozzle. The
:estraint's function is to transfer forces and moments exerted by the pipe to the structural steel below, simultaneously allowing the equipment to move freely. This requires a more careful design of the piping restraint, as
.\e are expecting it to do more.
In this example the piping restraints must allow the exJhangers to move upward as shown in Figure 2-9. A restraint that resists moments by transferring the moments
:iom the pipe to the steel is termed a moment restraining
support (MRS). Different types of MRS supports are
shown in Figure 2-10. An MRS can vary from a boiled
plate connection shown in Figure 2-10A to a sophistiiated type in Figure 2-10C. MRS restraints' sophistica:ion is a function of how much rotation is resisted and
iow much translational movement is allowed. The most
u
Exchanger
Figure 2-9. An MRS support-restraint designed to reduce

forces and moments on an aluminum olate-fin heat exchanser.
simple MRS restraint is the anchor, where the pipe itself

or a pipe attachment is welded down to structural steel or
immersed in concrete. In that case, it is resisting three
degrees of freedom in translation and three degrees of
freedom in rotation. In most applications, the moments
at nozzle connections can become excessive, and it is often desirable to resist rotation in one. two- or tlree axes
while allowins translational movement. Resistine rota-
58
tion along three axes is, if not impossible, wholly impractical. An MRS allowing two degrees of freedom in
Restrainl
KTX, KTY,
KRX, KRY KRZ
translation and resisting three degrees of rotation is quite

complicated, although practical, very useful, and economical when the situation warrants. In designing such
restraints Teflon and other materials with very low friction coefficients are desirable. Care must be made in assuring that such material selected can witlstand the
forces and moments being resisted. If the material used
is not resistant to shear, cold flow will result, leading to
uneven surfaces and an improperly functioning restraint.
In the engineering of MRS restraints, the principles
discussed previously must continuously be applied. No
support or restraint can be expected to be infinitely rigid
along the degrees of freedom that are being restrained.
Placing MRS devices in front of equipment nozzles will
not stop all loading exerted by the piping, because all restraints have a corresponding stifftress value for each deg
of freedom, either lbs/in. for translation or ft-lbs/deg for
rotation. The engineer must also understand what assumptions are being made by the piping stress program
being applied. Almost all computerized pipe stress packages consider an anchor as six springs, three resisting
translational forces of 10e lbs/in. and three resistine rotational forces of l0e ft-lbs/deg. There is no infinitel! rigid
anchor in nature, but 10e lbs/in. is sufficient to be called
an anchor in almost all applications.
In modular plant design it is often desirable for the engineer to enter the actual stiffness of any anchor or restraint to obtain an accurate model of the piping system
being analyzed on the computer.
STIFFNESS METHOD AI{D LABGE PIPING
-=a'/
C
Feslinl =
KTX, XRX. KRY KFz
Figure 2-10. Various designs of moment restraint supports

(MRs)-arrows indicate direction of allowed movement.
--=4
Large piping is rnore difficult to restrain than small

piping because of the surface to be restrained. The terms
"large" and "small" are quantified in the following discussion. The most common complication of restraining
large piping is the phenomenon of shear flow, which occurs longitudinally and circumferentially. As illustrated
in Figure 2-1 I , longitudinal shear flow transfers bending
moments and shear forces to the equipment nozzle.
In modular construction longitudinal shear flow does
not become a problem until one starts using l0-in. pipe
and larger. Shear flow can be resisted to some degree by
making the attachment pipe size or structural member
size close to that of the pipe, but is most often impractical. What is often desirable is to mount an MRS on opposite ends ofthe pipe, either top and bottom or offto both
sides, depending on what space is available. In piping
30-in. and larger MRS restraints must be attached on
four sides for the MRS effect to be effective. In pipe di-

Nozzle flange
I
_>
Hequrres
Restraining pipe with MRS at AandB

required with pipe sizes
-normally
12" d and over
Uniaxial longitudinal shear flow

nozzle tlange
Requires
Restraining pipe with MRS at A, B, C & D

required with pipe sizes
-normally
-30 " d and over
Biaxial longitudinal shear flow

around points A and B
Figure 2-11. Longitudinal shear
meters 8-in. and smaller, attaching an MRS on one side

is sufficient for most modular construction.
Circumferential shear flow, on the other hand, is not a
lactor in most installations because torsion is very effeclively transferred to the structural steel by the MRS resralnt.
Using piping restraints to transfer loads to structural
iteel or concrete to lower loads at equipment nozzles is
'becoming quite popular
and more widespread because
is more economical in modular skid design.
flow-a
phenomenon of large pipe.
equipment, it is often more economical and desirable to

design the piping to be flexible enough to reduce loadings on supports and equipment nozzles. For pipe racks,
long headers, etc. this method is the only practical approach to solving piping mechanics problems. Tools used
in this approach include such well known devices
and
techniques as piping loops, cut short and cut 1ong, and

expansion joints.
it
Also, where
erpensive piping materials are used, the stiffness method

can help reduce the number ofelbows used for flexibility
end, thus, reduce the cost of the job because restraints
and supports are far cheaper than piping elbows.
FLEXIBILITY IIETHOD OF PIPING

HECHANICS
In non-modular skid construction (block-mounted

plants) and areas where there is ample space to place
PIPE LOOPS
The most common types of pipe loops used today are
shapes, "2" shapes, and "L" shapes. Curves for
these shapes showing stresses plotted against the loop dimensions are shown in Figures 2-12 and the equations
are as follows:
"U"
F1
A1B -ll-
tu,
t" :
in.o
60
rol
t
,I
I
8l
,l
Ry
6
5
it
3
2
1
tof
I
"I
I
"l
_l
Ry
1
3
2
Figure 2-12A. UJoop with equal legs'
1o
Ry
4
3
ro
9
I
7
Ry
'|
to
12 14 16 1A 20 22
24
Ay
Figure 2-128. Uloop with one leg twice the other leg.
to
I
a
7
RY
5
1
3
2
Figure 2-128 (continued). UJoop with one leg twice the other leg'
10
a
7
6
Ry
2
1
180 ^
z&
Figure 2-12C. UJoop with one leg three times the other leg'
6
Ry
"* o,
ooo
Fv
10 t2 tO t"o,
22242a303234
Figwe 2-12C (continued). U-loop with one leg three times the other leg.
to
I
I
7
Rv
4
3
2
tao
oo
22o
10
I
a
6
Ry
15
2O o,
,o
1,
25
Figure 2-12D. Uloop with one leg four times the other leg.
'to
I
a
2oo
300
400
500
500
700
800
Figure 2-12D (continued). UJoop with one leg four times the other leg.
-i1 n=*
Ry
Ab
Figure 2-12E. UJoop:
"2"
configuration.
a
7
6
Ry
4
3
2
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 m
80
gOAv
IOO llo
l2O l3O lr|o 15O 160 17O
Ry
40o
A,
so
Figure 2-12E (continued). U-loop:
"2"
configuration.
t8O
"=E
Figure 2-12F. U-loop:
"L"
configuration.
Figure 2-12F (continued). U-loop:
Fv: AvB{lb,
oo:
-L
, ,
SIF
A"B P osi.
L - fr. D =
rn.
Thermal movement (in./100 ft)Eo

172.800
1.0 (Verified by computer stress analysis)
Loops such as circle bends, double offsets, and other

geometrics involving completed circular geometry
should be avoided because they are impractical, expensive, and unappealing to clients due to their complexity.
If excessive looping is required, the stiffness method
should be used to produce a practical, economical solution. The use of both the flexibility and stiffness approaches in areas, where applicable, can yield very attractive and appealing piping designs.
In pipe racks, the "U" shape loop is invariably the
most practical shape to use because of its space effi
ciency. "U" loops are normally spaced together (i.e.,
lines running together on a pipe rack are, where practical, looped together as shown in Figve2-13). It is desirable to guide the pipe on each side of the loop and at every other support thereafter as shown in Figure 2-14.
Make sure the first guide is far enough from the loop to
avoid jamming problems. Usually, this distance is twice
"L"
configuration.
the bend radius of an elbow of the pipe size being used.

If you cannot put piping guides on the pipe coming down
from the loop, then put them on the inside ofthe loop as
"2"
Other configurations, such as

and "L" shapes,
are used in the normal routing of piping systems. It must
be remembered that when these shapes are anchored on
opposite ends, the ratio of the shortest leg to the longest
should
fall in the range of 1.0 to 10.0 to avoid over-
stressing the pipe. When analyzing the shapes by computer, any ratio can be used, but usually the aforementioned range is valid for most applications.
PIPE RESTRAINTS AND ANCHORS

Pipe restraints are used to counter forces of gravity,
wind, earthquake, vibration, and other dynamic forces
such as water hammer. The most common type is the
gravity support, which merely restrains the force of
gravity. A piping restraint can act in one or all degrees of
freedom. As discussed previously, there are no restraints
that are infinitely rigid-each has its own spring rate in
each degree of freedom of translation and rotation. Even
an "absolute" restraint has in each desree of freedom a
rranslational stiffness of tOq lbs/in. aidior a rotational
Line smallesl in size aod has least

lhermal movement is placed on
inside
Lrne tnat has greatesl lhermal

movement and targesl size is placed
on oulsade to allow lor movement
Figure 2-13. Optimum grouping of UJoops.
stiffness of 10e ft-lbs/deg. Such a restraint that restrains a

pipe in all degrees of freedom is termed an anchor.
Piping guides are restraints that counter movement in
one or several directions but allow total freedom of
movement in one or more directions. Total freedom is
defined as a stiffness value of zero. An anchor, by definition, has some value of stiffness in every degree of freedom, even though the anchor itself can move. The movement occurs while the anchor is still resisting movement
at a certain stiffness in each degree of freedom. Thus,
the term "sliding anchor" in place ofa pipe guide is erroneous, because guides have a value of zero stiffness in
one or more degrees of freedom. An anchor can restrain
movement, although it may move. It is important to be
cognizant of restraint terminology to avoid unnecessary
confusion.
The stiffness of a support is not only a function of the
restraint material, but also a function of the structural
steel or concrete to which it is attached. Even thoush
very stiff in compression. concrete is not infinitely stifi.
As shown in Figure 2-15, the pipe restraint has a stiffness value K,, the concrete a stiffness value of K6, and
the soil a value of IG. Because Ka ) Ks, the concrete
can sink or move in the soil if the concrete support is designed correctly or if subsidence occurs. Movements
caused by soil conditions should be the responsibility of
the piping engineer as well as the civil/structural engineer. The latter is responsible for limiting such movements as much as possible, and the piping engineer is responsible for entering these movements in the stress
computer run or manual calculations.
It was mentioned earlier that for a pipe restraint to be
considered absolute in one direction it must restrain one
billion pounds per inch of translation and one billion
pounds per degree of rotation. However, very few pipe
restraints in nature are so rigid (an anchor being a restraint in three degrees of translation and three degrees
Figure 2-14. Guides are necessary for controlling movement
r: loops.
of rotation).
If
the actual flexibility of the restraint is
modeled into the pipe stress analysis, more realistic reactions and moments are obtained. In the case of nressure
vessels much work has been done in determining realistic spring constants for nozzles. For application to rotating equipment, the reader is discouraged from using
these spring constants, especially on equipment made of
brittle material such as cast iron. Also, these spring constants are to be used only for ductile materials. Nozzle
loadings should be based on either manufacturer recommendations or applicable standards. For further details
and discussion of nozzle loadings on rotating equipment
Frgure 2-15. Conceptualization
of system stiffness. Each

-::rponent of the
system-pipe, pipe supports, concrete, and
.::--has translational and rotational values ofstiffness (matri-.: ilbout each axis. These values can be modeled into the sys'.- as springs,
-
see Chapter 6.
To treat a restraint with elastic end conditions, only rotations are considered significant. Deformations induced
by radial force and other translations are ignored, be-
cause their influence is insisnificant.
70
The basic relationship for rotational deformation

nozzle ends is applying Equation 2-17 as
M " ler I
e
..P
where K :
M =
e :
F :
I :
Dy
kf
=
:
of
Angle of Twist
Longitudinal
(2-r7)
180
-l-l [DNkr I
KRX or KRY, ft-lb/deg
Circumferential
moment, ft.lb
angle of rotation, deg
modulus of elasticity of vessel metal at

ambient temperature, Psl
moment of inertia of vessel rLozzle, in.a
diameter of vessel nozzle, in.
flexibility factor, referred to in piping codes
as
"k"
The flexibility factor, kr, is a parameter that has had

several formulations over the years. One widely used
variant was that proposed by the "Oak Ridge ORNL
Phase 3 Report- 1 15-3-1966 ." Since this document was
oublished in 1966, several revisions have been made'
the current ASME Section III Division I code gives detailed discussions on the flexibility factor. If one is desiening piping for nuclear systems. then that person
str-oula only consult that code. Outside the nuclear industry the piping engineer rarely knows all the parametersthat are necessary to compute the flexibility factor of
Section III. Also, the piping engineer in nomuclear
work rarely knows which vendor will supply the piping
components, thereby making many Section III parameters unknown.
Therefore, the more elementary "ORNLI" factors are
Dresented here, because they produce lower values for
[, which, in turn, produce higher, more conservative
values of K. These factors are as follows:
Flexibility Factor
c","o"
Longitudinal
= K.:
Circumferential
..
- : MD"K,
" - tracransl
: H,
K"
(|i
tD
^.
-,,8"8
lr\:
where C1
C. :
:H: ,
MD"IC.
..
" - {fadl?llSl
EI
0'09 for in Plane bending

O.2'l for out of Plane bending
diameter of vessel or pipe header' in.
diameter of branch' in.
D=
=
E = modulus ofelasticity. lb/in
I : moment of inerria of branch. in.a
KL : longitudinal flexibility factor
K : circumferential flexibility factor
M : apPlied moment, in -lbs
Or : longitudinal angle of twist, radians
O. : circumferential angle of twist, radians
t : wall thickness of vessel or pipe header' in.
tB = wall thickness of branch, in
Dg
In-plane bending refers to longitudinal bending in Ihe

pipe header or vessel in the plane formed by the interseciion of the branch and vessel or pipe header centerlines'
Out-of-plane bending refers to circumferential be.nding
in a plane perpendicular to the vessel or pipe header. diameter. These rotational spring rates are necessary wnen
the stiffness of an anchor must be considered in pipe
sfess analySis.
PIPE LUG SUPPORTS

These are about the most common pipe suppo(ts' The
lug can provide a means for spring hangers or simple
clevis-rod hangers. As simple as these supports are' a
failure by one could result in loss of property or lives
Thus, their simplicity should not allow one to take them
for granted thinking that any design will suffice'
Tie following method is based on the Bijlaard analysis
discussed by wichman et al. [3]' Consider a pipe subiected to a load P (lbs), as shown in Figure 2-16 The lug
\T/
Rotational Spring Rate

r-onsitudinal
Circumferential
*.: #or*[ry*)
:
R"
Figure 2-16. Pipe lug support for a pipe with internal pres-
suie-primary and secondary
stresses must be added'
connection is free of moments because the pin connection at the lug hole allows the pipe to twist in all directions. The usual oversight in designing a lug support is
not considering the primary and secondary stresses,
which must be added together and compared to the minimum tensile strength of the pipe material. First, we will
discuss the Bijlaard method, which is only concerned
with secondary stresses.
The pipe and 1ug geometries determine the attachment
parametet B, and the shell parameter, k, by
^C^L,RU
' 2Rna
2Ru
r ff> r,,
: [' - ](ui -
*,)]
')(' (B,B)os Q-20)
rr
pq
< | .u
: [, - i(-
'ff),,
",]
(Btp)o:
(2-21)
where K1 and K2 are determined from Table 2-3. For circumferential stress, od, the circumferential membrane
and circumferential bending stresses are determined by
.l
f" - (f' ( f.l :

r \P/RJ \R.V
H (9 -
circumferenrial membrane stress
.,,".u'r.,ential
bending stress
Figure 2-17. Membrane force, Na,/P/R-, induced by radial
The membrane force, No/(P/R.), is determined from

Figure 2-17 or Figure 2-18, and the bending moment,
\1"/P, is determined from Figure 2-19 or F\gure 2-2O.
Stress concentration factors must be accounted for in
the surface discontinuity between the rectangular surface
rfthe lug and the circular surface ofthe pipe. The memlrane stress concentration factor for Dure tension or
:omoression is determined bv
t
: r+l/ 6w/
\5
\0.65
:<
:rd
(2-22)
the concentration factor for bendine stress is deter-
Sned by
=,*(-t'\"
\9.4wi
(2-23)
; here w, the weld size, is given in Thble 2-4 for various

:-ite sizes. These values for w are only recommended
load P [3].
Table 2-3
Radial Load P
Nd
N,
Kr
0.91
1.68
1.76
t.2
K,
1.48
r.2
0.88
r.25
Md
Table 2-4
Recommended Minimum Weld Sizes for Plates
Thickness t ol Thicker
Minimum Size, w' ot Fillet
Plare welded (in.)
weld (in.)
t<Y2
tlz1t13/c
3l+<t1lt/z
lrlz<t<211c
2t/c<t<6
6<t
3/ro
51rc
3/z
!2
5/s
72
Mechanical Design of Process Syslems
100
+ :H
(9)
'"'r"'o''"r
bending stress
The total longitudinal stress is thus found by adding

the two stresses,
N" ,,
,,
o"T-ô
6M,
(2-2s)
The longitudinal stress and circumferential stress represent the secondary stresses in the pipe wall. These
primary stress which, in the

case of internal pressure in the pipe, is the pressure
stress. The pressure stress is determined by
stresses must be added to the
I
tE
z l:\
'2t
OD:
P"GD)
.
DSI
Q-26)
Thus, the total stress for each secondary stress is as follows:

oT
= q6+
op
Q-2',1)
oT:qx+op
where o1
<
Q-28)
2oa
oy
Often, with large piping, a simple lug will be overly

stressed because of localized stresses at the lug-pipe connection. When the lug attachment dimension, c, becomes
small to the pipe radius, a clamp is normally put around
Figure 2-18. Membrane force, N-6/P/R., induced by radial

load P [3].
and the engineer should use whatever sizes are actually
to be used in practice.
The total circumferential stress, ox, is determined by
using these factors in the following equation:
*: "(9 **,(9
(2-24)
The longitudinal stress, ox, is determined in a similar

way. The membrane force, N*/(P/R.), and the bending
moment, M*/P, are determined from Figure 2 -17 or 2-18
and Figure 2-21 or Figure 2-22, respectively.
These parameters are used to determine the longitudinal membrane and circumferential bendins stresses.
where
\ : (\) (i'l = r-onnituainal membrane

r \P/RJ \R.V
stress
the entire pipe with the lug attaching to the top of the
clamp. This reduces localized stresses at the pipe wall by
adding extra metal. This same principle applies to vessel
nozzle reinforcement, which is discussed in Chapter 8.
SPRING SUPPORTS
These supports provide loading to a pipe that has undergone displacement. Simple supports are no longer
useful if the pipe raises off and loads are transfered to
other supports or fragile equipment nozzles. To ensure
support for the pipe while it moves, a moving support is
desired. The most practical device to fill this requirement is the spring.
Springs come
in two basic categories-variable
springs and constant springs. The former, which is by far

the most common, provides loading to a pipe at a fixed
spring rate, lb/in., but the amount of force to deflect the
spring varies with the amount of deflection. This force

versus spring rate is a linear relationship and is the reason for a "variable" spring. The constant spring is a
74
Mx
T
.ol
.30 .35 .40 45
.50
Figure 2-21. Bending moment, M"/P, induced by radial

load P [3].
Mx
-T
Flgwe 2-22. Bending moment,

dial load P [3].
M"/l
induced by ra-
spring that will provide the same spring rate for any
force great enough to cause initial deflection. Constant
springs are used in critical installations where forces or
deflections induced on the piping system are critical.
These springs are considerably more expensive than the
variable types and are usually avoided by piping engineers when not needed.
Constant springs provide constant supporting force for
the pipe throughout its full range of contraction and expansion. As shown in Figwe 2-23, this constant support
mechanism consists of a helical coil spring working in
conjunction with a bell crank lever in such a manner that
rhe spring force times its distance to the lever pivot is always equal to the pipe load times its distance to the lower
pivot. Thus, the constant spring is used where it is not
desirable for piping loads to be transferred to connecting
equipment or other supports.
Variable springs are used where a variation in piping
loads can be tolerated. As an example, consider the folIowing example shown in Figtre 2-24. The spring is
above the pipe and is attached to it with a rod and clevis.
This arrangement is called a spring hanger. As seen in
Figure 2-24A, the spring supports the weight of the pipe
and insulation. As the pipe heats up and expands it
moves upward. The amount of deflection,

the amount of excessive force as
F"
where
K:
A=
75
A, relates to
AK' lb
(2-29)
spdng constant of spring, lb/in.
deflection, in.
It is common practice to calibrate
the hanger in such a

manner that when the piping is at its operating (hot or
cold) condition, the supporting force of the spring is

equal to the weight of the pipe. This means that the maximum variation in supporting force occurs when the pipe
is in the down condition, when primary stresses are nonexistent because of no internal pressure. Therefore, in
the cold position, the suppo ing force of the spring is
F:F"+WP
where
WP
(2-30)
pipe and insulation weight
To reduce the amount
of variability, it is desirable to
use the smallest type of variable spring provided that the
deflections will not exceed those of the spring range.

Typical spring sizes and ranges are shown in Table 2-5.
--F
(A) F=Wt
In thls case, hot
(B)
Hot Condition
Cold Position
Flgure 2-23. A constant load spring support provides constant

.rpport loading in critical situations.
Piping
= operating condition, cold = down condition
Figwe 2-24. The "cold" and "hot" loading positions ofa variable spring hanger.
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It is common practice to utilize the smallest spring
size
possible.
In critical and large systems, spring loadings should be

eYaluated by computer analysis. Often, in large systems,
piping movements are not intuitively obvious and errors
can result because the entire system must be evaluated if
a correct analysis is to be obtained. In most systems,
hand calculations are far too cumbersome.
Occasionally, springs are used as moment resisting devices, as shown in Figure 2-25. In such an application,
the spring preloads the pipe in a specific direction. As
the pipe expands or contracts, the spring counters the
rbrce created by the movement and, thus, reduces the
moment at an end connection. Such a system in normal
practice usually works in the operating mode but when
ihe system shuts down the spring overloads the piece of
equipment protected in the operating condition. Thus, if
such a scheme is used, care must be taken to ensure that
Cre protected items are safe in both the operating and
Jown conditions. These schemes can be avoided by use
..'i MRS devices where space does not warrant piping

t-lexibility.
lrcation of spring supports is of critical importance.
\\-hile springs should be placed where they will be most

3fficient, often such locations are undesirable from tle
itructural engineer's viewpoint. The piping engineer
:hould always be cognizant of available structural steel
Lrr concrete and loads to be placed on structures. Most
prings are supported from above at either mid spans or
at elbows. Many times it is desirable to support the pipe
tiom below. When using this type of spring, one must be
.autious of pipe movement, as excessive movement ( >
l/a in.)
will
Piping
77
cause such a spring to jam, as shown in Fig-
rre 2-26A. To avoid jamming, a guided load column is

used to prevent such a problem (Figure 2-268).
Springs are often used to support equipment to reduce
nozzle loadings, which are discussed in Chapter 6.
EXPA]ISION JOINTS
These devices accommodate movement
in
piping
caused by temperature changes. Such items range from
special slip joints that only allow movement in the axial
direction to corrugated bellows joints that can be designed to accommodate movement in several directions.
It is the latter type that we will concentrate on, as they
are by far the most numerous and complicated of expansion joints.
Corrugated bellows expansion joints have a bad reputation with some users because of ignorance. Many bellows expansion joints have been incorrecdy specified
and the consequences attributed to the device itself. This
is unfortunate because this device is invaluable when either re-routing the line is impossible or cold spring or
other alternatives are not available. The surest way to
avoid problems with bellows expansion joints is to have
the piping (stress) engineer specify the unit and to procure the unit from a reputable manufacturer.
The bellows expansion joint is like the MRS device
discussed earlier because the more the unit is required to
accomplish the more complex is its configuration. The
simplest corrugated bellows expansion joint is the single
= momenl generated bY
movement at Pl A
lvla
\
)
t"
= moment generated
by spring
)L2Nozzle
Direction oI Pt A movement
Figure 2-25. Utilizing a spring to counter a moment generated by piping is appropriate only when the spring movement, Ms, does
ilot overload the nozzle or overstress the piping system when the latter is in the down condition and there is no movement at A.
This condition is required after the operating condition is met.
:
:
Figure 2-26'. (A) Enough piping movement will cock load flange andjam spring. Note: arrows indicate
direction ofmovement.
(B) A guide load column shown here will prevent situation in
1a--;. ttreie arJvarious designs for guide load columns, but for pipe
movement greater than t/+" one should consider a column with rollers or Teflon on top;f the ioad flange.
bellows type shown in Figtxe 2-27 A. This specific joint

is shown with flanges welded on each end, but is available from manufacturers with pipe spool pieces on each
end to enable the unit to be directly welded into a line.
The piping engineer should try to utilize this type ofjoint
whenever possible because of economy and simplicity of
operation. The single bellows is free to move in all de-
grees of freedom except about the longitudinal centerline. In fact. no bellows expansion joint can accommodate torsion and any tendency for the pipe to exert a
high torsional moment could seriously damage thejoint.
External restraints are placed on the joint to restrict
movement in one or more degrees of freedom. Such devices are tie rods or hinges that restrict movement or
pressure thrust. Figve 2-278-E are examples of joints
that are so restricted. Following the same nomenclature
shown in Figure 2-10, we consider each joint in a threedimensional axis system. KTX, KTY, and KTZ are the
translational stiffness values lb/in., about the X. Y. and
Z axes, respectively. KRX, KRY, and KRZ are the
rotational stiffness values, ft-lb/deg, about the X, Y, and
axes, respectively. For all bellows joints,

(1.0 x 10') ft-lb/deg, as previously srared.
KRZ:
ln Figure2-27 A, we have finite values for KTX, KTy,

KTZ, KRX, and KRI the joint is free to translate about
three axes and rotate about two axes. The bellows does
not support its own weight so this joint would not be desirable where each end exceeds the maximum amount of
pipe span shown, as calculated by the following equation:
L:0.131
: modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi

I = moment of inertia of pipe, in.a
P : design pressure (psig)
A : bellows effective area. in.2
K : axial bellows stiffness (KTZ in F\gure 2-21)
E
The maximum length of unsupported pipe implies that

the unit itself is within this length. Preferably, the joinr is
close to one support or nozzle to avoid excessive deflec-
tron.
Thejoint in Figure 2-278 has values ofKTX and KRy

KTY : KTZ : 10e lbs/in. and KRX = KRZ = 10e
lbs/deg. This means that the joint is free to translate in
the X-direction and free to rotate in the y-direction and is
rigid in all other directions. This type ofjoint is called a
"hinged" joint and is self-supporting in the y-direction
shown in Figure 2-27 . Placing high vertical loads on a
joint must be approved by the manufacturer.
and

The joint in Figure 2-27C has values of KRX and KRY
irut absolute values of KRZ, KTX, KTY, and KTZ. Nor-
nally, these joints are used in pairs to allow rotation

lbout two axes similar to swivel or ball joints and not
ellowing any translation. This action is seen in Figure 2-
t8.
The unit in Figure 2-27D is a pressure balanced uniersal joint. It is free to move about all degrees of move:nent except KRZ and is restricted by tie rods that bal.rnce pressure thrust. This type of joint is very common
r
aa
in engine exhaust systems.

Figrre 2-278 depicts one of the most complicated expansion designs-an in{ine pressure balanced expansion
'oint. This joint eliminates pressure thrust, is self-suprorting, and does not require a change in the piping sys:em to install. It is desirable where structural supports
.ire not available and a joint is needed because flexibility
rs required of the piping.
Piping
79
Pressure thrust is the amount of force generated by internal pressure and is simply internal pressure times
minimum bellows radius area (PA), lbs. This force can
become quite high as the pipe size and the internal pressure increase. In many applications, the piping itself is
anchored and the joint is allowed to compress when the
thermal compression force exceeds the pressure thrust
force. As seen in Figure 2-28, when movement in the
form of lateral translation is desired (KTZ and KTY), tie
rods are used to restrain the joint in the axial direction
@). If tie rods are being used to overcome
pressure thrust, then any equipment flanged to the joint
(KTZ:
should be able to withstand the load reouired to overcome pressure thrust. Generally. tie rods are only used to
permit lateral movement.
Bellows expansion joints can be restrained and combined in pairs or trios to perform certain tasks. It must be
emphasized that just because a joint is free to move in
)
A
{:,
,-T
-.Fz
.%^
Ftgure 2-27. Types of bellows expansion joints: (A) flanged-flanged end simple bellows joint; (B) hinge bellows expansion
::nt: (C) gimbal bellows expansion joint; (D) pressure balanced bellows expansion joint; (E) "inJine" pressure balanced self'-:oorting bellows expansion joint. (Courtesy of Pathway Bellows, Inc.)
80
lA:
PG:
MOVEMENT HOT
TUEJ:
-LATERAL
lntrmedlaleAnchor
Planar Guid6
Tied Univorsal Expansion Joint
Figure 2-28. Generally the use of tie rods is to allow only lateral movement. (Courtesy of Pathway Bellows, Inc.)
directions KTX, KTY, KTZ, KRX, and KRY does not

mean that the corresponding stiffness values are small.
As internal pressure and pipe size increase the values of
KTX, KTY, KTZ, KRX, and KRY increase, because the
bellows wall thickness increases to resist increased internal pressure. The bellows can be a single wall construction (single ply) or multiple wall construction (multi-ply)
and the stiffness values vary with each manufacturer.
Some people erroneously think that the purpose of using bellows expansion joints is to make the pipe stress
analysis unnecessary. Such is definitely not the case, because values of stiffness in each direction must be en-
tered in each computer stress run so that
it
can be
vei-
fied that the displacement and piping loads are not
excessive to the equipment nozzles. As shown in Figure

2-28 a pipe can either be properly guided or anchored,
and such restrictions should be modeled into the computer stress analysis.
The piping engineer is encouraged to refer to the Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association
(EJMA) t4l in accessing piping layouts when using bellows expansion joints. Also, it is desirable to specify the
joint such that the manufacturer is required to meet
EJMA requirements. One should follow EJMA guidelines and requirements, and include modeling restraints
and stiffness values in computer stress analysis to verify
that attached equipment is protected. Expansion joints
are not cataloged items to be bought at random but rather
sophisticated pieces
of equipment that must be
engi-
neered into the piping system. With this approach, the
user should not expedence any problems with bellows

expansion joints.
PRESTRESSED PIPING
Piping systems are sometimes prestressed to reduce
anchor and restraint forces and moments. This prestressing of the pipe is best known as cold springing, but is
also called "cut short," meaning that the pipe is cut short
a percentage of the amount of thermal expansion expected. The opposite is true in cold systems where the
pipe contracts, so the pipe is fabricated extra long, with
the extra length being a percentage of the amount of thermal conEaction expected. This procedure is best known
as "cut long." Some refer to cut long as "hot springing,"
which may cause confusion because it is not as popular
as the term cold springing and to some it means hot
forming, which hds nothing to do with fabricating the
pipe extra long.
"Credit" may not be taken for prestressing the pipe in
computing the stress in the piping system. Several piping
codes are specific about this and, if the piping is over the
allowable stress range, one cannot cut short or long to
lower the stress. However, credit may be taken for anchor and restraint reaction forces and moments.
The procedure of cutting short or long involves a percentage of thermal movement. The whole purpose of the
prestressing process is to balance the forces and movements between the down and operating conditions. Thus,
cutting short or long 1007o (i.e., cutting short or long the
exact amount of thermal movement) is normally not
done. Exceeding 100% is not recommended and doesn't
make good sense. Normally, the amount cut is 50% and
should not exceed 66% of the thermal movement' The
reactions, R6 and Rp in the operating and down condi-
tions, respectively, are obtained from the reactions R derived from calculalions based on the modulus of elasticity at ambient temperature, 8". The relationships are as
follows:
n":lr-?*l&
- \ 3 lEo
11
Bellows expansion joints should be avoided if a more

economical and practical method is available for providing flexibility oi restraint to the pipe. ln many ipplications, only the bellows expansionjoint will suffice, e.g.,
movement and vibration in straight runs of pipe at elevated temperatures between different pieces of equipment can only be compensated by bellows joints. How-
thereby more expensive, other alternatives should be

considered. Such alternatives lie in either the flexibility
or stiffness methods Dreviouslv discussed.
ot
-t:
].
FLUID FORCES EXERTED ON PIPING
SYSTEilS
whichever is greater, and with the additional condition
that
---:
<
4
where
1.0
X:
:
Ep :
Ee :
R:
E
:
Ro :
Rp
81
ever, as the joint becomes more sophisticated and
Ro: XR
R"
Piping
cold (or hot) spring factor ranging from zero

to one, one being 100% cold or hot spring
computed expansion stress. psi
modulus of elasticity in the down condition,
psi
modulus of elasticity in the operating
condition, psi
maximum reaction for full thermal movement
based on Ep which is the most severe
condition. lb- or in.-lb

maximum reaction in down condition, lb or
in.lb
maximum reaction in operating condition, lb
or in.-lb
These formulations are not necessary nor desirable
when computerized stress runs are made. All reactions
that result from prestressing the pipe are much more accurately made by a computer. However, one is not always privileged to use a computet especially at remote
sites, so these formulations will yield conservative approximations to feactions.
The biggest legitimate objection to prestressing the
pipe is that often it is simply not done by the pipe fabricator or construction workers. The orocess is often difficult, especially in large pipe, and is unpopular with fabrication personnel. When schedules get tight and people
fall behind on the schedule, there is a tendency to overlook prestressing the pipe. To avoid such a problem,
some large engineering companies issue cold spring reports that are signed off by inspectors. However, such
reports get lost fairly easily, unless a rigid system is implemented to treat them as control documents. There is
certainly nothing wrong with prestressing the pipe, except maybe a little extra paperwork.
When fluids move in a piping system, they import energy to the system when they are forced to change direction by the pipe. In other words, it requires energy to
change the direction of a moving f luid . This fundamental
fact is known as the impulse-momentum principle, exnressed as:
l)l
\-]
ph
Mv,
Mv,
(2-31)
This states that the change in momentum in a system remains constant during the exchange of momentum between two or more masses of the system. Applying the
equation to that of a pipe elbow shown in Figwe 2-29,
we apply the principle to obtain:
Mvxr+DFxxt:MVy,
(2-32)
Mvyr+DFyxt=Mvy2
(z-33)
where t =
M=
6-
for unit time
force in horizontal direction exerted by the

bend on the flowing fluid, lb
force in vertical direction exerted by the
bend on the flowing fluid, lb
horizontal velocity component at bend inlet,
ftlsec
vertical velocity component at bend inlet,
ftlsec
horizontal velocity component of bend
oudet, ft/sec
vertical velocity component of bend oudet,
ft/sec
Wgi
g"
fluid
mass
weight of fluid in bend, lb,

local acceleration due to grayity,
approximately 32.2 ftl serz
dimensional consiant
32.17 lb-ft/lb1sec2
the analysis of chemical rocket engines is suitable for estimating reaction forces. These calculations in such an
analysis agree with those reactions comDuted bv other
methods and have been found to be slightly conseivative.
The method presented by Hesse [5] is desirable because
of its simplicity and accuracy, and knowledge of the process fluid is limited onty to the specific heat ratio, k, and
the molecular weight, M. The derivation and explanation
of the formulation is given by Hesse [5].
Consider the nozzle shown in Figure 2-30. The reaction force developed by a fluid exiting the nozzle is given
by the following:
F=
Figure 2-29. Pipe reactions induced by change of momentum
of fluid flowing through elbow.
[/
lo.t
',['
where \
Ca=
When applying Equations 2-32 and 2-33 to relief

valves, the fluid dynamics of nozzles must be considered. The dynamics and thermodynamics of fluid motion
through nozzles is a very involved subject and rather
than investigate the various theoretical methods in this
book, we will only investigate the various results and
discuss their merits.
Relief valves can exert enormous forces when fluids
exit the nozzles. Often, the fluid exits the nozzle at
speeds exceeding Mach 1. Numerous private companies,
as well as the ASME and API, have developed procedures to approximate such fluid forces. The ASME
B31.1 gives a method for computing the reaction forces
exerted by relief valves. The main drawback to this
method is that it applies to steam only, because Code
831.1 governs only power piping. Steam is one of the
most comprehensively defined substances, with all properties well known and published, but such is not the case
with many chemical processes. The 831.1 method requires that the properties of the substance be we defined, to the point of being rather cumbersome to use.
The ideal method would require the fewest number of
physical properties, but still provide the necessary data.
One such method that is very easy to use is the ApI formulation in API 520 Part II, paragraph 2.4, which is
used for gases or vapors. This formula loses accuracy as
the flow rate approaches Mach 1, so another method is
desired for predicting reactions at all flow rates in processes that have poorly defined properties.
The aerospace industry has done much research in the
study of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics of nozzle
flow. Because relief valves operate in a closed system,
\/
\,-,
l="'.2 ,l l-i" ,lt\K-l/\K+u
\cac"A,P. I
*+tn-P.l
(2-34)
nozzle correction factor

l/2
(1 + cos o)
1.0 for most relief valves
nozzle discharge coefficient, which
0.97 < Cd < 1.15, normally Cd > 1.0
specific heat ratio CplC"
c=
nozzle inlet section

throat-where
critical condition exist
=
e = nozzle exit section
ef = gffrat;rr exit section-where exhaust
gas pressure first equals ambient
pressure, Po
l/r,
/
7l\-
t
Figure 2-30. The relief valve mecharusm.
-'.--
cv:
(rJ05 = 0.95 to 0.98

nozzle adiabatic efficiency
nozzle exit pressure, psia
14.7 psia
ambient pressure
nozzle exit area, in.2
nozzle throat area, in.2
cause the process is considered adiabatic making the to-
tal temperature constant. Thus,
critical pressure
P,
l---I
\K -f l/
rc =
G=
T"
/"_,..-,f
- [r- {_z\:ll
+u I
.T,
/r.
r\
I + l-.--1l
(2-34a)
ffir,, 't
M2 for adiabatic process
Substituting these exDressrons mto Equation 2-34, we
1 028A,P"
A"(P"
[-+ (#=
P,)
(2-36)
Reaction forces produced by relief valves can become

quite enormous and should not be overlooked. A structural failure of a relief system could well result in a catastrophe.
have
vc=V.=(skRrJo5=|\#',f
Figure 2-31
molecular weight of fluid, lb/mole
gas flow rate, lb/sec, where
critical temperaiure
r,t
and
C.A,p"'[Rr.\k
r,. oF
l-l
+
\K
'
critical pressure ratio, determined trom
G:
t)l
[' - (,:)*]]"'
(2-35)
Equation 2-35 assumes that the flow is isentropic and

in addition to relief valves, includes turbines, compressors, jet engines, rockets, injectors, ejectors, and atomizers. Most nozzles used in current applications are either
convergent or convergent-divergent, also known as DeLaval or Level nozzles. Convergent-divergent nozzles
are used for high pressure ratios and supersonic flow,
and convergent nozzles for low pressure ratios and subsonic flow. Thus, relief valves are Level types that can
handle high pressure flow.
Critical pressure of gas occurs at the point where the
fluid velocity becomes Mach 1. This pressure is obtained at the minimum area of the nozzle and this minimum cross section is called the nozzle thrcat in the DeLaval nozzle. In the convergent nozzle, the cross section
of minimum area is the exit section. The critical velocity
can be expressed in terms of the inlet temperature be-
EXTRANEOUS PIPING LOADS

Vibration can be a real hazard in piping systems. Usually, vibration problems that occur with piping have two
sources-pulsations generated by reciprocating equipment and wind. Pulsation shock phenomena on rotating
equipment is briefly discussed in Chapter 6. The phenomenon of wind-induced vibrations on piping along tall
towers is discussed here.
Wind-induced vibration is caused by vortex shedding
on the cylindrical surface of the pipe, and becomes a
problem with piping more than about thirty feet long.
Vortex shedding usually occurs with piping that runs up
along the height of a vertical tower.
Analyzing and solving vortex shedding vibration problems can best be handled by applying certain principles
that include dimensionless parameters and experimental
data. Sophisticated digital computer models are possible,
and recently, vortex streets have been simulated with
flow patterns around piping and structures. Such computer simulations are rigorous and expensive, so with
current software they are impractical to use for all piping
that may be exposed to wind.
Several proposals have been made concerning vortexinduced vibrations around cylinders, but perhaps the
most straightforward is the work by Belvins [6]. He developed a dynamic model for vortex-induced vibration
using random vibration theory. The theoretical basis is a
representative spanwise correlation and cylinder amplitude is presented as a function of the vortex forces.
When the state of resonance exists, the amplitude of the
correlated lift force on the cylinder is represented as a
continuous function of cylinder amplitude. Also, at resonance, the spanwise correlation of the vortex force is
presented as a function of the characteristic correlation
length. This model is limited to the resonance of a singie
mode with vortex shedding and a Reynolds number in
84
100
90
80
70
60
o"A,
10
8
7
Figure 2-31. Critical pressure ratro

versus area ratio for various fluid specific heat ratios (k).
80 lOO
2OO
/rcO 600 80O
loOO
'clPa
the rate of200

Nn" 200,000, where a well-formed
vortex stret exists.
Figtre 2-32 shows flow regimes of fluid flow across
stationary circular cylinders, and illustrates how the vortex streets tend to separate as the flow velocity increases.
which is the numeric constant between the resonant frequency of vortex shedding (f) and the cylinder diameter
(D), divided by the free stream velocity (V). This is analytically written as
Between the range 300 NR"

300,000 thi region is
called subcritical because as Nx" approaches 300,000,
the boundary layer becomes completely turbulent and
the vortex shedding effect is lost. One parameter used in
analyzing vortex phenomena is the Strouhal number(s),
<
f.D
Q-37)
For circular cylinders, the Strouhal versus Reynolds

number is shown in Figure 2-33. In a structure, the ob-
ject of design is to avoid resonance. If the inverse of the

Shouhal number < 1, where f is the natural frequency of
the structure, then resonances with vortex shedding from
the first, second, and third harmonics are avoided. This
can be accomplished by adding mass, such as insulation,
and putting pipe support spacing at uneven intervals. If
pipe supports are spanned evenly, periodic wave motions
can form, resulting in resonance.
Piping
85
The response of a right circular cylinder at resonance

with vortex shedding is a function of the following:
Damping
(2zs)2 6.
where 6.
reduced damping
_ 2m(2rl)
pW
(z-38)
and
Etl_g
energy dissipated per cycle

"| _ 4?r(total energy of structure)
Mode shape : VW: i for a rigid cylinder)
Aspect ratio : LlD, L = length between spans
RcGrMa OF urrsEpARArEo FLO{.
voRTrcas rfi rnE w^(.
'rwo
nEGrMEs
lr
l'r
PERIOOICITY GOVERNEO
II{ tiIOH
R.
RII{CE BY
R. RING'
,,4.*
-W
-u/////t
'Y
I/(E
3r|ol voRrEx
sritEt
LOW
VOR'IEI
IRAXSIIIOI NINGE
Eg-5-E!-l-3aq
lOO<i.t
wHrcH vofiTEr
PERTOOTCT'IY COVEFI|ED
TO
IUiBU.
rs Frrl'tl
3,'o..' i. <35, o.
e'
L^YE
IYi?Y,",li,t
BAS UIiOEROOXE
lt6%i!13i*,,*.*[i'"
voirEx srREtr rs.PP.REnt

3,5rro'< R. <
cO
t?l
R'SJA8LISITTEIT OF Tt1 TURAU.
IENI
IORIET SIREE' II]AI

EvrDtT rx 3oo< i.? 3r|o: 'AS
Ih'S IIME TIE SOUNDIRY LAYER
lno
THE uAr(
Figure 2-32. Fluid flow regimes across circular cylinder l7l.
The amplitude Ay/D can be approximated by loading

the pipe with a uniform wind load and using the maximum deflection as Ay. This can be used in Figure 2-34
to estimate the damping at resonance for a given aspect
ratio. This damping is then compared with the natural
frequency of the piping. The natural frequency of the
pipe, especially for complex geometries, is computed by
modal extraction computer analysis or any other dynamic computer software that computes the natural frequencies of piping systems. For short straight spans, the
natural frequency can be determined by comparing values obtained from Table 2-6 and with the resonance
damping frequency in Figure 2-34.
In practice, the greatest problem with vortex shedding
occurs on tall vertical towers when pipe four inches and
smaller is uninsulated and left hanging without support.
It has been found that once insulation is applied to the
pipe resonance vanishes.
The following simple guidelines will enable you to
avoid the vast majority of wind-reduced vibrations:
l.
Increase the flexural stiffness of the pipe so that its

critical velocity is above the range of moderate
winds.
2
Use damping devices to restdct the amplitude of
vi-
bration.
3.
4.
5.
REVIIOLDS
Eh! R.
Figure 2-33. Strouhal-Reynolds number function for circular

cylinders [7].
Reduce the effective length of the member by using
intermediate struts.
Attach spoilers to the pipe to disrupt the flow near
the tower surface; this impedes the formation of
vortices and thereby eliminates the cause of vibrations.
Span the piping supports at uneven intervals to prevent a periodic wave function from developing.
The analysis of wind-induced vibrations on tall vertical vessels is discussed in Chapter 4.
Table 2-6
Natural Frequency ot vibration ot Beam Elements
Concentraled Load on Relatlvely
Light Beam or Spring
Uniform Load on Beam Supported
Unitorm Load on Cantilever Beam
at Ends
ffi
. / \0.5
r - t l9l
'- t\-Di
f:
D:
f:
(3.55XD)-0
f :
(3.89) (D)
natural frequency of vibration. cycles per second

maximum static deflection of member under its own weight plus any weights that vibrate with it
0.5
or
r,rer r.re
= r stn
r3l s2/p#
Figure 2-34. Damping, d (dimensionless), versus amplitude, Ay/D (dimensionless).
88
EXAilPLE 2.1: APPLYIilc THE STIFFNESS

SKID.IIOUIITED
]UIETHOD TO A IIODULAH
GAS LIQUEFAGTION FACILITY
Figure 2-35 depicts the preliminary piping design of a

gas liquifaction plant mounted on a skid module. Space
is severely limited, as the equipment and piping are limited by the structural steel skid supports, so such devices
as piping loops are unthinkable. Expansion joints are not
allowed by the client, because high-pressure hydrocarbon gas is highly combustible and an expansion joint failure would mean certain gross property damage and possible loss of human lives. Therefore, the piping engineer
must utilize the stiffness of pipe supports to transfer

loads from the piping to the structural steel rather than to
the equipment nozzles. This transfer of loads is not total,
but enough to guarantee that the equipment nozzles loadings will not exceed allowable levels.
For the stiffness method to work, the piping configuration must be flexible enough for the piping itself to be
within allowable stress limits set by the applicable code.
This is the first significant criterion, because if the piping exceeds the allowable stress range in any part of the
geometry, the system design is faulty. Conversely, the
piping system can be well within the stress range and the
equipment nozzles still be overloaded. Thus, the piping
itself must have a certain amount of flexibility to be
within code allowables. The piprng supports must be
stiff enough to protect equipment nozzles from excessive
loads. Here our case has been stated; adding additional
flexibility is not acceptable.
From computer calculations the original configuration
in Figure 2-35 is found to be overstressed and the expansion stress exceeds the ASME 831.3 allowable stress
range provided in Equation 2-4 for 3O4 SS pipe. Therefore, the piping must be changed to bring the maximum
stress within the accepted stress range. This analysis includes the nozzle movements shown in the figure. Each
nozzle is considered as an anchor.
Figure 2-36 shows the final configuration after several
iterations are made to determine what configuration
would best suit the structural limitations set by the module skid. This configuration is found to have a maximum
allowable well within the stress range of ASME B3 1 . 3 .
To achieve this acceptable stess, a limited amount of
flexibility must be added to the system. Thus, regardless
which method is used-flexibility or stifftiess-a certain
amount of flexibility is required to make the piping system operate properly.
Once we have obtained the minimum flexible configuration required, we now focus our attention to the equipment nozzles. To consider this question, we must distin-
guish between the types of equipment. The heat

exchangers HE-A and B shown in Figures 2-35 and2-36
are aluminum plate exchangers, and the cold separator
and power gas volume tank are made of reasonably
thick-walled stainless steel. Thus, the critical items are
the aluminum heat exchangers. The line between points
l0 and 25 in Figure 2-35 must be cut because the relative
Z-movement between these points overloads the nozzles
at points 5 and 30, creating a very high y-momenr and Zmoment, because the pipe wants to move in the -Z and
*Y directions. These movements can be accommodated
by using certain structural devices, such as shown in

Figure 2-37. Even though flexibility has been added to
the system to get the piping within the allowable stress
range, the equipment nozzles are still overloaded by excessive moments above the X, Y, and Z axes-M;q, My,
and Mz.
To counter the movements of the piping at the nozzles
numbered 5 and 30 at HE-B and A, respectively, variable
springs are placed to support the pipe while allowing the
pipe to move at the same time. One spring is placed at

point 20 with a simple Y support added at point 56.
These additional supports help reduce the moments at
nozzles 5 and 30, but not enough. So, we must add MRS
restraints (see Figures 2-9 ard 2-10) in pipe members 5l0 and 30-35. Each MRS is designed to allow nozzles 5
and 30 to move upward but to transfer moments M;,
Mv, and Mz from the pipe to the structual steel below.
Also, each MRS allows pipe members 5-10 and 30-35
freedom to nove along the axis so that we have the following restraints at each MRS: KTZ, KRX, KRY, and
KRZ of Figure 2-38 (see Figure 2-10). Thus, we have
one translational and three rotational restraints, each

with a stifftress value K in lb/in. or ft-lb/deg. The pipe
and exchanger are free to translate along the X and Y
axes.
One can readily see that the MRS restraints must allow
nozzles ar points 5 and 30 to move upward, as the exchangers are bolted down to structural steel higher up on
the units. Restraining the nozzles from moving upward

would anchor the unit at the nozzles and at the support
point causing the exchangers to rupture. Pipe members
5-10 and 30-35 must be allowed to move along the x-axis
for thermal expansion.
We now have the conceptual model of what the solution looks like and the next step is to finalize the details.
The MRS restraints are resisting forces and moments
shown in Figure 2-38. It is necessary to design the restraints such that each has enough stiffness to transfer the
loads to the steel and protect the nozzles at points 5 and
30. We will now compute the support stifftress values
KTZ, KRX, KRY, and KRZ. Once these values are determined, they can be input back into the computer run
and verified to be sufficient for the nozzles.
\,zr/
\/W
\\
\\\
\\\
\
\
\\
\'"
\\--l \p't 'a2
,r^
ao
o
'4
z
o_
tsJ
-4
"3
2:1
7^
,
t
e-:x
$-
4e.
2l/o
o.,
Piping
89
90
o
o
',',
ao
ct
o
.D
IL
9
z
@ GnTNNELL slzE a rYPE
venncr
91
suPPoRT(sEE F|GURE 2-9)
@ GR|NIELL stzE 10 rYPE
SPR|NG
Figure 2-37. Plan view of location of MRS supports.
OHAr{GER suPpoRT
TO
OF
ENSURE PFOIEC'IoN
CAF8ON STEE
L COSPONENTq
OISIRIB(IIION OVER
LE GIH
\\
---
rtrslrL^r
--' +
IIDE
STSE SOPMRT PIPE
Flgure 2-38. Two-axial translationfree multiple moment restraint support
(BIAX-MMRS). Arrows indicate

rections of freedom of movement.
d!
-_4
DIATES ASSEMELY }IOUSING
Systems
Mechanical
-tb
)o lb
ioo ft-rb
ro
-x
' ;> [ rr-r-owso
TRANSLATE
tt !x otngcrtots
For Torsion
12,800 ft-lb
For Shear
+ Rr +
3(R + r)
4(R2
._ _
4(10.976
. I"igit'1 :"it jotffi''.
12)
9.545
8.297)
316.194)
(12,800)ft-rb
,r:a:
Tc
1.975 in.
----
(r.,J
(*,
4oJ0 in.o
12,563 psi
For Tensile Stress
A_T-- $-Q.?
I-
.'_-*
1.20 t!
8.40 in.'
p_
"- : A :
r+t prt
Shear Distribution
At Point
r,
A-
22.83"
For a circular .thin-walled cross-sectron'
rl4lc,
(r,roonb
"=+:+i:
:
rs
521-648
(ry)
in.'?(r.e75) in.
(40.49) in.a (0.432) in.
--'\-n 16'
psi-max at neutral axis
-(1,100 lbx3.0) ft
Mz
-9,500 ft-lb
Mn :
:
R(Mx,
M, :
10,308
ftib
700
ft-lb
-4,000
(-4,000)" + (-9'500)tlo
10,308 ft-lb
625 + 5.76 I
ftlb
At Point
5
o
4
(1,100) (7.635)
(40.49) (0.432)
For Bending
Mx
2R'zt cos
=; = ----r,j/ti.-= = 1o,114Psi
480.143 psi
2t9.588t (0.432) cos (67.166')

(
/.^.rn'l\
At Point
83")
B-
1,100) (3.215) _
' _ (40.49)
(0.432)
lY
\ln/
(0.432) cos (22
202.182 psl
c-
A:?)R'lo=r=
480.143 psi
3.215
7 '635
<- rfi,
.-- ll A ll --+
-;.
<- {l lt __}
-r'
l-,
'
6r:1o,jr4+i/tg
oi:
Point
= r. + rr = 480,143 + 12,553
'
= 13,043.143 psi
* lf--lf
__-f o:1oJ14 -143
lt e
<--ll
ll ------) O=seflpsi
{_
r = 13,043.143 psi
l_ rr----.lr
<-- ll c ll ----+ 6r=uspsi
<-rL_-Jr+
____+
o=
= 12,765.182 psi
ox
oy
- o"'l', 1ot
2 *-t\[/o* 2 I ",^Yl rov-0
[h0,257\':
2 -l\ 2
(12.5) (0.322\
lot
f (13,043.14311
17,000 psi <

19,143.614 psi allowable stress, so, try 8-in. d Sch 40.
o"11
Bending
ro.ms ir-ru
ll?:"
\ft/
I43 psi
9,138 psi
o : l4,lll.\57
r:
8.625
-:
4
?1?
:
:L = :=
JI'.U
KTX
psi
<
Torsion
or KRX
<< | -
'
It^
(72.5)in.3
109
9.138 psi
l,200 lb
870GJ
r+r
Psr
or KRY
:0
(72.5) in.4
4(2s.0
106)
(zz.s) in.o
(36.0) in.
233,611,1ll.l in.Jb/deg
KRZ
2(29.0
<D
540,766.5 lb/in.
19.467 .s92.6
106)
ln-'
(36.0) in.
116,805,55.6 in.Jb/deg
-:*
fr-lh
qeg
(72.5) in.4
--1
KRY =
Tensile Stress
9,658 psi
(36.0)3 in.3
in
t4.313)in.
17,000 psi allowable stress
0.120
12(2s.0
2,800)ft-lb (12)
psi
+.JlJln.
KRX -_ KRZ
7,358 psi
(|
520
16.81 in.3
7.501 psi
.
= (1 +l2EI'
O)LJ
-t
19,143.674 psi
For ,4312 GR TP 304SS,
7.358 psi
[\21
lo,2s7+
11.039
7.501 [h.sor\'
^ -- .lo'
6 = -|1J!
ll '--'l + {9-658)rl
2
KTx
Point A is the most critical point.
(l.100) ( l 1.039)
r = rs + z1 :
Stress Elements
,-,
A, Q :2(\8.59'17) (0.322) cos (22.83)
Therefore, use 8-in. Sch 40 A-312 TP3G4 SS pipe for the

3-ft pipe spool piece.
From these calculations, we see that the minimum pipe
size for the MRS is an 8-in. Sch 40, 3.0 feet in height.
The stiffness values for an 8-in. Sch 40 pipe are as follows:
From Thble 2-1, we have
r=202.182+12,563
7
Shear
1o,2s7 psi
9,133,196.3 ft-lbldeg
94
Mechanical Design of process Systems
Entering these stiffness values into the computer run.

we see thar lhe nozzle loads fall very sharply it points 5
and 30. Further reduction in loads can be obtained bv

adding springs abo',e the MRS restraints to counter ;
negative moment above the Z-axis. Using springs above
these supports is not always necessary, but in this case
they are required because of the large vertical movement
of points 5 and 30. A weight run should be made to verify that the springs do not ovedoad the nozzles durins
therefore making such a unit sensitive to external loads.

Always be careful when subjecting rotating equipment or
vessels made of light material to excessive nozzle loads.
In the final analysis the pipe loadings transferred by
the MRS to the steel must be considered by the structural
engineer. who must design the loundation accordingly.
Sometimes it is necessary to model the stiffness of the
steel foundation members when nozzle loadines become
critical.
shur-down.
The MRS restraints vary in design and are conceptually shown in Figure 2-10 and Figure 2-39. These iupports are made ol interlocking sliding plates wirh eaih
sliding surface coated with high-strength Teflon. The
precise details of such supports vary and are customized
for each application.
Looking to other parts of the piping system, we notice
that nozzle 75 on the cold separator has a high moment
about the negative x-axis. This moment is attributed to
the aluminum exchangers (HE-A and B) moving upward
and the cold separator shrinking downward. Because
space is premium and we are "locked-in" and can't add
any more flexible piping, we add a spring at elbow 65
pulling downward to counter the exces5ive neqative xmoment at nozzle 15. The spring is sized ro b6 acceptable for operating and shut-down modes.
Table 2-7 lists the forces and moments at each equipment nozzle.
Upon reviewing Table 2-7 , you will notice the disparity in nozzle loadings. The aluminum heat exchangers,
HE-A and B, have lower loads, especially moments,
than does the cold separator or power gas volume tank.

This is because each has acceptable loadings that are different. The cold separator is made of 23la-in. plate stainless sreel. which makes rhe loads shown easilv acceotable. {The method of determining whether such-loads ire
acceptable on pressure vessels is discussed in Chapter 8.)
Such loads would be very unacceptable lor the aluminum
heat exchangers because aluminum cannol withstand
nearly as great a load as steel and is not very elastic,
Figure 2-39. The BIAX-MMRS installed and in operation

olant facilitv.
Table 2-7
Equipment Nozzle Forces and Moments
Heat Exchanger A
Heat Exchanger B
Process Vessel A
Process Vessel B
t44.7
279.O
126.2
38.5
-255.9
-624.6
299.2
-2437 .8
0
854.4
94.6
293.9
684. I
0
0
914.O
-6175.0
2440.0
877 .1
-210.5
-553.4
4501.9
3163.0
210.5
553.4
8217.6
3306.8
ar
EXAIIPLE 2-2: APPLYING THE

FLEXIBILITY IIETHOD TO A STEAiI
TURBINE EXHAUST LINE
A client has added a steam turbine to a chemical plant
and has piped up the turbine with make-shift parts and
existing pipe, plus a newly purchased bellows expansion
joint. When the turbine technicians determine they cannot cold align the turbine with the exhaust piping, the client decides that the piping must be rerouted, but requests
an evaluation of the system, which is shown in Figure
240.
The system is modeled with a computer software package, and the results indicate that a moment about the yaxis in the magnitude of 31,000 ft/lbs is exerted on the
turbine exhaust nozzle under operating conditions. Such
a load is well above any turbine allowable. The reactions
Piping
95
along the other axes are moderate and the problem of

alignment must be solved. The extremely high y-moment
is caused by the thermal expansion of the pipe member
extending along the z-axis from point 95 to point 145 almost Ze in. With this expansion along the positive z-axis,
the pipe rotates about the positive y-axis from point 20
through the expansion joint at point 45 to the elbow at
ooint 75. This torsion is transmitted to the turbine nozzle
it point 5. Thus, the adjustable base elbow support at
point 31 is entirely useless in resisting this vertical moment and the expansion joint at point 45 transmits all of
the torsion motion to the turbine nozzle at point 5.
An earlier section discussed the fact that these joints
are totally rigid in torsion-a moment about the axis is
parallel to the longitudinal axis, which in this example is
the y-axis. In fact, with the vertical moment as great as
31,000 ftlbs the expansion joint at point 45 will either
be destroyed or have a short service life because the bel-
li
lri
ii
d-o.^*
.u""'"'
Figure 2-40. Original piping configuration of 20-in. 0 steam line for turbine exhaust: temperature
psia.
300"4 pressure
16
Hg
96
lows are not designed to resist such high torsional moments. Thus, the diagnosis is to avoid the high torsion
and stop the .8-in. movement at point 135. To do this- economically with minimum alteration to the piping, a bellows expansion joint is added at point 123 and.the shoe
on the dummy leg is stopped in the *z direction (i'e''
movement in the 1z direction is stopped, and the vessel
nozzle at point 85 is protected by the joint at point 123 '
An expansion joint is sized based on the manufacturer's
standard dimensions for a 20-in. pipe and the joint stiffness values are as follows:
KTX
KRX
KTZ
: KTY - 1,500 lb/in.

= KRY : 200 in.-lb/deg
: l2O lblin.
These values are provided by the
joint manufacturer'
The problem of turbine alignment is directly related to

the inabilitv of the turbine technicians to adjust the pipe
because of the pipe's inflexibility, which is caused by the
suided base elbow at point 3l . The base elbow support is
ieplaced by a spring depicted in Figure 2-41 and modeled into the compuier siress program. This mn is made
with the added ixpansion joint at point 123 and. the
spring at point 3. ihe following results were obtained
from the computer run:
Turbine nozzle (Point
:
:
Mx :
Fx
46.51bs,
Fy
-530.8Ib, Fz
634.l lb
5)-
343'9 lb, Fr
1,978'2 ft-lb' Mz
1,198.4 ftlb, MY
ftlb
2,430.0
745.3 ft-lb, Mr
Vessel nozzle (Point
85)-
F" = -46.4Ib, Fv = -3,311.8 lb' Fz

: -3,348.5 lb, Fr : 4,709 9lb
Mx
:
:
5,968.7 ft-lb, MY
5,0?6.0 ft-lb, MR
9,742 0 ft-lb Mz
'
12,501.9 ft-lb
The loadings at the turbine nozzle are acceptable' (The

basis for conaluding this is discussed in Chapter 6') The
reactions at point 85 seem excessive and would be for a
steam turbin;, but considedng the vessel is five feet in
diameter and made of 3-in. plate, these loads are not ex-
cessive. Pressure vessel nozzle loading analysis is covered in Chapter 4, but one can deduce that pressure vessel nozzles tan withstand much greater loads than most
tvDes of equipment.
''The
svstim is implemented and in two days the turbine
will be fired up and operating well. The concluding remarks are that the expansion joint at point 45 is accom-
plishing nothing and the capital expended for its purriu. wa$;d' ln fact, it would not hurt to move the
"hu."
unit, but this is not necessiuy since the high torsional
moment has been eliminated.
The expansion joint at point 123 was specified and
ourchased for those stiffniss values previously listed'
the final configuration is shown in Figve 2-42
EXAilPLE 2'3: FLEXIBILITY AIIALYSIS

FOR HOT OIL PIPING
A olant in a remote area of Brazil has an emergency

need for a hot oil system. The plant manager has deter-
mined that a 3-inch Schedule 40 pipe is to be u-sed' based

on plant requirements and available pipe trom local
to design the piping and ensure it will
ioui.".. w"
not be overstressed. There are no electronic computers
available anywhere near the plant and all calculations
must be made without a stress program'
For a hot oil header extending over some distance the
flexibility approach is the practical method in this applifit" iiit" it to operaG at 550'F at 50 psig For-aj"ution.
in. Sch. 40 pipe, d :3.50 in. A layout is n-rade o{ the
system and preliminary loop is shown in Figure 2-43'
The piPe is ASTM A-53B PiPe.
it"
SPRIN6
I'
1':l
.7
Figure 2-41. Sketch of spring that replaces base elbow^supoon: installed load :713 lb. operatlng load = /uJ rD'
ipring :
300 lb/in.
-":
= 3.73o5 :
8.oo: Rv
:!:I:z.so
La4
*f--ttt
97
t
I
,-tt^\.
,"_'-wJ_\
tN:z
Dlf,Ectro{s
Figute 2-42. Final piping configuration of 20-in.

steam line for turbine exhaust: temperature
300"F, pressure
16 Hg psia.
From Figure 2-12A, Ah
(4. I
l)
(_2.9._q
(29.525t (30\
=-njaf
=5u.urt
"
220
x ltr) _ 689.8
r72,800
From Table 2-1 and ASME 831.3 the allowable stress is
oe
1.25(20,000)
0.25(18,100)
29,525.0psi
The available steel in the plant in the area the hot oil
header is to be run is spanned 4.5 m or 14.76 ft, making
tlre anchor points spaced at 18 m or 59 ft. Thus,
=
59.0 ft. We change
At:98
The maximum bending stress is

oB
:
- = A,B [q]
\L/
: 17,7M.9 psi
on
tzzol toss.at tr.sol
L = 30 ft between guides. Solving for

the distance between anchors. we have
r^
rr7.704.9\lL-'l
'
\L/
(98) (689.8)
(3.50)
j-r:-l
: ---10
:
6.0
7.886.7 psi
Rx =
<
o^
30.0
L',
This is based on
: Ia:
l<
Solving for total length
Qe,s25) (30)
7,886.7
L',
1t2.3
112.3 fr
15
ft
(between supports)
ft
7.5 supports
&:
L'
5.0'
Figure 2-43. (A) Initial piping configuration; (B) final piping configuration installed and operating.
Therefore, place a loop 6 ft x 6 ft (arbitrary dimensions) every seven supports. One could increase L' by
making the loop larger (increasing Ia and La'1, but space
limitations in this application prevent it. See Figure
2-43. The shess intensification factors (SID in the code
were made equal to one because computer stress runs
have verified that the curves are conservative enoush to
make SIF : 1.0.
EXAMPLE 2.4: LUG DESIGN

Referring to Figure 2-16, a lug is to be designed for a
pipe with the following parameters:
t = corroded pipe wall thickness. rn.

c
-'2
n
rrff< r.u =
wlth ; >
8-in. { Sch. 40, C.S. 5A-1068

: -350'F, Pr
= 500 psig
P : 2,000 lb
3/s
in.,
L:
R5?5+?qRt
R.: ---- ; --'=
4.t52in.
p:
0:
2tlz in., and the lug has l/z-in. d
mean radius, in.

From piping properties in Appndix
L :
l.z) ln.
['
-i(' -u,t),' - nr ] to,o,lo'
L,
B
B
hole
R. :
tt2
cr
:
ft> t,u [' - i(,! -')rr - r,r] rB,B,ro,
Pipe
Let
0.188 in.;
Nd
P/RM
Md
-.
P-
0.19
0.15
0.11
0.16
Fisu.e 2-17
Fisure 2-19
for Nd -* K, :
for N; - Kz :
for Md -- K, :
for M" - Kz :
1.48
1.20
0.88
1.25
*' : Eql[I
t
[P/Rml [R,tl
(2,000)
= ,' r, (4.1s2) (o.322) =
lotl _
,",
: tu," t:t
-i- :_ lrnrOl
t-P l[-i,l
A.yzt"
{6) (2,0q0)
or,ao
Ci.rcumferential Stress,
E.*,.5.j2
:
:
(1.38) (2,842.30)
K"
o7
(1.36) (rs,o4s.72)
P- -
*.:llolEl =,r'
t [P/R,l [R,tl
10,186
r..^r r-. |
tz - tPltt']l -
qx
31,032.62 Psi
<
oP
40,000 psi
>
31,033 psi
78
_
area)
oB
2,000
r(0.5)2
4
Oolt allowable)
25,000 psi
The distance from the lug hole centerline to the lug

of AISC Table 1.16.5.1, p.
-'-"
2.000
2(0.25) (2.50)
1.600
f*:0.707Eoe:
E = Joint efficiency
f* :
14,140.0 psi
(2,000)
(4.rs2) (0.322)
Weldsize
: *: ft
f*
: 0.113 +
r/c-in. weld is acceptable.
ta\t
/n ,....-r'2'000)
\0.322),
EXAIIPLE 2.5: RELIEF VALVE PIPING
14,467.03
-. NY ..
ox:K"itooti
edge is to be a minimum
:3,739.87
[rp]
ox
2(20,000)
Oolt or pin
-' P
f,:-:
ZvL
Fizure 2-18
[ur,-l
3g,5g6.Ot O.t
Weld Size
Fisure 2-2r
6M-.
-.-^
+ or :
5-51.
Longitudinal Stress, o;
R-
oO
Thus, a lug with these dimensions is acceptable.
os
t-ril
Nx -.
:
or :
o-t
t/+-in. weld,
..
x': t, + [-1l"
= t-.lz1o.zzztlo" = r'36
lr,+w-l
l*rcrr:l
!1r
12oa =
I t l'" =, * I n q.r.r loo5 r.38

+
ls.uwl
lr:rroC =
:'
Bolt shearing stress
[-, I
Pi
Total stress
6,196.43 psi
Using greatest value of o1,
24,309.65 lb
Letw :
(500) (7,981)
2(O.322)
o{
"t=*"Y*",ry
od
2,842.30
SYSTEM
6M"
(1.38) (3,739.87)
Examine Example 1-4 relief valve system for external

loadings induced by valve discharge. The gas properties
(1.36) (14,467.03)
k:c1c":1.451
:24,836.19
Primary or pressur" ,1r"a,
are as follows:
: o. = I
2t
N:
243,755 lb/hr
Ar =
28.89 in.2
T":
M:
294"F
170.9
754"R
100
Experimental data from Blevins[6] support the following formulations:
I :
I :
[r"ln'
l__:l
IMl
I
l ^
lrr.+srt
Cc:
\2451105
0.025 for large pipe
| ' l*
v.45u I
't
0.1443 (1.15)
0.15 damping factor for small pipe (4-in.
I zs+ \n'
\r?ot
(>6-in. d)
.^
o.o7
[^
(6. + 1.9)52 [-'--
L:
30
ft, l-in.
d<)
o.7z
(6,
lo'5
(2-39)
1.9)Sl
Sch. 40 pipe
For a uniformly loaded member with simple supports,
:0.055
5WL3
384EI
From Figure 2-31 or from the following we determine P"

and P" as
G
p-:
' ccA,-
61
710 =
(0.055) (28.89)
42.6t3
(0.99X1.1s)(0.98)(28.89)(42.613)
0.45r
)#[,
v.4stl I
_ l_ryq)l-,",,1"
\42.613/
+(28.89) (4)
2,385.879 lb
1.68 lb/ft (30)ft
50.40 lb
12.569 in.
r- =
3.55
(12'569)u r
(2,385.879) lb (8.5)
ft :
The reactions at the vessel nozzle are discussed in Chap-
cvcles/sec
. 4mzf
'pDp:
(2-38)
0.076 lb./ft3
0.140
.=
'1)
--
EXAIIPLE 2.6: WIND-INDUGED

VIBRATIONS OF PIPING
@ Schedule
l.trut
20,279.9'12 ft-lb
ter 4, along with external loadings on vessels.
A l-in.
For air at 60'F,
Reaction moment at the vessel nozzle is
MR
From Table 2-5,
[zrr.+sr,l_r
F
0.0874 in.a;
D =14
I:
where
40 pipe is to run up a process
tower, and it is necessary to determine what span intervals are needed to avoid vibration resonance caused by
vortex shedding induced by wind external to the pipe.
Piping designers have the line supported at 3O-foot even
intervals.
The first problem with the layout are the even intervals
for the supports. Piping spans subjected to vibmtion
should be in uneven intervals to prevent sine wave oscillations that would be symmetric and pedodic, and thus
self-destructive.
i-th
tn :0.004&
ll.
ft
)- _:L
sec2
Air velocity under investigation

sec
6,
13.037;
Nn
2.54
x 1ff
From Figure 2-33,
0.18
rnus,
fi
Damping
:
=
o.tzo
tul#I"
tr.utt
25 milhr
36.65
ttl
Heat Transfer in Piping and
RD
Values from Figure 2-34 indicate we are close to resoftrnce, as we are within an L/D ratio of 5 and L/D = 30.
Thus, we should experience resonance at 25 mph for the
l-in. S Sch 40 bare pipe. The line should have more supports added at uneven intervals closer than 30 ft and the
previous analysis repeated for a range of wind velocities .
Such a problem can be approached with a computer program based on experimental data.
As is obvious, vortex shedding vibrations is still a sub_jective phenomenon based on empirical data, but this example should assist one in protecting piping surrounded
R(x, y,
z) :
fi
ro
T
t
U
z^
by vortices.
OR
I{OTATION
A:
C=
D:
Ep :
E" :
oc
OL
area, in.2
compliance, in./lb or deg/ft-lb

diameter, in.
modulus of elasticity in down
condition, psi
modulus of elasticity in operat-
ing condition, psi

F = force, lbs
G
modulus of rigidity, psi
I
moment of inertia, ft'
polar moment of inertia, fta
J
K
stiffness, either translational
(lb/in.) or rotational (ft-lb/deg)
stress concentration factor for
bending
stress concentration factor for
pure tension or compression
KTX : translational stiffness along Xaxis, lb/in.
KRX : rotational stiffness about Xaxis, ft-lb/deg
KTY = translational stiffness along Yaxis, lb/in.
KRY : rotational stiffness about Yaxis, ft-lb/deg
KTZ : translational stiffness along Zaxis, lb/in.
KRZ : rotational stiffness abovt Zaxis, ft-lb/deg
L: length, in.
M= moment, ft-lb
P= force (lb) or moment (ft-lb) in
stiffness matrix
Pi= internal pressure, psig
P"= external pressure, psig
Pn: internal pressure evaluated at
radius R, psig
R: reaction, lb
o"
OR
OT
oy
X,
+Y,+Z
reaction in down (non-operating) condition, lb

vector resultant operator
inside radius, in.
outside radius, in.
torsion, ftlb
thickness, in.
displacement, in.
weight of fluid, lb.
weld size, in.
section modulus, in.3
section modulus of mean section radius, in.3
bending stress, psi
circumferential stress, psi
longitudinal stress, psi
pressure stress, psi
radial stress, psi
torsional stress, psi
yield stress, psi
forces
or moments acting only
in +X, +Y, or *Z
4M-X, -Y,-Z :
K=
K:
101
shear stress, psi
F,M +
Equipment
direction,
respectively
forces or moments acting on.ly
in
or -Z direction,
respectively
-X, -l
REFERENCES
l.
2.
5.
6.
7.
Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, The

Macmillan Company, New York, 1965.
Przemieniecki, I.5., Theory of Matrix Structural
Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1968.
Wichman, K. R., Hopper, A. G., Mershon, J. L.,
Welding Research Council Bulletin 107, Local
Stresses in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells Due to
External Loadings, Welding Research Council, New
York, 1979.
Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, Inc.,
Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association, Inc., New York.
Hesse, W. J., Mumford, Jr., N. V. 5., Jet Propulsion for Aerospace Applications , Second Edition, Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York, 1964.
Blevins, R. D., Flow Induced Vibration, van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1977.
Lienhard, J. H., "Synopsis of Lift, Drag and Vortex
Frequency Data For Rigid Circular Cylinders,"
Washington State University, College of Engineering
Research Division Bulletin 300, 1966.
Providing thermal energy to process systems and
5,000 centipoises or more. Such high-viscosity fluids are

quite common with coating mixes used in manufacturing
roofing tiles. Tracing such viscous mixtures with several
tracers has proven to be so inferior to jacketed pipe that
the disadvantages ofjacketed systems are offset. With a
viscosify of 4,000 centipoises, one should consider jacketed pipe.
maintaining desired temperatures are key responsibilities

of mechanical design. Although they border on chemical
engineering, the concern here is with the mechanical as-
pcts
of
process systems, and not with the processes
themselves. (Chapters 2 and 4 illustrate how mechanical

design borders civil engineering in a similar manner.)
Process systems require thermal energy for various
reasons, and the most common are to accelerate chemical reactions; to heat products and services so the products remain liquid and do not clog piping or equipment,
such as with asphalt and roofing materials, viscous fuel
oils, and syrups; and to cool products and services, for
example to protect epoxy from polymerizing.
In piping systems there are three ways to transfer heat
to the process service-tubular tracers mounted externally to the pipe, jacketing the process pipe with a larger
pipe forming an annulus in which the heat transfer fluid
flows, and electrically tracing the pipe. We will discuss
the first two types of transfer systems.
Most jacketed pipe is limited in commercially available sizes. Normally 8-in. by 10-in. is the largest size
JACKETED PIPE VERSUS TRACED PIPE

The difference between traced pipe and jacketed pipe
is obviously the heat transfer area available on each. The
two types are depicted in Figures 3-1a and b. Jacketed
systems offer more heat transfer area, but are expensive
and can be difficult to maintain. One common nroblem is
cracks that develop from the thermal stresses that are incurred. Such cracks, which are difficult to locate and re-
pair, can cause the heat transfer and process fluids to

mix, which can have catastrophic resulis. However. the
disadvantages ofjacketed pipe must be weighed with the
economics of adding tracers. A proven guideline is to
use jacketed pipe for process fluids with viscosities of
front vi6w
Figure 3-1A. Traced pipe.
103
104
Figure 3-1B. Jacketed pipe. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
Equipment
DIMENSIONS
COMMON TO ALL
stzE
tPs
tPs
Y2t1Y1
Y2
1r/a
2.56
1Y2
2.56
\/+
3.44
1t2
,l
1Yarz
'|
1l2x2l2
3OO
T
NPI
.oD
Dia.
BC
RF
OD
4.25
0.62
3.12
2.00
0.75
5.00
0.62
3.88
2.84
0.75
4.75
3.62
0.75
6.50
3.62
0.62
No.
Vq
6.00
0.75
6.00
0.75
Dla,
BC
RF
4.88
0.75
3.50
2.OO
0.88
6.12
0.E8
4.50
2.88
0.88
0.75
5.00
3.62
0.6E
0.75
5.00
3.62
0.88
1L/2
7.00
0.75
4.12
0.69
7.50
4.69
7.50
0.75
6.00
s.00
0.75
8.25
3x4
4.44
9.00
0.75
7.50
6.19
0.94
4x6
8.50
1.00
4.31
6xE
8x10
10
4.31
4.88
1
1
1Y2
11.00
0.88
9.50
No.
2x3
L/^
0.8E
5.EE
4.12
1.00
0.68
6.62
5.00
1.12
'10.00
0.8E
7.88
6.'l9
1.25
12.50
12
0.88
10.62
8.50
1.44
'L00
13.00
10.62
1.62
'15.25
12.75
1.88
'13.50
0.88
11.75
10.62
1.12
15.00
12
16.00
1.00
14.25
12.75
1.19
17.50
16
.Flanges of higher pressure class and other facings available.
Figure
LB:
Holeg
Holes
3/tt1Yz
150 LB.'
3-lB.
Continued.
Figure 3-1C. Expansion joints for jacketed pipe. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
105
106
DIMENSIONS
150 LB., DUCTILE IRON. STEEL
FLANGE DIMENSIOIiISi
OD
ID
Holea
srzE
tPs
lns.
mm.
No.
Dla-
BC
RF
1Y1r2
1Y4
6.00
152
o.75
4.75
3.62
1t/2f,Y2
1Y2
7.@
178
0.75
lns.
mm.
TIPT
24.OO
610
3.44
3/t
4.12
o.75
25.00
635
6.00
5.00
0_88
25.38
645
4.69
'I
3/q
7.50
190
3x4
9.00
28
0.75
7.50
6.19
1.00
26.00
660
4.44
'|
4x6
11.00
279
0.88
9.50
8.50
't,12
26.50
673
4.31
,l
6x8
13.50
3/$
0.88
'tl.75
10.62
't.19
27.U
4.31
16.00
406
12
1.00
14.25
12.75
1.38
u.25
470
4.8
1Y1
8x10
All dimensions in inches (ins.) unless otherwise noted.

'Flanges ol higher pressure class and other facings available.
Figure 3-1C. Continued.
carried in stock, but larger sizes can be specially fabricated. When a jacketed system is selected, a careful
stress analysis should be made to ensure that the system
is not overstressed. (Chapter 2 covers such stress analyses.)
TRACIilG PIPING SYSTEMS

When process fluids have low to moderate values of
viscosity 1g 4,500 cp), it is best to trace them with tubes
containing hot or cold fluids. The tracing can be done
with or without heat transfer cement around the tracer
tubes (Figure 3-2). We will consider two methods for
analyzing both systems.
Usually, steam or hot oil is used to trace systems. Hot
oil is used when the fluid to be traced is hotter than saturated steam at typical operating pressures, which would
be about 350'F and above. Hot oil systems are some-
what simpler than steam-traced systems, because steam

traps and condensate return lines are unnecessary. However, hot oil can be expensive and if there is ample auxiliary steam available for tracing, steam is favorable for
moderate- to low-temperature systems. When there is
much piping to be traced, steam at the available temperature and pressure may condense into hot water before
tracing the entire system. For these situations, only hot
oil can be used. Thus, hot oil is used in tracing applications where steam is either not practical or not available.
There are many types of hot oils marketed by various
chemical companies as heat transfer fluids.
It is most
desirable and should be mandatory to use
heat transfer cement in tracing tubes on process piping,

because it provides more heat transfer area. Heat transfer cements are available in all major countries and in
some of the larger Third World countries. However

there are times of expediency in which traced systems
must be installed without the cement.
Equipment
1O7
Traced Piping Without Heat Transfer

Cement
The modes of heat transfer in a system without heat
kansfer cement are natural convection through the air
space inside the insulation, and to a much lesser extent,
direct radiation between the tracer and pipe or equipment. Since the tracer tube and pipe surface have very
little surface contact, conduction is minimal. Any effect
of film resistance to heat transfer between the air space
outside the insulation and the inside insulation surface is
negligible.
The procedure for tracer design without heat transfer
cement is outlined in the foliowing steps (see Figure 3-3
for parameters) :
l.
Assume a value of air space temperature equal to

or greater than the minimum temperature of the
process temperature inside the pipe.
Tr = aclual insulation
thickness
Figure 3-3. Traced pipe with one tracer under bottom without
HTC.
2. Estimate the natural convection coefficient,
h",
from the tracer to the air space from Figure 3-4.

3. Calculate the equivalent cylindrical insulation
thickness, T", as
'"'\
4.
: {q'r=l)'"
{9': =t)
2l\Di
(3-
l)
Determine the outside film coefficient of the insulation to atmosphere, h., from Figure 3-5 and calculate Uo from the following:
T]
kt
u.
Di
ho
ki
T"
(3-2)
h.
inside diameter of pipe insulation, ft

outside film coefficient from insulation to
atmosphere, Btu/hr-ft2- "F
thermal conductivity of insulation,
Btu/hr-ftz-'F
T,
Uo:
equivalent thickness of cylindrical insulation,

actual insulation thickness, ft
overall heat transfer coefficient from the air
space to the atmosphere, Btu/hr-ft'-"F
5. Formulate a heat balance around the air
ft
sDace.
solving for the temperature of the air space. q:
- L)
a:
Q: ) (r)(Qr)
(v,xA")(t"
(hJ(AJ(n)(tt
Figure 3-2, Various traced pipe configurations: (A) single

traced pipe, with tracer under pipe, with heat transfer cement
(HTC); (B) process pipe with two tracers with HTC; (C) one
tracer on top ofprocess pipe with HTC; (D) process pipe with
three tracers with HTC; (E) jacketed pipe.
where Ao
h,
A, :
(3-3)
(34)
t")
(3-5)
outside insulation surface area, ft2lft

outside surface area of tracer tube, ftzlft
convection film coefficient from tracer or heat
transfer cement (HTC) to air space,
Btu/hr-ft
-'F
108
.c
1.o
o.9
o.a
o.7
oo,ouTstDE D|aMETER OF CyL|NDER ltNcHESl

h: NAIURAL
h.
.^.
CONVECTTON
FtLM COEFFICTENT
Figure 3-4, Natural convection on

horizontal cylinders.
.o.25
o.5lt-l
a:
7
6
5
35710
Figure 3-5. Heat transfer outside
horizontal pipes.
152030
50
OUTSIOE DIAMETER OF INSULATION IINCHESI

ho=COMBINED OIJTSIDE HEAT TRANSFER FILM COEFFTCIENT
: heat transfer per lineal foot from air space to

atrnosphere. Btu/hr-ft
Qz : heat transfer per lineal foot from tracer to air
space, Btu/hr-ft
L : temperature of outside air, oFoF
ti = temperature of tracer fluid,
"y : safety factor; 1.3 for piping systems without
Qr
HTC, 2.0 for piping systems with HTC, 1.5

for vessels without HTC, 2.5 for vessels with
HTC
Traced Piping Wlth Heat Transfer Cement

One mode of heat transfer in a system with heat transfer cement is conduction from the tracer tube through the
pipe or vessel wall to the point of the wall most distant
from the tracer. The thermal distribution of such a sys-
tem is shown in Figure 3-6. The other mode of heat

transfer is the natural convection from the tracel and the
pipe or vessel wall to the air space. Thus, the air space
temperature is lower than the minimum process pipe or
wall temperature. The contribution of radiation

from the tracer and pipe or vessel to the inside wall ofthe
insulation is negligible, as is the film resistance to heat
transfer on the inside insulation wall.
The procedure for tracer design with heat transfer cement is as follows:
1. Determine the scheme of tracers to be applied using Figure 3-7.

Calculate the metal wall area (equals wall thickness) A*; the outside surface area of insulation, Ao,
the outside surface area of pipe, Ao, and the outside
surface area of tracer tube or heat tfansfer cement
(Hrc).
Assume a value of the minimum pipe wall temperature, to, equal to or greater than the minimum process f luid temprature.
4. Assume a value of air space temperature, ta.
5. Estimate the natural convection coefficient, h",
3
from the HTC to air space.

6. Calculate T" using Equation 3-1.
7. Determine the outside film coefficient of the insulation to the atmosphere, h., from Figure 3-5 and
calculate Uo from Equation 3-2.
8. Calculate the average pipe wall temperature tp and
estimate t}le natural convection coefficient from the
pipe or vessel to air space, ho, from Figure 3-4.
COLO SURFACE TEMPERAIURE
Figure 3-6. Heat transfer by radiatlon.
109
vessel
2.
lf ta > ti, then the system is adequate. The maximum

spacing of tracer tubes for cylindrical vessels is calculated in the same manner except that a flat plate approximation (T. = t) is used to compute the heat losses, or Q
values.
Equipment
',{s-J[(!e"" I-e#9]
It2I
110
Figure 3-7, Temperature distribution of a two tracer system.

(Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.
9. Formulate a heat balance around the pipe or vessel

wall and air space and perform an iteration analysis
solving for t" and te with the following steps:
:
Qz:
Qr
(u.)(,\)(r"
(hJ(At)(tt
(2Xq)
Q+)
(r)(Q:)
Qn
t")
- t")
(hPxApxtp * t")
(I*)o.u,, * ,,,'
=
=
k :
n, :
Q: =
Q4 :
Ap
ho
(3-e)
(3-10)
Qz+ Q:)Qr
where Am
(3-6)
(3-7)
(3-8)
(3-l
temperature of air space, 'F

ambient temperature,'F
length of heat flow through metal, ft
pipe temperature at point nearest tracer, 'F
pipe temperature at point farthest from tracer.
.F
Likewise for traced systems with HTC, for traced vessels, the maximum tracer tube spacing for traced vessels
is calculated by the same procedure, except that the flat
plate approximation (Te : t) is used to compute the heat
losses, or Q values.
l)
cross-sectional pipe wall area (equals pipe
Condensate Return
thickness), ft,/ft
outside surface area of pipe, ft /ft
convection film coefficient from pipe to air
space, Btu/hr-ft2-oF
thermal conductivity of vessel shell material,
Steam differs from hot oil in that condensate is formed

by loss of heat energy. During energy shortages, the use
of condensate return lines is normally justified. Considering the use of 1/2-in. tracers, normally a l-in. conden-
Btu/hr-ft2-'F
number of tracers, dimensionless
a ltlz-in.
heat transfr per lineal foot from pipe to air

space, Btu/hr-ft
heat transfer per lineal foot from tracer to
pipe, Btu/hr-ft
sate subheader
will handle condensate from 2-8 tracers,

9-20 tracers, and a 2-in. sub-
header from
header from 21-50 tracers. With a condensate collection

and return system the steam supply pressure should be at
least 100 psig. Even though these rules of thumb are well
tested in field practice, the reader is encouraged to calcu-
late the condensate load for his particular needs. Consider the following analysis:
Total heat loss from steam tracer

Qr
For systems with HTC (by adding Equations 3-'7 and 3-9),
Qr:
Qq+Qz
(3-12)
For systems without HTc,
(34)
Qr:Q:
The steam in the tracer is assumed to enter the system

as saturated steam at an initial temperature or pressure.
Considering the amount ofheat loss over a given temperature range, the condensate load from n tracers on a
given process pipe is
,ir
: $,
nnfc
(3-13)
rum
where hr8
Equipment
11
enthalpy of vaporization (also called latent

heat of vaporization), Btu/lb
The steam in the tracer is assumed to transfer energy

as heat for a given mass of steam under constant pressure. A typical condensate return system is shown in
Figure 3-8.
When collecting condensate, care must be taken to
prevent water harnmer caused by the mixing of condensate at different temperatures and pressures. To prevent
water hammer in condensate systems, spargers and
steam separation kegs should be considered.
To size the condensate return lines, as well as the tracers themselves, use the methods presented in Chapter I
for line sizing. In systems where a large quantity of condensate is formed by steam flashing, a condensate return
pump may be required. Normally, condensate return

pumps are the horizontal centrifugal type. Pumps and
their applications are presented in Chapter 6.
STEAM SUB
HOR.
COND.
HOR.
SEEDETAIL A(TYP.)
SEE FIGURE 3
COND HOR.
SEE
OETAIL
(wP.)
OETAIL-
Figure 3-8. Condensate return header in tmcer

system. (Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing
co.)
112
Jacketed Plpe
for Dy'D"
Figure 3-9 illustrates details ofjacketed pipe. Forjacketed systems, it is customary to assume a temperature
drop over a given length of pipe for hot oil. In applica,
tions of hot oil heating a viscous fluid such as asphalt,
100'F drop per 100 ft, or I 'F per foot, is quite common.
If one is not familiar with a given service, then a heat
balance must be made, like those done for tracers, However, using a temperature drop over a given lenglh of
pipe simplifies the analysis and has been proven in practice, because all examples cited are from actual, successful operating systems. The following steps illustrate one
such method of designing jacketed pipe:
Compute the overall heat transfer coefficient, U,
by the following relation:
For an annulus, the hydraulic radius, Rs,
l.
N*"
Y%
D:4Rs
._
Nr"
: o.o2o Nr;'Nr
,1-
9d
rooo
"LP) ($
(3-18)
(3-19)
NC"
(3-20)
and thus
Nru"k
(3-2r)
2. After solving for
the overail heat transfer coefficient, determine the amount of heat transfer from
the relation
(3-r5)
r.86(NrJ"'(N",)
d.o
in which
tt
hr:
0.2
(3-14)
[h':
where
Dr-i
Rs
' .D-
u = Er*r+ln(ry'r'* ll-r
kzr
h
>
k$'"
(3-
l6)
UA(LMTD)
where
0_17\
(oeJ
A:
outside area of inner tube. ft2. and the LMTD

is based on the assumed rate of heat loss per
unit lengrh of pipe.
o socror.t
LR
PE(rcESS IINE
PrJ:1r2, 2r3,3t4,/rt 6linl
(3-22)
ptt= t'ga,&1,4,
Figure 3-9. Standard fabrication details for jacketed piping.
Equipment
113
END OF JACKE'T DETAIL
v2t. ss n
BING
PROCESS LINE IPI

JACKETIJI
CUIOE
PrJlinl
z'z
31
OETAII- BANS PLACEO EVERY rEN FEEi OF

PR@ESS IINE
GLJtoE BAR Srzlinl
z t" i,u
r4r15 -2
rrYi6-r
4t6
BAi
-le'9r-
-t
PFOCESS LITIE
rrNE srzE prJ
li.L
ll
Figure 3-9, Continued.
In
to
in tong
114
The LMTD is solved using the following formula:
(GTTp)
(UrTp)
/1-r1r
, /crro\
]n l-l
\rjrTD /
where
LMTD : logarithmic
GTTD
LTTD
:
:
To facilitate manual calculations refer to Figure 3-10 [1].

The concept of the logarithmic mean temperature differ-
ence is widely explained in most basic engineering textbooks, so its explanation will not be presented here. The
reader is referred to Kern [2] or Ludwig [3] for a formal
description of the significance of the LMTD.

mean temperarure difference
greater terminal temperature difference

lesser terminal temDerature difference
3.
Once the amount of heat transferred is determined

from Equation 3-22. assuming a given temperature
tm
Chart for Solving
90
MTD Formula
80
GTTD.LTTD
-"- _ GTTD
t-o8e LrrD
,\,rn
70
60
ô@
.c,*
50
.rk@'
to,4
40
i5
tll
o
t
E
Greater Terminal Temperature Difference
Figure 3-10. LMTD chart.
(O
1978 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association. Repdnted by permission.)
drop, the amount of flow rate ofthe heating fluid is

determined by
15
jacket (outside the tank) and exits through another side

heating the vessel's contents. This can be seen in Figure
)-tzrirCoAt
where rir
At
:
:
:
(3-24)
hot fluid flow rate, lb/hr
specific heat of hot fluid, Btu/lb-"F
hot fluid temperature drop
From this formulation we determine the flow rate required.
4.
Equipment
Using Figure 3-11, the amount of pressure drop in

the annulus is determined and added to the Dressure
drop in the whole sysrem (which includes the piping connecting the annuli). The pressure drop for
the piping other than the annuli is determined by
using the methods presented in Chapter 1. Chapter
6 shows how to select and size the pumps to handle
fluids that usually require jacketed services, such
as hot oil.
Before we analyze in detail these various components,

we must first look at the overall heat reouirements of the
vessel to determine how much heating surface is required. The controlling criterion in determining the
amount of heating panel surface area of a vessel is the
transient state, i.e., how much surface area is required to
heat a given mass of fluid of specified properties to a
specified temperature within a specified time. Figure

3-13 illustrates a control mass inside a oressure vessel.
Consider two transient boundary conditions in the vessel-the fluid resting at steady state and the fluid moving
through the tank at a given mass flow rate. Thus, the following two criteria must be established before the heat
transfer area required for a process vessel can be determmeo:
1. A vessel shown in Figure 3-13(a) contains a static

fluid of X gallons at an initial temperature, Y'F.
How many degrees of temperature per hour will
the fluid mass rise for a given surface area of
Once the flow rate is determined, the hydraulic analysis made, and the pressure drop judged adequate for the
size ofpumps selected, the jacketed system details can be
2.
designed.
Typical jacketed piping components are depicted in

Figure 3-9. In extensively jacketed systems, valves can
be procured that have jacketed spaces built in. These
types of valves are recommended for services where
jacketed pipe is required (p > 5,000 cp). Some of these
valves are shown in Fieure 3-9.
clamped-on jacketed coils?

Using clamped-on jacketed coils shown
in Figure
3-13@), how many degrees of temperature per
hour will be transferred to a given mass of fluid of
defined properties flowing through the vessel at a
constant mass flow rate with an initial temoerature
of Y'F
These two criteria are established bv considerins the

following relationships:
Vessel and Equipment Traced Systems
Systems that require piping to be either traced or jacketed likewise require similar components for vessels.
and
The complexity of traced components depends on the

viscosity of the process fluids being handled. For highviscosity, non-Newtonian fluids special items must be
added to vessels, such as agitators that are composed of
blades and usually powered by electric motors. There
are many reasons to use agitators, and one of the most
common is to keep suspended particles in a non-Newtonian fluid evenly distributed to prevent particle settlement on the tank bottoms.
There are two basic types of heating and cooling devices used for vessels-internal and external iackets that
fit on the inside and outside of the vessel, respectively.
These jacket types are shown in Figure 3-12. The hot
fluid (normally steam or hot oil) enters one side of the
coil and flows through the baffle (inside the tank) or
mcpat
(3-2s)
UA(LMTD)
(3-26)
Equating Equation 3-25 to 3-26, we obtain
At
UA(LMTD)
mCp
(3-27)
The U value, or overall heat transfer coefficient, is

calculated on the basis of whether the panel of heat tracing tubes are clamped on outside the vessel or located inside the vessel. These overall heat transfer U values are
determined through extensive laboratory tests and accumulated field experience. The U value used in calculations should be that recommended by the heat transfer
panel manufacturer, as various panel designs are available and the calculation of the U value analvticallv can
116
rh" x1" s,ch.40 Jackeled Pipe

ol jacketod pipe (tiw 2010:
lengrhs) and inclsde live 1" o.D. x.065" wal tubing jumpplus
overs
entrancs and exit losses. Warer @ 60'F. (16"C,)
curves based on 100 let
tt;
I
P-inchesoluater I
Flgure 3-11A. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
't
Equipment
,a" x1Y2" Sch.40 Jacketed Pipe

curues based on 1oo reet or racceled p'pe (rrv;20 o_
3d" O o r 06s' wal lubing iump_
lengths, ano Include
'ive xit losses. Water @ 60'F O6'C)
overs plus ntrance and
dl
o
=
Figure 3-118. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
117
I
1
18
f,
fi
{.
1" x 2" Sch.40 Jackeled Pipe
curyes based on 100 leel ol jackied pipe (livs
20{"
rive t4" o.D. x .065" wall lubrng jump_

rengrhs) and
'nclude and exii losses. water @ 60'F- {16'c.}
overs plus entrance
E
J
I
o
=
J
A P- inches
of water
Figure 3-1|C. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co')
1Y4"
Equipment
x2" Sch.40 Jacketed Pipe
Cutues based on 100 leet ol jacketed ppe (lve 20:0"

lenqths) and include live 74'O.D. x .065'walrlubrnq jump
overs plus entance and exit Losses. Wate. @ 60"F. (16'C.)
P-psig
<'
ut
o
=
inches ol
water 3
Figure 3-11D. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
119
120
1r/a" x
2V" Sch. 4O Jacketed Pipe
ot jackered pipe (Uve 2010'

r;'O D. ! .065" wdl tJbrng jumplengrl^sl dnd r clude rive'eet
overs pr!s entrance and exl rosses waler @ 60,F. (16.c )
Curves based on 100
AP-psig
t
'to
=
J
Figure 3-11E. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
1Y2"
Equipment
x2t/2" Sch.40 Jacketed Pipe
Curues bas6d on 100 teei ol jackered pipe (live 20!0"

lenglhs) and incrude nve ya" O O x obs" wrll ruo,rg tuhpovers plls enrra.ce a.d ext losses. water @ 60"F. (16'c)
lD
I
Figure 3-11F. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
12'l
122
Mechanical Design of Process Svstems
2" x 3" Sch. 40 Jackeled Pipe

Curves based on 100 leel ol iackeldd pipe (iive 2010"
lenolnsl and nclude live 1" O.D. (.065'sall rubnq_Lmpovers plus entrance 3nd exit rosses water @ 60.F. 06"c.)
6
=
J
inches ot water
Figure 3-11G. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
3" x 4" Sch.40 Jackeled Pipe

curves based on 100 leer
ol jackeled pipe
(tive 20'0"
l6n9rhsj and Include l,!e I" o.D

^ 064 rali rlbr.g tuhp.
overs plus enl.ance and exil losses. Water @ 60'F. (16'C )
- psig
Figure 3-11H. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
123
124

CLNes based on 100 leel ol iackeled pipe (live 2010"
lengihs) a.d include live 1" O.D. x.065" walllubing jumpovers plus enirance and exil losses. Waler @ 60'F. (16'C.)
o
=
J
- inches ol waler
Figure 3-1 11. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)
4" x 6" Sch. 40 Jacketed Pipe

Curues based on 100 leei oi jacketed pipe (uve 20'4"
lengrhsl and ,ruluoe lve I' O D
^ 065" $Ell rlbrnq tunp.
overs pius entrance and exn losses. Water @ 60'F. (16'C.)
o
=
inches ol
wate. q
Figure 3-11J. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of parks-Cramer Co.)
125

curues based on 100 ieer
oi
iackered pipe (nv 20a0'
lenglhs) and inclLde nva I O o r 065'war' ruo ng Lmp

overs plus enlrance and exil losses water @ 60"F. {16"c.)
AP-psig
,LENT
)aa:
-:,-:
t
-
j:
o(
7.,
o(
E,
o(ra
lo
=,
a
'::
AM tN/ \R
::::l::::l:
::::l::.1:.::1.::t,:
Park :s -l ,fal ne
JACKETET
NG
l,ill
A
- inches ol
SYST :l\4S
r:
t
COMPONENTS
'
,'1,,,,1,,
water q
Figure 3-11K. Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of Parks-Cramer Co.)

cu.ves based on 100 ieet ol tackeled prpe (rve 2oro,
leng l-sl aro incrLde trr- t" o D. r 06r" do r_b'.q tu-p.
overs pL!s enlrance and exrr tosses. water @ 60.F {16.c )
AP-psig
-/;;
!r:::r'
i,? ,/..:
T FTOW
JT
i:,1-,:
h-0b,
F=
.1-=:
t1=
/. /
l::::
F= t.-
t:
lv
=,
(r.
)1
7/.
o,
=
o
=
/
ul
L AMINAR
:l
Pe
:::l't
':r:i::::l
k s-l fame I
,l
i. coMP ONEI {TS

!l
:;::l ::l
...1..1
Figure
3-1
L.
inches ol
:::.[]
.. .t.._
.
.1.-.
water q
Engineering data pressure drop through jacket. (Courtesy of parks_Cramer Co. )
127
128
Moderate bracins for

mediurn agitation -cooditions. All 5rac6 are from
vessel wall and no circumIereotial rings are used.
Brrc$ 6ay be weldcd ot
bolted, Hemocd edgc pcr

mounting lug detail, page
,{4. desirable.
Flexible hoses desirable

her w-hen possible aod
wnen lorces are Severe.
Also particularlv imoorc
ant, foi altematirig heiting
ano cooltnq
conorttons.
Speial bracing.for heavy

aertauon conorarons,
Figure 3-12A. Heat transfer internal plate or panel baffles inside a vessel. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
Heat Transt'er in Piping and
,/
w*\ \ \
/ _-.--\r\1
'ffiFt*
\-*'/
,(?,''l
\t\
l[ [ l\
l\
Equipment
129
C=2%" MlN.
I
I
D ----v
3RD. ST OF CHANNETS
USED WHEN B DIM.
EXCEEDS 7T'
HEADER SIZE
OVER,AI.I WIDTH
I(NO. OF PLATECOTL-|) (CJ.3',]
Figure 3-128. Schematic depicting how heat transfer panel plates heat up or cool down process fluid in tank. (Courtesy of Tranter. Inc.)
L-3S Luqs (typ)
ffi N
Figure 3-12C. Heat transfer panel plates designed to
curved surfaces. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
fit
on
lead to erroneous results if the exact details of the Danel

design are not known. Most panel manufacturers hesitate
to reveal such detailed features, so the U values on the
low side are recommended for situations where the panel
manulacturer does not have a recommended U value.
With high-viscosity fluids such as tar and asphalt at temperatures of 300-700'F. a good U value lor lnternal baffle panels is 9.60 and for external clamped-on panels a
value of 4.00 is reaSonable.

After a U value has been selected, Equation 3-26 is
solved, revealing the net temperature change per hour.
The second criterion involves the mass flow rate ofthe
fluid through the vessel. To estabiish this criterion,
Equations 3-25 and 3-26 are solved tosether to determine the temperature rise. The analysis o-f both criteria is
L 35 Llgs (typ)
Cuslomer shoutd instatl
same
al iifre ol instartairon.
This sketch shows tine

conlact pfovrded by the 1?,,
iq
-i-
Figure 3-12C (continued). Heat transfer panel plates designed

fit on curved surfaces. (Courtesv of Tranter. Inc.)
to
graphically illustrated later in Example 34.

Once both transient conditions I and 2 are satisfied bv
the selected heat transfer area, the detailed design of the
baffle panels (both external clamp-on and inteinal) can
be designed. This is best shown by example and done so
in Example 3-5.
Further applications of Equations 3-25 and 3-26 are
given in Example 3-6. In this example a material handling problem is analyzed in which both steady state and
transient heat transfer conditions are considered. After
reviewing Examples 3-5 and 3-6, the reader is encouraged to always consider transient conditions of heat
transfer in similar situations. Transient criteria, as revealed, usually govern to a large degree.
Figure 3-12D. Vessels with typical external heat transfer plate panels. (Courtesy of Tranter, Inc.)
Equipment
131
Figure 3-12D. Continued.
-'-- -*-i
fluid
x gallons
v'F
oF/min
Figure 3-13. Two schemes in which the heat transferred must be considered: (A) conrol rnass scheme; (B) control volume
scheme.
132
HEAT TRANSFER IN RESIDUAL SVSTETyIS
lleat Transfer Through Gylindrical Shells

Heat transfer through pipe supports, vessel skirts, and
empty branch piping connections to hot or cold headers
can cpuse critical stress problems as well as damage to
equipment. Excessive thermal deflections can result in
unacceptable loads on rotating equipment and vessel
nozzles. In cryogenic service, vessel skirts can fail by
brittle fracture if the transition temperature point between alloy steels and carbon steel is not considered.
This section discusses the analysis procedures for analyzing heat transfer in such residual components as vessel skirts and pipe supports. The methods used have been
tested with empirical data and have been used for several
years in design practice. For derivations to the following
method on heat transfer through cylinders, the reader is
referred to the author's paper [4].
Vessel skirts are normally insulated on the inside and
outside surfaces as depicted in Figure 3-14. In cryogenic
applications, there are many reasons why a heat transfer
analysis of the skirt is desirable. The primary reason is
the one previously cited-to protect carbon steel components from fracture failure. Another reason involves economics-a tall skirt made of alloy steel is much more
expensive than a similar skirt made mostly of carbon
steel. Also, we will see how the skirt can actually deflect
as a result of this heat exchange.
Consider the skirt in Figure 3-14. The vessel is at either an elevated temperature or a cold temperature denoted at the shell-skirt juncture as t.. Thermal conduction
and convection are the controlling modes of heat transfer. The convection can either be considered as natural
or free convection, or in the case of wind, forced convection. It has been found that using the free convection
coefficient is the most desirable in many cases, since
vessels are normally surrounded by other equipment and
structures, making free convection more applicable.
Assume that the temperature inside the skirt is the
same as ambient temperature and wind chill factors are
not present. Air seepage under the skirt and open apertures on the shell allow for equilibrium to be established
with the outside temperature.
The first step is to determine the free convection film
coefficient for the outside surface of the oressure vessel
skirt insulation. In normal conditions. the air temoerature inside the vessel skirt. ti. is assumed five degrees
lower than the outside ambient, ts. The free convection
film coefficient is found by iteration using the following
equatrons:
,, - [r, ln(r2lrr) -, qlnG!lt2)

"--[
kl!r+
ta
(Ua/ha
5)(!
t5)
No,
[d3lgB I At |
NN"
C(NG.NP.)-
hl.s : G"i,NN,)/d
@l
flll
=
=
1 l-'
*
k*
-h.J
ln (r+/r:)
t5
(3,600)2]tp2
(3-28)
(3-29)
(3-30)
(3-31)
(3-32)
insulation
metal
.f
Figure 3-14. Vessel skirt insulation detail. Sometimes the inside insulation is left off.
133
For free convection of cross flow around cvlinders.

the following constants hold [5]:
l0 < Nc.Np. < 10e, C = O.525, m :

lOe
<
Nc,Np,
<
10", C
O.129,m
tlc
Pipe being analyzd
slub pi6ce
)13
-pip
These relationships are valid for applications for the

refining, petrochemical, and gas processing industries.
Now, for a cylinder with insulation on both sides, we
use the final value of ha-5 after performing iterations
from Equations 3-28 through 3-32 in the following equatrons:
^-
"
/2"r,.,\
\U,q,/
r
tltt tr"'rrl [
l" (t ,ttj
\[
^
- ll:+l
lroho,ttn . t5) - k2',
l\KmAny' [
,
[ ,, - (t/'i)lll
l]L
1-3'll
tl" {r./rr)
: ztQ
I"
(3-34)
(3-35)
Substituting these parameters into the foliowing equation, we obtain the temperature distribution down the
skirt length:
2(t.
, *
Zt
e-oo
5
=
(3-36)
"zrauJ
The difference between the process temperature inside

the vessel and the outside ambient temperature is the
main driving force of heat transfer. It is analogous to
electrical EMF driving force or the potential energy of
height differential from which a fluid is dropped and
turned into kinetic energy.
The degree in significance of convection is inversely
proportional to the insulation thickness. The air around
the outside insulation surface is in a state of local turbulence and for this reason the variance of the Grashof
number down the outside insulation wall is insignificant.
Experimental measurements confirm this fact. The
reader will see in Examples 3-7 and 3-8 how to apply this
method to vessel skirts.
Piping that is supported by piping sections is treated in
a similar manner to vessel skirts. Such piping supports
are shown in Figure 3-15 in which the pipe supports and
branch lines are subject to thermal gradients from a hot
or cold process header. Figure 3-15a shows a stub piece
used as a piping header support. The temperature gradient through the stub piece must be analyzed to determine
if the Teflon slide beneath the base plate will be protected from the elevated temperature inside the process
Fragile piece ol
equipment
Figure3-15. (A) Stub piece used as header support: (B) process line is connected to a turboexpander. The line is supported by a short section of pipe welded to a base plate; (C)
branch line from a header (hot or cold) connected through a
shut-off valve to a ftagile piece of process equipment.
If the process header is in cryogenic service, the

stub piece must be analyzed to assure the design engineer
header.
that the carbon steel structural members are adequately

protected from temperatures below the transition temperature.
Shown in Figure 3-l5b is a common situation in which
a process line connected to a turboexpander is supported
by a section of pipe welded to a base plate. If the pipe
stub deflects enough (shown by 61), the thermal deflec-
134
tion could induce a sufficient bending moment on the

turbine to cause serious mechanical damage.
Figure 3-15c shows a branch line running from a hot
where c and m are determined as previously for skirts
or cold pipe header to a fragile piece of equipment. Even

though the valve on the branch line is closed, the residual
temperature distribution through the branch line may be
enough to cause the pipe to deflect and damage the
equlpment.
Referring to Figure 3-16, the procedure for determin-
tj :
ing the temperature distribution through the empty

branch pipe or pipe support is similar to the case of a
vessel skirt. First, solve for the free convection film coefficient on the exterior surface of the pipe insulation. To
do this, use the equation for the overall heat transfer co-
h,j
= (k"r.Nr")/d
- t.) + t"
Atj : t3 - ti < 2'F
ur:
,"
(;)
,, ,"
(,:)
- r(
\ k-
-n;/]
,
(3-37)
(u3/h;) (ti
: l=l
(r,
to)
(3-39)
follows:
2nk1
;"{$
/ r- \ r
kJ,
t't - ---tT
l--^J lrrtr"tt:
(3-40)
rn
t',
(3-29)
Once Atj criterion is met, we can proceed with the final iterative value for the film coefficient, h.. With this
final value. we solve lor the parameters Q, Z. and Z as
efficient:
1,,
(3-32)
(3-38)
to
(3-41)
lll
\r,
o
Once Q and Z are known, we solve for the temperature distribution with
No,
[d37,gB( lAt
l) (3,600),]/rr,
(3-30)
(3-31)
Nr" = C(Nc,NpJ'
ts
900'F;
; 300'F
dia.,
sch.40, cs
3-in. calcium silicate
Figure 3-16. Empty branch pipe with one end uniformly subjected to three temperatures.
tx
2(t. - Zte 'ao

=-++L
I + e2"au '
(3-36)
You will notice that the form of the final solution.

Equation 3-36, is the same for the skirt problem with insulation on the inside and outside shell surfaces as the
pipe problem with insulation on only the outside surface.
The difference in the solutions is because of the boundary conditions, i.e., a cylinder with insulation on both
inside and outside surfaces versus a cylinder with just insulation on the outside surface alone. The solutions to the
basic differential equations are affected by these differences in boundary conditions. For further information on
this subject, the reader is referred to the author's paper
t4l.
For cases of tapered vessel skirts the cylinder section

can be approximated by using an average diameter. This
approximation is very close to actual results because

skirts should not taper more than 15" (see Chapter 4).
As a consequence of heat transfer along vessel skirts
and pipe connections, thermal deflections will occur.
The deflection equations are the same regardless of whar
case is considered, whether it is a shell with insulation on
the inside and outside surfaces or a shell with only external insulation. The values of Q and Z are determined
from the appropriate equations of each respective case.
The thermal deflection equations are dependent on the

type of material considered since the coefficient of thermal conductivity is the governing property of the particular material being considered. Thking a differential ele-
ment of a shell, we solve for the amount of thermal

deflection by
dL :
Since the temperature varies over the shell length, we inregrate Equation 3-42 to obtain the total deflection, 6, as
o= jar- = JL crrrr(xr dx
with d(t) in Equation 3-43. Then, the product of a(t)t(x)

is integrated over a length L and we obtain the thermal
deflection function for each particular material. For carbon steel, the expanded thermal deflection equation is as
follows:
(2.496
x l0 ,22)& -
Z) arctan
(elo0
5;
106e0.5
(2.496
x lo-)(t, (l09Qo 5(l
(2.496
Z)2(e2l-ao5
{rr,,
(2.055
l0-3) 1t. * ZY leuoorr

l06eo5(1
(1.06 x l0-6)
106
(_
l8(t,
'Ir
e2lao
z),
sech (LQo 5) tanh(LQ0 5)
5)
1;
arctan [sinh(LQ0 5)]l
4Zi,-
Zt
tr
"..] ZrLl
arcran rerq" )l + lî.
tv-'
)
[sech(LQos.; tanh(LQo
87r,
- 2f
,a"--
Residual Heat Transfer Through Pipe

Shoes
Heat transfer through plate surfaces is much simpler
than more complex surfaces, because they can be handled with one-dimensional equations that are simple to
use. Based on Figure 3-17, we consider the heat balance
down throush the shoe as follows:
1)
\l
+ arctan [sinhtLQo'y]l
etLao
i
5i
-2, [;L..,* r.'o"r] * z,r]

-l
B-441
For practical applications in the refining, petrochemical, and gas processing industries, sufficient accuracy
may be obtained by omitting the last term beginning with
(6.536 x 10-?) in the calculations.
Similarly, for stainless steel, the thermal deflection
equation is as follows:
6.,
2&
Z) [8.96 +
(4.1
Ix
10
(106)Qo
)Z]
arctan
(eLQ0
(3-45)
Like Equation 3-44, Equation 3-45 can be adequately

handled using only the first three terms. The use of these
equations will be demonstrated in the examples.
- zr
e:Loo
5)
e2LQo
-------l1
..
42t.
l0o
t0-
(109
x ro ,7]L
x ro ,z'L
(6.536,l0-?)
't---
(2.Oss
(3-41)
The function, c(t), is the coefficient of thermal expansion for the particular material being considered. Values
of the thermal expansion were curve fitted over a large
range of temperature and a relation in terms of temperature was obtained for various materials. The function for
t(x) is obtained from Equation 3-36 and is substituted
(342)
@(t)t(x) dx
2[5.89
135
5)
Figure 3-17. Pipe supported on a shoe.
136
/Heat conducted rhrough\
shoe to base
plate
(Heat loss by convection from'l

shoe to outside
l
/- \
air
.-t
Writing in equation form, we have for one-dimensional,

steady state flow:
k.A,
l:l = hJp(ar)
(D'
go"F
(3-46)
sos'r
8o3'F
For the conduction process, At : ti - tp

For the convection process, At : tp - to
Substituting into Equation 346, we have
Ue.
8O3"F
l=hoAp(tp-r.)
Solving for to, we have
'-888'F
8sa"F
. _ k-A.t, + hoApl-to'^.F
'n- 1L.a. + trrl"I-r
where
A. :
Ao =
h^ =
k:
L:
(P
x length of shoe) x 2,
(3-47)
Figure 3-18A. Thermal gradient through pipe clamp, clevis,
in.2
\ length of shoe. in 'z

free convection coefficient for shoe to air,
Base width
and supporting rod.
Btu/hr-ft2-'F
thermal conductivity of shoe material,
Btu/hr-fc"F
shoe height, in.
Like the analysis for cylinders, the free convection coefficient, h., can be substituted with a forced convection
coefficient. However, most pipe shoes are surrounded by
enough obstructions to prevent a direct wind from blowing on the shoe for any length of time. Figures 3-18a and
3-18b show thermal gradients for various simple pipe
A'
0.131
From Figure 3-4, ht

Calculating T",
h {D'
\Di
supports.
2t)
/
/r rr\
r. = l=l
u.
EXAMPLE
3-l: STEAM TRACING
DESIGN
Determine the steam tracing requirements for an S-in.

Schedule 40 gas-vapor line with a minimum process temperature of 140'F. The piping insulation is 2rlz in. caliium silicate, 9-inch nominal IPS. The system is to be
designed for an ambient temperature of 0"F and a 15
mph wind. The tracing medium will be 150 psig steam,
aid tlz-in. copper tubing without HTC will be used for
kr
following:
A" =
3.63
ft
0.41e
2.5
0.256 ft
0.08
From Figure 3-5, h"
U. =
o.+rs
(2.0X0.04)
4.5 (assuming At
50'F)
0.292
Formulating a heat balance for t}re system we have the
following:
Qr (ah space to
tracing.
We first try using two tracers running alongside bottom of process pipe. Calculating the areas we have the
ft'?
Q2 (tracer to
atm) :
air space)
(0.292)(3.63)(140) : 148
Btu/hr
(2.5)(0.131)(2)Q26) : 147
Btu/hf
The assumed number of tracers is inadequate for 1

1.3.
Equipment
137
I.=9OO"F= PROCESS FLUID TEMPERATUBE
rr i-1 n-l
t___
olo
ol
I
H_-
'{"1 ltll!'1-
*---l
'-
Figure 3-188. Thermal gradient through PiPe clamP support.
D.
Trying three tracers, we have
Qr :
Q: =
in.
D" + 2ti :8.0
0.667 ft;
+ 2(2.0)
12.0in.
1.0ft
148 Btu/hr
221 Btu/hr
Since Qz
> (f)Qr,
0.667
2(0.167)
,n [o.ooz
A" =
2.095 ft'?lft;
A-^ :
o 216
EXAIIIPLE 3-2: HOT OIL TRACING DESIGN

A 3-in. schedule header contains asphalt which is to be
maintained at least to 445'F. The 3-in. header is to be
traced with hot oil (Ce : 0.50 Btu/lb-'R p = 58.7 lbl
ft3 at 475"F). Determine the size and number of hot oil
tracers required to maintain the asphalt at a minimum
temperature of 450'F. For asphalt, Cp : 0.368 Btu/lb"F at 500"F.
For most applications, l/z-in. copper tubing is the standard size for tracing operations. We select a l/z-in. 18
BWG gauge steel tube, At : 0.131 ftlft, k^ : 27.5
Btu-ft/hr-ft2-'n First we will try one tracer,
3.50 + 0.50 :
the system is adequate using three
tracers.
Di :
8.00
4.00 in. :
0.333
ft
12
Ap
o.ol8 fr:
ft :
At :
hr"
0.33[ffiu'.*r,,J:
tr"
hr"
I
5.059
0.203 rt
0.131 ft'?lft
ft
r't,
+ eh,:3.992 + (0.90)(1.185) :
1-0203+
u" 0.1
t' - j1
2n,
0'690
0.345
0.667
0.916 ft2lftl'
2(1.0)
+ zro.roull
5.059
= u^:0.449
Now performing a heat balance we have

350'F and tn, : 490"F. Using Equations 3-6 through
3-11 with 70'F ambient,
t, =
138
qt :
n,
- 70) :
(0.449)(2.095)(350
_ 0., (sso -:sojo" =

0.s
263.383 Btu/hr-ft
z.z:o
:
q2 :
: 258.680 Btu/hr-ft
Q.25)(O.131X550 - 345) : 60.4248tts/hr-ft
q3: (1.383X0.916)(497 .50 - 345.00) : 193.191
qt
qr =
1.375X0.916)(520
qa
jt
< 2qt
Qt
t)1 sl
(ffi/
-
Consider t"
ro
350) = 214.1l5 Btu/hr-ft
ott'tsso - +ro'
172.174 Btu'lhr-ft
<
2q3
:
qz :
q3 :
qt
0.5
(::L
roo)"'
(0.449)(2.095X300
216.351 Btu/hr-ft
129t = No balance
consider t" : 350'F and to, : 456"p
qq
q2 = Q.236)(0.131)(550 q3 = (1.375X0.916)(500 (0.449)(2.09s)(350
:
350) :
350)
I 'tt s\
9" = Qt 1:::--: -1(0.018X550
\u.J+),/
jq <
2q3
Consider
r,,
70)
263.383 Btu/hr-ft
58.583 Btu/hr-ft
188.925 Btu/hr-ft
450)
286.957 Btu/hr-ft
No balance
t" = 345'F
and te2
+10"
= os(try#,
=
2.25
445)
301.304 Bruihr_ft
No balance
Since we have reached the minimum desirable temperatures for q and to, it is clear that the system will not balance using one Uz-in. tracer. Therefore, we will use two
t/z-inch tracers. Referring to Figure 3-2b we consider the
4.645
in.
0.387
ft
0.720
ft
ti:2in. :0.167ft
Q.364)(0.131X550 - 300) : 77.421 Bttlhr-ft

1.454)(0.916Xs50 - 300) : 266.373 Bttlhr-ft
t)1 \\
q^ = t2) l-::-:l (0.018)(550 - 450) = 286.957 Btu/hr-ft
\u.J4)/
qt =
:
D" = 8.645 in. :
r.+s+
70)
q4
D;
- ruul : 2.364
'- l))u
-'-' : 0.5
0.5
\
I
\u.J+)/
following:
300"F and te2 : 450oF.
h,
hp
tr1 sl
(2t l_:i_:- l{0.018X550
350) = 58.583 Btu/hr-ft
No balance
70)
q4
9z
Btu/hr-ft
25
/ssn - rso\o
:r.375
hp:0.5(""ffiJ
t2.236t(0.t31x550
(o.449)Q.095X345
445'F
Di * 2tr , iDr + 2t,l

' = _-_2 lnl\D, l|:0.224
_
'1"
A"
2r(0.360)
2.262 ft'?lft
h,":033[sffiffi,,t:,,,,
h- :
hr.
+ eh, :
1.996
(0.90X1.185)
|
* -l = U^ = 0.390
u" -0'224
0.1 3.063
t^ : 2tr(2.323) - 2(0.886)(2.323) :
: 0.873 ft
r, : t' =
2n,
0 873
2(2)
3.063
10.479 in.
= o.ztsft
A. = 0.018 ft: Ap = 0.916 ft?/ft

consider t" : 350'F and to, : 490'F h, : 2.236i
hp : 1'375
q : (0.390)(2.262)(350 -'t0) : 247.010 Btu/hr-ft
q2 : Q.236)(0.131X550 - 350) : 58.583 Btu/hr-ft
q3 - 1.175 )(0.916X520 - 350) : 214.ll5 Btuihr-ft
A, = 0.13t fP/fl:
r,": o.s({q::g)'" = 1.383
9a
/rt.\
t2\Qt l '1j". | (0.018X550

1d/
\u.z
490)
544.954 Btu,/h.:
139
Consider
350'F and tp2 : 500'F
(2.236X0.131)(550 (1.375)(0.916)(525 -
(0.390X2.262X350
9r
9:
q. -
70)
:
3s0) :
-
58.583 Btu/hr-ft
V=
220.4r3 Bt'tlhr-ft
V=
500)
454.128 Btu/hr-ft
5o
-,"tut
(100)f(454.128) Btu/hr-ft
VDP
^, _
Nn"
{e38 08)ce
45,412.8 Btu/hr
Nn"
:
_
22,706.422 Btulhr
(c08.2s7)
= -, _--
908.257 lb/hr
t
,r, .i, \
I--nr lz.+s
4l
lll .
rr / \ou mln/
\
'
hrz
1.86(NnJr"(N,)'' (P)'i3
t.ezy gpm
A jacketed pipe shown in Figure 3-1b is to be analyzed. The process fluid to be heated is a film coating
mixture used in the manufacture of roofins tiles.
ln (ry'rr)
(e38.08)ce
kz,:
lb/ftr: C-
l+l
[o/
nr
-^
:
D
hr.,
Btu
hr-fr-'F
,654.733
4 026
to.:+r,oB-tu,
/ rr'\
'" t,-rJ
1.86(3.242)r
0 336:
r (7.654.733)r
L=
'
loo
(H)
rt
'
f',, = 2.415-Tnr-rt'- - f
h:
For hot oil in annulus,

[6] recommends
For film coating in inner tube,

95.909
1.0. Thus, we have
'(#)(10)#.F
1.0
o=
/, , -,lo \
ofChapter 1 and size pumps to handle the hot oil. (Chapter 6 discusses how to select the pumps required to distribute the oil in the system.)
EXAMPLE 3-3: JACKETED PIPE DESIGN
(3-16)
H [:)."
N".:f
Thus, we see that two l/2-in. tracers containing hot oil

flowing at I .929 gpm is adequate to maintain the asphalt
at a minimum temperature of 450'F. The next step in the
design is to do a hydraulic analysis using the principles
ra
Laminar flow
In most instances, the ratio plpw
(58.D*
ra
ht z
3.242
<< 2,100 +
l\ ill
*p
For laminar flow, we have [2]
22,706.422 Btu/hr for each tracer
(0.5) Btu/lb-'F (50)'F
I t4.026)in. Ull,n.7 '- lb 160h,secl

sec
1,,
'" ""ttr \ /
b'rL\
or,
q
#h
(+,J F*r'J (,-r',J Hg)
(j.781)
Therefore, the system is balanced.

For 100 ft of pipe,
500'F; k:0.1
3.781 ft/sec
qr>2qandq2+q3>qr
9r
Co at
247.010 Btu/hr-ft
3s0)
t1'7 al
(2x2) l^'-:j" l(0.018)(550
\u.l r6/
p=938.08
0.34
Btu
-
lb-'F
NN"
0.020
Di/D.
^9,'*"1,,(*]'
0.664
>
0.2, and Perry
140
Mechanical Design of Process Sysrems
For the annulus,
Rs
Now,
hydraulic 1361r,
4Rn
1.566
3 033
in. =
0.131
--
2 250
.-
0.392 in.
ft
For hot oil flowing at 0.5 gpm
Nr"
''
"* (
: 0.75t Rr''
"ts
UA(LMTD)
oil, At =
toH
toc
100'F and,
.' - ..r. Btu

th-'F
'
Iu
rorR-r,'l
,0.,r,a"
required
ricpat
For hot
/rCo
^, "p,
7.80)ftr(72.135).F
It-nr-
q-hr
-- 6,381.625 lI ,, ,n" heat transfer
]9:99:
- ),0n.24r
(0.1s)( L566)
(4o.ro7r
'\|i2.+ co / ,0.r, lb-'F
.nr
m:-:
Btu
" n7r
"' ' hr-fC'F/fr
n
6,381.625
0.5
Btu
Rtrl
127.$21!
hr
ooo).F
lb-'F'
Now,
Nr" =
0.020(5,01 r.24D0.8(z.s3s)'t3
_ NN,k
1^
(0.*U*)*'
ze.r2r
Err'
(29.121){0.071) ntu
0.131
hr-ft'/-"F/ft
th
ft
ftr
Btu
rs.rs:hr-fC-"F
rr
-
|13.033) +
L
For t/z gpm,
(3.033) ln (2.2so/2.0r3)
2.4rs
1 l-'
-, 15r$l
ft']-hr-'F
q:
A-
1.178
fPlft
outside surface area of inner

tube
117.800
ft, for
100
500'F and
t. :
459'P
459'P
For hot oil,
ton
550'F and
LMTD
to.
72.135"F
I1,771.400 Btu/hr
Thus, 0.5 gpm is a sufficient flow rate to transfer the required heat to the film coating mixture.
ft ofpipe
In hot oil applications it is common to assume that the hot

oil decreases in temperature 100'F per 10 feet in jacketed and traced systems. For the film coating mixture,
Rr"
'
or
heat transfer area
tcn
lh
(0.5) _= (t00)oF
I- = (235.428) _:
hr lb-'F
Ri,r
A:
0.271 gpm required
EXAMPLE 3.4: THERMAL EVALUATION OF

A PROCESS TAilK
A coating surge tank contains 6,000 gal of fill coating
mix (see Figure 3-19). Two problems musr be solved: (a)
how many degrees per hour can be obtained from a
clamped-on jacketed system, when the fill coating mixture is static; (b) how many degrees per hour can be obtained from a clamped-on jacketed system, when the fill
Equipment
141
= (92X0.8)
= 73.60 ftz
shell = (379.347X0.8)
= 303.478 ft'?
Flanged and dished head

@0O gal
f.1.537
ol
4-internal heat transfer panels
12.82 lb/gal
cP=
o'g+
:
:
4(107)(12)/1,14
35.667 ft2
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U-value, supplied by the panel manufacturer for applications to the
fill coating mix is as follows:
Process Conditions (as determined by process engineers
COATING MIXTURE
or client for desired capability of tank):

Initial temperature of coating mixture = 360'F
Final temperature of coating mixture = 400'F
For internal panels, U : 9.52 Btu/hr-ft2-'F
For external clamp-on jacketing, U : 4.00 Btu/hr-ft2"F
Substituting into the previous equation for At we have
-'^, _
-
(9.52x35.667)(LMTD)
(4.0X377.078XLMTD)
(?6,110 ooxo 34l
at:7.410'F/hr
COATING MIXTUR AT
TEMPERATURE t
Referring to Figure 3-19 we can now determine how

fill coating mix will rise using
external clamp-on jacketing on surfaces of the flanged
and dished head, the vessel shell, and four internal panmany degrees per hour the
Figure 3-19. Coating surge tank.
els just considered:
Q
-
(60)
oal
min
lb
":' (12.82)'gal
:hr" (150)'min
-
x 0.34 Btu (t lb-'F'
coating mixture is flowing through the tank at 150 gpm

ar 360"F.
From Figure 3-10, we have
LMTD
: (550-360)-(450-4oo)
:
and Q :
with Q
[sso
'" t4so
:104.869'F
:ool
4ool
mceAt
UA(LMTD)
UA(LMTD)
{6.000)gal(12.82)
39,229.20(t
UA(LMTD)
39,229.20(t
gal
=
(9.s2)(35.667)(LMrD)
LMTD
th
360) Btu/hr
Now,
1,847.862(LMTD)
DLp
360)'F
2L.230(t'
360)
39,229.2O(t'
8)(LMrD)
39,229.20(t'
360)
(4.0)(377 .U
360)
360)
Now,
76.920.00 lb
Using heat transfer panels shown in Figure 3-12 we

compute the toial available heat transfer area as follows:
(550-360)-(450-r')
|'"t450-tl
1550 -
3601
21.23(t'
360)
142
Solving for t,
wP:
(21.23r'
(110.394t',
,642.80)
39,841.956)
ln (450
Or el.0
eln
WP:
"t
(450
t')Y
0,68
in.'?
4a(W)
length (see page 145)
A = 2(O.4125)'? + 2(O.412r'1 :
A
0.681 in.'l
^''
WP -1.158 in.
366.12'F
366.12'F - 360"F :
D : 4RH :
6.12'F
The amount of heat required for the system is
0.681 in.2
0.862 in.
The equivalent circular cross-sectional area

: 0.584 in.'?
r(0.431)'?
The hot oil properties are as follows:
UA(LMTD)
(9.52)(3s.667)(LMrD)
(4.0X377.078)(LMrD)
_ 550"F -
450'F
500'F {since we anticipale

in the plates)
OI
W: a:0.4125 in.
W : effective heat transfer
where
Thus, the temperature rise is
:
Q:
cross-sectional f low area
A:2Yr+2wY
After several iterations, t' :
(450-r')Y
in which 2.718
at :
: (--.Jo*t*
r')
* ,642.80)
Letting y _
- 39,841.956)
we have 1.0 : ln (450 - t'y
(21.23t'
(l 10.394t'
wetted Perimeter
Velocity of hot oil through baffles
1,847.862(LMTD)
Now,
LMTD
1550
- 390) (450 - _366,12) =

. lsso -:oo
ln |
1t9.789.F
[4s0
p:
58.7 lb/fc
k:
0.071
Cp
in which Q
1,847 .862(129.7 89)
239,832. 162 Btul
hr is the heat transferred to the coating mix.
EXAMPLE 3.5: THERMAL DESIGN OF

PROCESS TANK
7.913 ft/sec
Btu/hr-ftl"F/ft
o.5o Btu/lb-'F
366.12l
-l
'a =
0.15
/^ +. ..rD/rl-nrl
," . \
c- lz
'\
1Co I -
0.3b0 tb/lr-hr
The maximum pressure drop permitted through the internal baffles, which are connected in parallel, is normally 10 psi, thus
*l\Re -- VDp
The coating surge tank of Example 3-4 is now analyzed for detailed heat transfer requirements. The flow
rates through the various types of heat transfer jacket
(7.e*)
r-t
l-
l'
l,rr.r,
\ll ln./
(0.862) in. {-.1.
sec
plates are desired.
0.360
g (lql..'*)
rr-
\ I nr
Ib
ft-hr
lntelna! Baffle Plates Film Goefficient

Some of the plates used are shown in Figure 3-12.
Looking at Figures 3-20, 3-21, and 3-22 we determine
the hydraulic radius as follows:
Nr" =
N"':
333'661
(0.360)
,j:lh
lu.v/lr-
(0.501
Btu
Rr
:j:
't <l<
From Kern
29 BTU/hr-t12-"F/fl
ri :0.44in =O.O37 tt
143
K23:
[],
- : = ro.o27r ([) ,t-.,.,

I
/tl-
r. = {0.027)
r. =0.545 in = O.O45
,N,,,' ' (uJ"'"
thn
tt
Btu
'hr-ft2-'F/f
llrt
l2 in.i
ro.aozrin.
x
1.
. = qsl R? Btu
(333,661f
(2.535)1/r (1.0)
is the film coefficient
hr_fd_.F inside the jacket baffles

located inside the tank
Actual Internal Baftle Hot Oil Plate
Film Coefficient Exte?nal to

Baff les-Forced Convection
The coating mixture inside the tank is in a state offlow
across the baffle plates made possible by agitator blades
powered by an electric motor. From Perry [61.
rtt =
U.U9
i r\ir-:r.r.o\."
/c-J''
"I
l-ll
l!l
p
\DJ \
/ \k/
Approximated as Circular Tubes

Figure 3-20. Cross section of panel plate tube approximated
as a
'h9'^
ni =
("il'kl'
number of internal baffle plates
(3-48)
cylinder whose surface area is equivalent to the heat trans-
fer of contact area.
For coating mix, 10r < NR" < 2 x 106

The properties of the mix are as follows:
p:
A
k=
95.909 lb/ft3
6,000 Co
14,400 lb/ft-hr
0.1 Btu/hr-ft-'F
Other properties related to the internal baffle plate approximated as a string of cylinders with diameters equal
to four times the hydraulic radius of the trapezoid plate
sections shown in Figures 3-20 and 3-21.
\6 =
angular velocity of agitator, revolutions/hr
\. -
56
/-^ \
11 lgel'nl
min
\ lhr
3360 revrhr
Lp
diameter of agitator plate
Dj
10.0
ft
D" = 0.862 in.
65
in.
5.42 ft
HEATING AREA: A.
t= STRAIGHT SECTION BETWEEN CHANNELS
Figure 3-21. String of tubes.
144
k:
h,q
Mechanical Design of Process Systens

0.071 Btu/hr-ft2-.F/ft
0 0e (oo
r-)
+:r't:'log.o
['s
[(o
^[
h:.+
or
'qs
eoqJ'^'
r4){ r4.4oo)1,
lT -
[i^] o^- *
{lJ2l l]),'
(0.I) l
t\2/
110.0/
\41
Now, to solve for the overall heat transfer coefficient,

U, we must develop the appropriate equation.
the overall area of plate
L=
length of plate,
W:
lr;h1
(1.0)
18.334 Btu/hr-ft2-.F for all four baffle plates
Let Ao
E'l I u * r" rn tr,rr,r - _r l

2ur
k,
h,
for these baffle plates,
,,
" -it\
n=
7, for which
7o
[(jJto
--l
to:'
i:]
LW
I|
width of plate
- art"'
(0.045t ln (0.431 /0.32b)
I
18.334
[(0.326X949.883)
Referring to Figures 3-20 and 3-21 we have
UAa
(tr
ta) for baffle plate
Ar :
u = 29.492 Btu
hr-ftr-'F
sr
The baffle plate area for all four baffles is determined

from the baffle plate manufacturer's dimensions, as follows:
LW : wetted area : 2oD rL

where W : werred perimeter (WP)
LJ
| = '2 D" + r' . n = number of flow circuits
Length of channel per
baffle
To account for the residual heat transferred through the

plate connecting the hexagon tubes we consider
to be
the equivalent radius of a cylinder that is the total surface
A=
surface area
2210.431)i"
area of the baffle plate separating the hexagon tubes.

Now,
A:
lt.672 fe
D, :
For all four baffle plates,
r'
Zor'
,o,u, distance between channels (Frgure 3-21)
rsl.72t rr)
{.:-tf)
ln./
\rz
A=
It
Heat Duty of lnternal Baffle Plates
UA.
{f
I - t1) 2T(tr
r"
"-T-
finl-2
4(tr.672) ft2
46.690 ft2
For hot oil the anticipated temperature through each

plate is 100'R as stated earlier, thus
From above,
2trlJ
\.r
lzr
1t,
r" ln (r./r)
ta1
q:
I
L
Kt I
UAAT
Rr',
q - (29.492J, "-1:1,
(46.690)ft,
nr-It'- -f
ta) n
--f
in which
U:
ft
= Dt
2tr
q=
51.'123
137,698,1a8
(100).F
f.!
nr
Outside Heat Transfel Jaeket Plates
D,Iq*r"lntr./r't
* hrII
k:
[r,hr-z
In the case of external jacket plates, the heat transfer

parameters are based on the dimension,
shown in
Equipment
-tgure 3-22, because it is this surface that is in contact

rth the vessel wall. Consequently we can analyze the
^
: xfiguration in Figure 3-22 as a tube with circumfer::re'e of W. Hence, we have the following:
:
.rhere rr :
i;r1 =
Y7
where
1.375 in.
At =
tube cross flow area
At =
r(0.219)1
0.151 in.':
tube inside radius, in.

Velocity of hot oil through outside plates
:iom above,
: =
;
175
Yz
0.21C in. or
D,
9.433 in.
V2
3.134 ftlsec (determined from process data)
internal cross flow area of baffle plate

plate manufacturer's data)
The tube equivalent flow rate for the length W mapped

:nto a circle or radius rr is by the continuity condition of
iluid mechanics,
145
(3.134)
vr-
sec
(0.62) in.,
o.Lsrin:
= 6.448
0.62
ln.2 (from
:sec
vDp
I'r
(6.448)
lll'l
a
in.
sect0.438r I
\12
(0.360)
Nn"
in.i
,s8
7, 'g i{rylecl
in.1 \ | hr /
lL
tt-hr
138,150.85
Solving for the over-all heat transfer coefficient, U, we

have
w= 1.375 in
1.,1o.
PCo
h,,
(0.027)
w = eflective heat transfer area

For approximalion, analyze the ligure as a tube with a
2Tr
circumference
j = 'l.375
in which,
rz = O.219 in., or D2
= 0.438
2.535
(H1.ol ,rrr,rro r5)0s (2.535),/, (1.0)
h',,- = 77.260
in.
Btu
hr-ft2-'F
Equivalent llow,
13 1341/|) 111
Perry [6] gives the correlation for heat transfer for jacketed walls to the agitated liquid as follows:
6.448 fusec
Thus for the equivalent tube,

rz = 0.219 in.
rs = 0.219 + 0.109 = 0.328 in.
r+ = 0.328 + 0.375 = 0.703 in.
''
c,
: "(;)t')1'(9^k)'
where, tq
Dj
k
Equivalent Cylinder
LP
N,
Figure 3-22. Panel total flow cross section. Contact length w
is mapped into an equivalent circular tube whose circuinference equals w.
(3-49)
film coefficient at vessel wall (see Figure 3-22)

inside diameter of the vessel, ft = 10.0 ft
0.1 Btu/hr-ft-'F
diameter of agitator = 5.42 ft
angular velocity, or rotation of agitator
3,360 rev/hr
95,909 lb./fC
146

14,400 lb/fi-hr
.u=l t
speciflc heat of coating mix

viscosity at bulk temperature, lb/ft-hr
viscosity at wall temperature, lb/ft-hr
see Table
3-l
(0.703 )
samples.
For a disk. flarblade turbine agitator we find values

for a. b, and M from Thble 3-1 as follows:
a:0.54,b = 2A,M:0.14
since40 ( l38,l5l < 3 x 105
following:
,*,(,*)[
(14,400)
,
=
14.060
:ltr+,+ool]"'
lto
II
I lr
: 8.141 Btu
hr-ftr-'F
From manufacturer's drawings, the shell jacket plare
A,
heat transfer area,
A:
is
37,043.82 in.'?
Now,
area of channels in all nine jacket shell plates
clamped-on to outside of shell
A' :
l-
(0.73) ln (0.328/0.219)
ln r0.703/0.328)
257
.249
ftl
Ar = 100"F for
(s.42t(3,360.0X9s.909
14.06-l
A' :
substituting above values into Equation 3-49 we have the
h,,.
'
l(0.2t9)(71 .26)
Laboratory tests were made on the coating mix and the

results showed that p6lp* : 0.65. Since the coating mix
is a non-Newtonian fluid, it is strongly recommended
that the physical properties be deterrnined by a qualified
Iaboratorl,. the ratio p5lp* should reyer be assumed to be
I .0 for a non-Newtonian fluid without laboratory tests of
fluid
(0.703
{8.14lr
hot oil-coaring mix servicc

Rr'
'
.nr-It':i-_r25t.24o1ft
t
-
(100)'F
or
,o.ur',o,o
q=
Btu
209
.414.44
Rr,'
--:
nr
hr-fC-'F
Thus,
II
Heat Duty of Jacket Plates Clamped to

Bottom Vessel Head
The bottom head panel sections are depicted in Figure
l-17. In Chapter 1, Example 1-2 we analyzed the hydraulics for the hot oil flow through the panels mounted
Table 3-1
Values of Constants for Equation 3-49

Feynolds Number
Agitator
Disk, flat-blade
Range
: V:
: V:
7.315 fi/sec
5.237 ft/sec
0.14
40<NR.<3x105
Heat Duty for Bottom Head Inner Panels
2lt
,/3
2h
0.24
0.14
80<NR"<200
Nn" = 2000
3oo<NR"<3
Similar to the shell panel plates above, we must compute the equivalent tube diameter and equivalent velocity. As determined above the equivalent radius is
Paddle
Helical ribbon
0.633 Vz
turblne
Propeller
innerpanel
outerpanel
2lz
0.54
0.53
0.54
0.36
turbine
Pitched-blade
on the tank. From this analysis we determined the following velocities required to obtain l0 psi pressure drop
through the panels:
0.21
0.
l8
105
8<NR.<105
rr :
0.219 in.
S.lce the bottom baffles have the same flow area as the
.rell plates, the cross flow area of the equivalent tube is
q'
i = n(0.219) in.2 :
in which
0.151 in.2
uA
at = (8.s90). lr)-hr-ftr-'F
Btu
re cross flow area inside the plate channel is found
1r.+r+)n,
147
lroo;"r
for both two inner plates
h,
::om the manufacturer's catalog to be 0.31 in.2. Since
Equipment
:e
equivalent tube circumference is equal to the contact

::mension, w, as above we must compute the equivalent
..locity. Thus
Heat Duty for Bottom Outer Panels

(7.315)
-quivalent velocity
= Y.
-:'
sec
0.151
(0.31)in.2
tcutvatent \ etoclt\
in.'z
/r\ r58.7 rr3.600

l-l
lt/sec
322,453.78
.:
(0.027)
l9J11l r:zz.+s:.28)0" {2.535,r
'r { 1.0)
\u.4J6/
:..:152.2ll
Btu
/^ ^--\
- {0.027) lfffl
'hell
film coefficient is the
same as
for the
Thus,
(0.703) (0.73) ln {0.70Ji0.J281

mt(02lrr(15, rr1- -
,' - |
f'n,
29
.l.l+,SlO
in. (1.375) in. (2)
,,
"
-,
u
heat transfer area of bottom head plates from

rhe manufacturer's data the flow path length is 388.231
in. for one half of the head, hence,
1,067.635 in.2
ft2
heat duty
area of the two inner head plates
ro.703 r ln
(t.trr:,
29
/^ -^^\
/urI
lu
\0.328/,
2s
34'l
rn lo
\0.219/
'
I I'
r+.st+)
: o.lg+ Bt'
hr-ftr- "F
A:
heat transfer area
A=
4(1,014.389) in. (1.375)
in. =
5,579.140 in.2
OI
A=
OI
'1.414
--!$nr-rI'--t
| 0.703 _
tO) 9,( t 16:0l,
I
14.914)
A:
1 = (18$.231)
,nr-lt'-'f
:tu^=
Eli,
'
r, :8.590. :i^=
nr-tt'-'t
A:
q:
1t6.303
Thus,
Btu
-. : t+.gt+hr-ftr-'F
Let
h,, =
panels,
(0.703) ln (0.703/0.328)
rz.lo..lss.:41)0b r2.s35) '(1.01
\0.438/
Similarly as for inner panels,
hr-fP-"F
The vessel-side
i.r.
lu. /f
0.160
h,2
'-..
0. 151
10.75l,(0.438r
Nn.
\-
(5.237rt0.31
38.'144 ft2 for all four outer panels
UA
At =
(6.394)(38.7 44)( 100)
24,772.333
ry
hr
148
Total Heat Duty of Tank

At maximum flow
rates the total heat duty is as fol-
lows:
q=
Btu
137,698.148
hr
209,414.44
internal
shell side
panels
panels
Btu
hr
6,368.11
24,772.333
two nner
q=
Btu
EXAIIPLE 3.6: TRANSIENT AND STATIC

HEAT TRANSFER DESIGN
hr
Roofing shingles are made by adding asphalt, filler

material, granules, talc and adhesives to a plastic-glass
sheet, which is the basic component of the roof shingle.
The process is shown schematically in Figure 3-23.
Granules are added last, after adhesives and talc. The
sheet must be cooled so that workers can handle it with
gloves. Cooling is accomplished by water sprays, circulating water through the rollers, and using radiant heat
transfer to the surroundings. The sheet, once cooled to
the desired temperature, is cut into specified dimensions
by mechanical cutters and then packaged into boxes for
Btu
hr
four outer
panels on
panels on
bottom head
bottom head
378,253.631
P!!
hr
From Example 3-4 the total heat duty required is
q-t
shipment.
There are two aspects to this problem-static heat

transfer and transient heat transfer. First, we solve the
static conditions and then the transient case to determine
how fast the sheet can be cooled with the coolins svstem
designed in the static case.
23g,832.rc28:
nr
Now,
q:
Thus, the minimum hot oil flow rate in pipe header supplying the total hot oil to surge tank is 10 gpm, the actual
flow rate is 16 gpm.
rh cp At
Static Heat Transfer Analysis

Elr"
373.253.631
{0.50)
Rrrl
:t:
"-
7,s65.073
(
tb-'F
l00toF
The static criteria to be determined are as follows:
l!
nt
1. Specific heat of the composite sheet (Table 3-2).
2.
Mean temperature of the sheet leaving the granule
section flhble 3-3).

Elr'r
239
flnln
,832.162
:::
nt
(0.50) Btu { 100).F

tb-'F
4.", :
7,s65.073
5s.7
4.796.64
th
nr
P
nr
/r.+a gur\
\ri/
!ftr
Table 3-2
Specitic Heat of Composite Sheet Leaving Granule
lb 0/o by wt.
6.30 L9785
Component wt.,
Glass mat
16.067 gpm
87.32
96.08
Asphalt
120.58
Filler
4.796.640
th
:nr
58.7.]9'
n'
7.48 gall
\- r/
f
Granules
Thlc
Adhesives
q4R
)q
t;0-
Cp
0.2
2',7.4220
o.4
3"t.8682
30.1740
1.9200
0.6375
0.217
0.20
318,42 10000
C, =
10.187 gpm
I
2.03
6. I
Component
0.299 Btuilb-'F
o.2
0.50
o/o
ol
Cp
o.395'7
10.9688
8.217 4
6.0348
4.0128
0.3188
29.9483
3.
Table 3-3
Mean Temperature ol Sheet
80'F
400'F
(1.978s)(0.2X80
t^) + (27.422)(0.4)(400
.8682)(0.22)(400
t.)
(30.17398X0.2)(t. - 80) + (1.92)(0.2Xt(0.6375X0.5)(r. - 80) 31.656 - 0.396 t,
(37
0.2
o.2
0.5
80"F
10.969
6.035 t.
25.50
where
t. :
t^ +
3332.402
482.',784
313.633'F
8.331
0.384
t. -
t.
30.720
149
Heat to be removed from sheet and amount of wa-
ter required.
Leaving Granule Section

Q = mcp At for each component
Temp. of component
Component prior to mixing Cp Eo by wt.
0.2 1.9785
80'F
Glass
400'F
0.4 2'7.422
.A.sphalt
400'F
0.22 37 .8682
Filler
Granules
Talc
Adhesives
Equipment
30.17398
r.92
0.63"75
t,)
0.319
t- :
313.63'F (from Table 3-3)
At:313.63 -212 =
Specific heat of sheet :
weight of sheet
101.63"F
0.299 Btu/lb-'F
0.9375lb/ft2
Thus, the amount of heat to be removed per

square foot is
mCpAt
(0.9375X0.299)(101.63)
29.49
3.0
t.
.t 2t
Btu/ft'?
b. Sensible heat loss through rollers

Btu/hr
+
-+ 80)
4387.520
a.
106
c. Heat loss through forced convection and radiation of heat passing through air medium is determined as follows:
At
313.63
90 223.63"F = temperature
difference between sheet and ambient air
t
]
|I
FINAL
COMPONENT
Figure 3-23. Process of manufacturing roof shingles.
'150
For convection,
Q:
For 600 shingles/hr (or 144,000 Btu/hr) the heat removal

would be : (144,000X0.9375)(O.299)(313.63 - 125)
hAAt
=
h."^ :
For flowing air, h,in

Use
h. =
removal>
Thus. Total heat
t2
s.708
fr2
For vaporization,
Qv
Heat removal
requtled
and the cooling system is adequate.
For radiation,
h,
7.614 mm Btu/hr
23 Btu/hrtfP l"F
/6R
{r
";:-'(l)
:
2 Btu/hrlft2/.F
50 Btu/hr/ftrl.F
,l
29 Btu/ft,
104,400.00 Btu/min
For water, h1,
- t':")l
(tr
t - tz)
q:
1,000 Btu/bb
F.Fo lo(tr"
At 600 fpm, we have,
Fe:1.01 F": e =
h. : (0.90)(1.0)
0.90; o
0.173
10-8
1r)4 400
;*;
104.40 lbi
min
amounl of water required
Thus,
104.40
h,
gpm =
1.857 Btu/hr/ft,/"F
g
mtn
th
12.518 gpm
8.34:
gal
Thus, the water pump to be used is to be sized

gpm at a terminal exit pressure of 200 psi.
Total Heat Removal
:
Q = h1A(At) :
hr
h" + h.
23.000
1.857
24.857 Btuthttfet"F
(24.8s7X5.708) (223.63)
Btu/hr
3r,729.464
for
13
Transient Heat Transfer Analysas

This method is based on the Fourier analysis of unsteady-state heat conduction. The following assumptions
are made:
l.
Water Required for Cooling
Let Qv
2.
solid.
heat removed by vaporization
The heat removed for a sheet 6 feet wide moving at 100
ftlmin
Qv
The composite sheet is approximated by a material

of average conductivity.
The sheet is infinitely long and is an isotropic rigid
is
(100)(6) frrlmin (29) Btu/ft2
17,400 Btu/min
For a sheet velocity of 600 ftlmin,
= 104,400.00 Btu/min
Qv : 6,264,000.00 Btu/hr
Total heat removal : 6,264,000 + 31,'729.464
Qv
Q=
3,000,000
9,295 ,729 .464 Btulhr
Figure 3-23 shows a view of the roofing slab. Assuming that the material is a composite sheet approximated
by an integral sheet of average properties, the temperature distribution is at all times symmetric about the midplane of the slab, thus x = 0 at the center of the sheet.
From Fourier's law of conduction,
AI
= -k-dX
The heat transfer across x = 0 is zero and at the midplane of x : 0 the sheet behaves as a perfect insulatoran adiabatic surface. Consequently, the solution to this
problem applies to a slab that is perfectly insulated at one
Equipment
k
p Cp
Iace, initially at a known temperature, to, and then exposed on one face to a
fluid at a constant temperature,
Temperature of the sheet
= 314'F
Gmperature of the spray water
tr.
t"
90'F
r = 0.90(0.094), .070
125'F.
0.:314-9O=224"F
l
c.
,=r
125
-90:35"F
rn.
150
in. in which
L:
:/:z
For
V.
0.094 in.
o.ott
3-24, NF"
300
0.25 min
0.90
0.2146
min
15 sec
400 ftlrnin,
ft
0.375
min
22.5
sec
Btu/hr-ftl"F
temperature of the water.
Thus,
hr =
The length of the cooling section and the velocity of the

sheet are both fixe.d. The only parameter not fixed is the
Fourier number
From Figure
ft
400 frlmin
k
o'30 :
hL= (300X0.094)
Np.
150
For water,
Surface coefficient (worst condition)
1.070 ft'?lhr
r = 26.'756 = 2'7 sec for 90'water

Approximate
length of sheet exposed to nozzle
splay : 150 ft
Velocity of sheet : V,
For V, : 600 ft/min,
600 ftlmin
3/ro
or
35
=-=0.156
224
Thickness of sheet
U.UO/
ti
Here we are spraying water on the sheet and we wish

to determine the time required for the sheet to reach
0,L=o
0.30
(0.9375)(0.299)
151
d7
L-
r:
NroL2
o.oo417
ct
m/L2
Figure 3-24. Heisler's main chart for the infinite slab [7].
152

(o oo4l7j(
'a
(Nr o),"o
o7o'
0.505
(0.094)'
For a Fourier number of 0.505,
(*).,,-,,
Let
t" :
l)5 Jl+ -
oo,o
lequirad water temperature
r
t,\
in which
uo
t* = -11.86"F
Thus, for a cooling section of 150 feet long, the sheet

moving at 600 ftlmin cannot be cooled to 125'F since
the theoretical value of t* is below freezing.
At V,
=
r=
{Nro),.u.r
ln\
l;l
and is well below the freezing
temperature of water.
lts 314 -
lyzed, -200"F, - 100'F, and -50'F. The skirt is made

of Type 3(X stainless steel and is insulated on the inside
and outside as shown in Figure 3-28. The insulation is
sized for the most extreme process temperature that the
vessel will be exposed to, -200"F. Data used in the example are given in Figure 3-25.
First, determine the natural convection film coefficient for the skirt. The temperature inside the skirt, ti, is
assumed to be five degrees lower than the ambient temperatute, t5.
Lr-tn,
O.3"75 min :
.,.
[', 'L(no,r
I
[7.r1s
Assume h4,5
O*4,
u'i,r:.',n)
iJ-'
r l-,
-hJ
0.275
u4:0.093
499
=
=
0.0063 hr
(0.0063X 1.070)
.:
--j--- =
^:
(u.u94r
0.7568
0.180
t*
and
t* :
83.51'F for a
sheet velocity
of 400 ftlmin
Thus, the sheet can be reasonably cooled while moving at 400 ftlmin. If a velocity of 600 ftlmin is desired,
additional water sprays must be added. However, one
must balance the sheet velocity against the cutting machines and workers' capability to handle the additional
material. It is found in most roof shingle plants that 400
ftlmin is an optimum velocity. As demonstrated, the
transient heat transfer analysis is mandatory in evaluating a system.
EXAMPLE 3-7: HEAT TRANSFER

THROUGH VESSEL SKIRTS
Calculate the temperature distribution down the length
of a vessel skirt. The vessel contains a cold process fluid
that varies in temperature because of cyclic process conditions. Three operating temperatures are to be ana-
4 = 55'F
= 60"F
= 3048-in. :2.573lt
/, = 367,b-in. = 3.073 ft
f3 = 37%-in. - 3.135 ft
/4 = 435//6-in. : 3.635 ft
A^ = (tt - r,2) = l.z0glt,
F - 1(460+ 60) = 0.00'1923
1 = 0.07633 lb/tt3
p = 0.04339 lbfit h
k*, = 0.01466 Btu/h ft "F
kyz 8.0 Blu/h ft.F
ka t = kg-'q = 0.14 Btu/h ft'F
G
t1
NP'
= 0'712
Figure 3-25. Cryogenic pressure vessel with internal and external insulation on the skirt.
,. =
(tr
[*J
- ts) + ts
#[",('[4
['-h
\0.275i
63sx0 27sx-1 69)
ra-1nl.2gsr
s8.31'F
l'3
t
L-t5:58.31 - 60 = -1.69"F
\o, = [d37,gB( Atl)(3,6o0)2]/p,
,,1.
Nc,Np,
C=
2te
213.6tt)
andm
1,14g,9tt,ttt
14
Iturr\t-t
55.00
ln
t-l
\3.073/
1.126'7
57.781'F
-299'P
2(t.
r/:
=6s'1o2
Zle*oo
+z
C(Nq,Np,)-
=
n.1
' =
0.129(l,148,969,155)r/3
(fqi,
I.")
d -
IOOqII
ti - l#l
58.31
(-s)
135.
(0.014661(l35.ll)
7.27
-60:
58.29
t. _
11
0.2125
s8.29"F
t." _
For a cylinder with insulation on both sides,
.:[ffH][dil.*-.19]
z
r+r
/z.sz:\
[l '" \'otr-/
r.1267 ft'?
rl
';T#"'J
57.781
t, : -50"F
(-215.56x2.89).
+ 5? ?Rl
l + (2.89t^
Figure 3-26 shows these distribution curves.

The axial deflection of the skirt will now be calculated
using the first three terms of the stainless steel deflection
equation (Equation 3-45). The hyperbolic terms in the
equation are not necessary when the steel temperature is
greater than -300'F or less than 1000'F,
_
*._
^
2(t.
-f
100'F,
-515.56X2.89)r + (2.89)"
and for
0.02
57.78.1
Similarly for:
r _
I
I t_
= t_t"ro.
[(8Xl.2oe, li
(-515.56)(2.89)-+
1 + (2.89y'
t, : -
:4.275
Q:
Q
For t. :
I + e2*qo
N", :
[ \3.13s/
z:?
7.27 ft
(1,613,720,723)(0.7 12)
> loe
0.129
'(;-.,Jll
Z:65.1O2"F1ft2
Na,:1,613,'720,723
where
sa.:
|ln
6T)' Q2.2)(0.00r923)(r.69)(3,6tJ0)21
(0.04339f
l(7 .27)3(0.07
- t, ll
- -,
'f5)
:l /o.osl\l{-))+bU
153
Z)ls.sa + (4.i1
(2.055
10-3)Zl arctan ielo0
l0-3\z2L
100
(2.055
x l0-rxr" - Z)2(e2oto' - l)
106 eo 5(1 * e2lao )
5;
154
EXAMPLE 3.8: RESIDUAL HEAT TRANSFER

A section of carbon steel process pipe is shown in Figure 3-15c. Three conditions will be analyzed for process
fluids at 900"F.600'F and 300"F. the basic analysis is
the same as used in Example 3-7 beginning with the
iteration procedure to find the natural convection film
coefficient. Note that it is assumed that the temperature
inside the empty pipe header, t1, is 130'F and that the
ambient temperature. t.. is 60'F
U:
:
:
[(r: ln (r1r')/k.) + 13 ln (r3lrr)/ki + '/h"]

(0.s26 In (0.26710.2527)t25) + 0.526 ln
(0.526/0.276)10.027
:
Let
U3
-200 -160
120 _80
Temperatur,
.F
_40
0 m 40
[sech rLQ05) tanh (LQ05)
rElt
.,82rt,
- 2f
,a'-
\l
NNu
t. :
: 6.5 -200"F. Q =
:
6., :
6,,
arcran [.,inh rLeOstfll
ezroo:
65.16.F
C(Nc.NPr).
0.525andm:r/+
+ ela
1.1267,2
+ 0.00004 +
0.00718
fr :
0.4t77
(U3/h;)(ti
+60
t3 t3' = 65.16 Let
0.08616 in.
see that
for the worst case ofts =
struction and considerable material savinss could be ob-
72.35
-7.19'F
too large, try another tdal valve for hn.
57.781 and L
0.00013
-t.)+to = (0.073110.4177)(130 -
'72.35"F
.I L'L
-200'F that -20"F is obtained at x : 1.75 ft. At about

2.0 ft and below, the skirt could be of carbon steel contained.
0 '0137
0.525 (10,623,181.44)\ra = 29.97

(k"i,/d)NN" : (o.ot466n.052) 29.57
0.00701
From Figure 3-26 we
'
1.0 Btu/hr-ft2-'F
where,
--l
- - -Zt tr
arcran reLo"'tl
- 4zlt.
l;'".
tQ"'
)
For
h"
At=t:-L=5.16'F
}'16, : [d3e,gB( lAt l)(3,600t]/r.,
: (1.052t(0.0763r2(O.O01923)(32.2)
x (3,600F(s. l6)l/(0.0433eF
: 14,920,198.65
Nc,N", : (14,920, 198.65X0.7 12) : 10,623,181.44
Junctron temperatures.
\ to o) [0,, _ 2,,
106 t","
:
Ut :
+'/h"]
t: = (U:/h")ftr - to) + t,,

= (0.07371 1.0)(130 - 60) + 60 :
60
Figure 3-26. Temperature distribution for the three shell-skirt
(1.06
[12.565
+ r/h.l
h"
t3
V:
0.49 Btu/hr-ft-'F
rt(.r2.565 + r/0.49): 0.0687
Btu/hr-ft
-'F
(.0.0684'710.49) 70
At :9.781"F
Nc, :28,279,559.99
Nc.Np, : 20 ,r35 ,046 .7 |
Nr,
h"'
=
\, =
At:'
+ 60
0.4901 Btu/hr-ft-"F
(0.0684710.490r) 70
69.'781
69.779 =
69.781'F
+ 60 =
69.779"F
0.1
0.002'F <
60)
=
a =
a =
0.49 Btu/hr-ft-'F
2?rki/[kMAM
2r (0.027
)I
(0.52610.27
(r4 .233)(3s4 .3s2)(1 .497)
ln (ry'ra)]
[25 (0.0387
6)l
) In
O.272
Z
tx
fr
(2.496
= | [2rl(k.A.)][r3h.(t3 - t") - kit3/ln

(ry'rJl
: I l21rt[25 (0.0387) [0.s26(0.49)(69.78
60) -0.027 (69.78)/ln (0.52610.276)1
: -| -2.607
| : 2.60'1"F1ft'?
: zlQ : 9.587'F
+ Z ^= t2 (i. - Zt.'oo1lt 1-.:roo51;
: iZ t,, - 9.587)e''0 "'7'o 5/11 + e2r'02?210s)l
+
For
t, :
9.587
(600
0.0008
2706.95
(6.s36
109(184.902)
x 10-')
[558,494,713.0
2000884.26
+'74,115,250.451
6".
0.0155
ft :
0.1860 in. axial deflection
This example shows that residual heat through a closed

branch line can be significant enough to cause thermal
movements, which can result in high stresses. These
thermal deflections are particularly important when
space is limited and the piping system has little flexibilIty.
(l.3l3l
+ 9.587
(1.313),.1 -'
Curves depicting t, are shown in Figure 3-27. Unlike

Example 3-7, the slopes of the curves change much less,
almost approaching straight lines.
Axial temperature gradients along a section of piping
produce thermal deflections. The pipe support will now
be analyzed for thermal deflections.
The surface temperature, ts, of the branch pipe at the
point of the contact with the header is 600'F. The average temperature inside the pipe may be calculated from
the 600"F curve in Figure 3-27 which shows a temperature at a distance x of five feet to be 294'F.
t; =
10-3)(125 ,565 .623Xr82.902)
-.
|'' : I.780.83 (1.313)'r q^ \87
tl + 1.313)'?1
For t. : 699'P
r,' = 1.180.83 0.313). + 9.587
lr + (l.3l3y'l
For t, : 399'P
ll+
(0.521
+
+
900'F,
580.83
x ltr)
(0.521
155
E
E
+294)t2:447"F
Through the process of iteration, h. : 0.68 Btuihrft-'F at the average internal temperature of 447"F. This
was obtained using the natural convection iteration technique described in Example 3-7.
Using the same techniques, Q = 0.2719 ft 2, Z :
66.7916'Flftz, and Z : 245.6476"F.
To calcuiate the axial deflection, substitute these values into the expanded thermal deflection equation for
carbon steel, Equation 3-39. Note: Values for the arctan
used in the equation must be calculated in radians. Calculate the arctan m degrees and convert to radians in
which the relationship is 2zr radians : 360 degrees.
Using equation 3-39,
X distanc,
ll
Figure 3-27. Temperature of a branch pipe connected to
header through a closed valve plotted from the pipe to valve

connection every six inches for a distance of five feet in Figure
3-15C.
156
EXAMPLE 3.9: HEAT TRANSFER

TIIROUGH PIPE SHOE
Rtrr /< rs ;- z\
126.0), ": r.-l
irr r750) "F
nr-rr--r \ t++ In. /
ffi
A l2-in process header shown in Figure 3-28 is supported by a shoe 14-in. long. The process fluid is at
750"F and it is desired to determine the temperature of
the bottom of the shoe base plate where Teflon is
mounted to accommodate pipe movement. The Teflon
cannot withstand a temperature in excess of 400'F.
Referring to Figure 3-28 and using Equarion 3-47 we
0)
[126
hr-r''c (1ffi]
#"
_
:
k,,, :
L:
h"
h=
k.A.r, + hoAplto .D
(k,A. + h""AI)
3.0
Btu/hr-ftl'F for
(,-,-ttt{,"J
Bru /nz
t_t
(3.0)
(3 0]
r,'(,i)r, rm,'-
in.,\ tt.
^l
t_t
ttl
"^ . /ro.o\
t2
\ / 'J
hr-ft'z-'F \144 in.J
have
,'r'
rP
306.303'F
Thus, the Teflon on the base is adequately protecte.

The amount of heat loss through the shoe base plate :.
carbon steel in still air
q =
26.0 Btu/hr-fr-'F
h"Ap (tp
t")
in
(r.0)
l:u - frrz in.J:) ",,' {rob.J'3
'- -'hr-ftr-"F
'\r++
10.0 in.
A. = (0.375X14) : 5.25 in.2

Ap : (8.0)(14) : ll2 in.,
e').F
504.706 Btu/hr
L:90'F
NOTATION
y'lgscu
ao
5"cAlcruM srLrCATE
A- =
Ao :
Ao :
At =
INSULATION
/-
to =9oo F
A_
D:
:
D;
D,L= I
P=0.375in
ho' :
=
ht :
ho
BASE }IIDTH
=8in
Figure 3-28. Heat transfer through pipe shoe.
h4-s
of metal in pressure vessel shell or pi5
ft2
outside surface area of insulation, ftzlft

outside surface area of pipe, ft'?/ft
outside surface area of tracer tube or HTC
ft2lfr
specific heat, Btu/lb-'F
outside diameter of a pressure vessel, ft
diameter, ft, in.
inside diameter of pipe insulation, ft, in.
outside diameter, in.
inside of outer ring of annulus, in.
outside diameter of inner ring of annulus. ::
inside diameter of tracer tube, in.
acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ftlsec2
h-
oin
area
natural convection coefficient at OD of :::

piping insulation, Btu/hr-ft2-'F
corrected value for h", Btu/hr-ft'?-'F
convection coefficient, pipe to air space, B:hr-ftr- o F
convection coefficient, tracer or HTC to
"..:
space, Btui hr-ft2-'F
convection coefficient between the outsj.:
vessel insulation and ambient air, Btu/hr-::-
X:
Z:
Z=
\5' = corrected convection coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2ki =

ki =
k, :
L=
:
N51. :
Np. :
Np" :
Q:
Qr :
Qz :
Q: :
Q+ :
t" :
t; :
tj :
t, :
N6.
to,
tj(
t5
t3,
t3' :
t4,
t4' :
:
At' :
Atj' :
U3 :
At
U+
insulation conductivity, Btu/hr-ft-'F

thermal conductivity ofair inside empty pipe,
Btu/hr-ft-"F
thermal conductivity of vessel skirt or pipe,
Btu/hr-ft-'F
length of branch pipe, ft
Grashof number, dimensionless
Nusselt number, dimensionless
Prandl number, dimensionless
Reynolds number, dimensionless
heat transfer factor, ft 2
heat transfer from air space to atmosphere,
distance of plotted temperature points along

the vessel skirt or piping, ft
heat transfer factor, 'F/ft2
heat transfer factor, ZiQ, 'F
0:
6.,, 6,, :
?:
p:
p:
volumeric coefficient of thermal expansion,
,IK
axial deflection of carbon or stainless steel

skirt or pipe, in.
safety factor for traced pipe
absolute viscosity, lbift-hr
densiry, lb/ft3
heat transfer from tracer to air space, Btu/hr

heat transfer from pipe to air space, Btu/hr
heat transfer from tracer to pipe, Btu/hr
ftr-'F
157
Greek Symbols
Btuihr
air space temperature, oF

process fluid temperature, 'F
air temperature inside the vessel skirt, pipe
support or branch pipe, 'F
surface temperature of the branch pipe at contact point with the header, or operating temperature in a pressure vessel, "F
temperalure at distance x along the vessel
skirt, pipe support or branch pipe, 'F
ambient temperature, oF
temperature and corrected temperature at OD
of the pressure vessel insulation, 'F
temperature and corrected temperature at OD
of the pressure vessel insulation, 'F
tr - t in piping example, ta - t5 in vessel
skirt exarnple, 'F
t4 - ta' in vessel skirt example, "F
t3 - t3' in piping example, "F
overall heat transfer coefficient at OD of pipe
insulation, Btu/hr-ft'?-'F
overall heat transfer coefficient at 14. Btu/hr-
Equipment
REFERENCES
1. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Standards of the Tubular Manufacturers Association
QEMA), sixth edition, New York, N.Y, 1978.

2. Kern, Donald, Process Heat Tiansfer, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1950.
3. Ludwig, Ernest E., Applied Process Design for

Chemical and Petochemical Plazls, volume 3, second edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston,
4.
Texas, 1983.
Escoe, A. Keith, "Heat Transfer in Vessels and Piping," Hydrocarbon Processing," January, 1983, vol.
62, no.
l,
Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston,
Texas.
Chapman, Allen 8., Heat Transfer, third edition,

Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1974.
6. Perry, Robert H. and Don Green, Perry's Chemical
Engineers' Handbook, sixth edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1984.
7. Heisler, M. P., "Temperature Charts for Induction
and Constant Temperature Heating," Transactions of
the A.S.M.E., vol. 69 (1947), pp.227-236.
5.

Pressure Vessels
The specifuing, design, and construction of pressure

containing vessels varies all over the globe. Each
adopted code that has been used for any significant
length of time has proven to be workable because its use
has resulted in safe, economic designs. The main differences in codes are the theories of yield that are used for
determining maximum allowable stresses, material spec-
ifications. and basic procedures.

With increasing international competition and cyclic
economic conditions, there is a growing need to emphasize economics and familiarity of foreign codes, and
avoid unnecessary overdesign that relies on only one set
of codes and standards. This chapter emphasizes the optimization of economics and safety. If you choose to be
conservative in your design, you can be; however, if you
are bidding in a highly competitive market, you can use
these methods to produce a safe, economical design.
International competition and economic condltions
have caused engineers to restructure their thinking that a
good design uses only enough material that produces a
safe and economical product. Thus, this chapter's philosophy is to optimize engineering design within code rules,
whatever the code. Overly conservative design that results in excessive material use becomes unproductive
and expensive when one is competing in the world market today.
A thorough treatment of vessel engineering and its
concomitant aspects of static and dynamic phenomena
would fill several volumes. To present this broad subject
with clarity. various physical phenomena are briefly discussed and references are made to sources that give detailed theoretical explanations. lt is not this boo-k's purpose to give a trearise of static and dynamic problems.
but rather descriptions of proven practices. The theory
of these problems is always available, but proven solutlons are not-hence, the reason for this book.
159
The first problem you face in designing a vessel containing pressure is how to physically make the components and assemble them. In the petroleum refining industry (CPl-Chemical Process Industry) and allied
industries, the most practical and economical method is
welding. We will refer to welding later in more detail,
but first we will look at the vessel from a pure engineering viewpoint assuming perfect welds with given efficiencies. Some have proposed bonding pressure vessels
together with glue, as is done with aircraft components.
The main disadvantages to bonding are
1. Clean surfaces are required for
assembly.
2. Glues that exhibit high tensile and
compressive
strengths are very expensive.
3.
Chemical bonding, especially in thick-walled vessels, takes much longer than any welding process.
Another form of assembly that has been even more seriously considered than bonding is threading components
and screwing them in place. Even though this may appear to be simple, the process becomes enormously expensive with large diameters. Thus, welding is the most
practical and economical means of assembling pressure
vessels for the foreseeable future.
DESIGNING FOR INTERNAL PRESSURE

The two factors that must be considered in the desisn
for internaf pressure are crr??ponent thickness and quatiry
of weds. Before either of these two factors can be addressed, you must know what the vessel is to contain.
This chapter only considers gases and liquids. Vessels,
160
silos and bins containing solids are discussed in Chapter
In the design for liquids under pressure, the most severe condition of coincident pressure and temperature
expected in operation must be considered in computing
shell thickness. This is fairly universal in codes throughout the world. The intent ofthe statement is that the most
frequently occurring liquid level should be considered.
For example, if a vessel is filled to a certain level "A'
75% of the time and a higher level *8" 25% of the time,
level "A' should be used for design purposes. The normal liquid level to be used for vessel design and its quantitative value should be determined by the process engineer. For upset conditions each code allows an increase
in allowable stresses under temporary conditions, and
you should consult whichever code is to be used for exact
amounts allowed. It is recommended that a value of 30
psig or 10% be added to the operating pressure for design pressure. This practice varies with each company
throughout the industry.
Once the internal pressure is determined it must be decided how the vessel is to be welded. The factors affecting this decision are as follows:
l.
2.
3.
Size of vessel-whether rolled plate or seamless

pipe is used.
The toxic nature of the fluid to be contained.
The economics of fabrication as to whether a full
joint efficiency is necessary.
One can appreciate the degree of types of welds required for a vessel. A slug catchel which acts as a scrubber handling a non-toxic substance, does not require the
same caution as a vessel containing cyanide gas.
The quality of a weld joint is determined by a radiographic inspection. Full radiography includes a complete
X-ray inspection (1OO% for butt weld and 907o for single-welded butt joint) and spot radiography implies 85 %
for buttjoints. See Thble 4-1 for maximum allowable efficiencies for arc and gas welded joints. The reader is
strongly urged to consult whatever code happens to govern. Listed in Thble 4-2 are the joint efficiencies for the
various welded combinations for pressure vessels under
ASME Section VIII, Division I[1].

Any discussion on designing for internal pressure
must include maximum allowable working pressure,
which is the maximum gauge pressure permissibie at the
top of the completed vessel in its operating position for a
designated temperature. This pressure, MAVr'P, is normally specified on two conditions*new and cold (ambient) (NAC), and design. "New and cold" implies the
MAWP for a new vessel (non-corroded) at atmospheric
condition, and "design" implies the vessel corroded at
design temperature and pressure. The value of the

MAWP at the two conditions gives the exact range of
temperature and pressure that the vessel can withstand if
the owner decides to use it in another application. The
reader is cautioned to consult his respective code on the
practice of using a vessel for another application. The
following example illustrates how the MAVr'P is applied:
An ASME Section VIII Division I vessel is made of
SA 240-304 SS, design pressure : 500 psig, design
temperature : 150'F. The vessel has a shell thickness
of 1.00 in. and a ioint efficiencv of 1.0.
MAWP (NAC) =
(18,800)
(1.00)
(1.00.)
(21.00)+(0.6)x(1.00)
870.4 psig
MAWP (Design)
(18,300)
(1.00)
(1.00)
(21.00)+(0.6)x(1.00)
847.2 psig
The 18,300 psi is obtained by linear interpolation of

the allowable stress values in Table UHA-23 of the
ASME Code.
The vessel owner knows the maximum allowable pressure for the shell at the new and cold condition as well as
the design condition. It is a common practice to limit the
MAWP by the head or shell and not by the flanges or

openings, only the MAVr'P is determined by the flanges
or openings when the vessel is to be reapplied in another
application or a design oversight is made.
Finally, in computing the minimum thickness of the
shell or head, mechanical allowances must be considered. In the manufacture of heads, the metal is thinned
on forming the section (a forgery process). This forming
allowance must be considered when the nominal thickness is specified. When a minimum thickness is specified
to the head manufacturer, the forming allowance is not
considered because it is the manufacturer's responsibility
to ensure the minimum thickness.
DESIGNING FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE

The design for external pressure of vessels is fairly
standard in the ASME and codes of other nations. The
procedures for determining minimum shell thickness,
spacing, and section properties of stiffening rings are
straightforward and simple. Because there is much published material on external pressure design, the subject is
not discussed here. The reader is ursed to consult the
oressure vessel code to be used.
The Engineering Mechanics of Pressure Vessels
161
Table 4-1
Maximum Allowable Joint Efficiencies for Arc and Gas Welded Joints [11
Degree ot Examination
(a)
Fully
No.
(l)
(2)
(3)
Type ol Joinl
Description
Butt joints as attained by double-welding or by other means
which will obtain the same
quality of deposited weld metal
on the inside and outside weld
surfaces to agree with the requirements of UW-35. Welds
using metal backing strips
which remain in place are excluded.
Single-welded butt joint with
backing strip other than those
included under (l).
Single-welded butt joint without
use of backing strip.
(4)
Double tull fillet lap joint
(s)
Single firll fillet lap joins with

plug welds conforming to UW-
t7
Radio"
Limitations
graphed
(b)
Spot
Not Spot
Examined
(c)
None
1.00
0.85
Examined
0.70
(a) None except as in (b) below

(b) Butt weld with one plate off-
0.90
0.80
0.65
set-for circumferential joints only,

Circumferential joints only, not
over 5/a in. thick and not over 24
in. outside diameter
l-ongitudinal joints not over 3/8 in.
thick. Circumferential joints not
over s/r in. thick
(a) Circumferential joints for attachment of heads not over 24 in.
outside diameter to shells not over
0.60
0.55
0.50
t/2 in. thick

(b) Circumferential joints for the attachment to shells ofjackets not
(6)
Single tull fillet lap joints without plug welds
over s/a in. in nominal thickness

where the distance from the center
of the plug weld to the edge of the
plate is not less than 1r/2 times the
diameter of the hole for the plug.
(a) For the attachment of heads
convex to pressure to shells not
over s/e in. required thickness. only
with use of fillet weld on inside of
shell; or (b) for attachment of heads

having pressure on either side, to
shells not oyer 24 in. inside diameter and not over t/+ in. required
thickness with fillet weld on outside
of head flange only.
0.45
162
Table 4-2
Joint Elficiencies for Arc and Gas Welded Joints per ASME
T1 =
T2 =
Joint Types H, C, and L

Type 1 Joinl (ASME UW-12)
Type 2 Joint (ASME UW-12)
Asterisk (+) denotes which joint type governs.
Welded Head (Non-Hemispherical)-Welded Shell

Head Thk. Calcu.
Shell Thickness Calculations
E. Cir. Stress
E. Long Stress
Radiograph
L-
Type
C-
Illustration of weld joint locations Typical of Categories A, B,

C. and D-see ASME Section VIII Division I.
H'
T1
T1
T2
I .00
Spot
1.00
0.85
0.90
L00
Spot
None
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
None
None
Full
None
None
Full
Spot
Spot
0.85
I
I
I
I
None
Full
1.00
Spot
0.85
I
I
I
I
I
I
None
1.00
Spot
I
I
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
spot
Spot
Spot
None
None
None
None Full
None Full
None Full
None Part
*L
100
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
0.85
I
I
I
Full
Spot
None
Full
1.00
Spot
0.85
1.00
Weld soverns in circumferential stress calculations.
I
I
I
I
I
I
0.85
0.80
0.80
100
i'[echanics of Pressure
'FL^
rrI E-^r-^^-r-^
LrrSrrr!!rur6
rr.
Vessels
163
Table 4-2 continued

Welded Head (Non.Hemispherical)-Welded Shell
Head Thk. Calcu.
E. Cir. Stress
E. Long Slress
Fadiograph
Type
L'
C'
None Part
None Part
None Spot
None Spot
None
None
None
None
*L
Tl
H.
f2
Spot
None
Full
0.85
Spot
Spot None
None Full
None Spot
None None
0.85
iii!
0.80
II
rl
YI
0.70
O.70
ii
0.70
0.6s
0.80
0.65
Weld governs in circumferential stress calculations.
Welded Head (Hemispherical)-Welded Shell

Radiograph
Head Thickness Calculations
TYPE
H=Tl H=Tl H=T2 H=T2

L- C'
H' C=Tl C=T2 C=Tl C=T2
Full Full Full 1.0 0.90 0.90 0.90
FUU Full Spot
t
{
Joint
FullFullNoneiiii
Frrll
snÎFrrll
' "" _____i!::_____i_
Full Spot None

Full None Full
Spot Full Full 1.00

Spot Full SDot {
Spot Full
None i
:------------- _--------=--:- |
spot Spot tu
i
Spot Spot Spot 0..85
Spot Spot None
Spot None Full
Spot None Spot
I
f2
0.85
0.80
T1
T2
I
r
0.80
100
None
Full
0.85
None
Full
0.70
0.p0
t|
Spot
None
Tt
0.90
Full
Spot
Vo
!ll!
Full Spot Spot O.ps 0 p0 0.90
None Full
None Full
None Full
None Spot
None Spot
None Spot
None None
None None
None None

E. Long Stress
E. Cir. Stress
0.80
0.80
100
0.85
0.80
100
164
Mechanical Design of Process Svsterrrs
Table 4-2 continued
Radiograph
Type
H=T2 H=T2
Tl C=T2
0.90 0.90 0.90
H=T1
H=T1
C=Tl
Full
Full
Full
Full
C=r2
00
C=
E. Cif. Stress
o/o o^n
E. Long Stress
12
1.00
0.90
T1
T1
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
None
None
None
0.85
Full
I .00
0.80
0.90
Spot
None
0.85
Full
1.00
0.80
0.90
Spot
0.70
Head-Welded Shell
Seamless
Head Thick. Calcu.
Radiograph
E. Cir. Stress
TYPE
T1
Full
Full
1.00
0.90
Full
Full
Spot
0.85
0.80
Spot
Full
L00
0.90
Spot
0.85
0.80
Spot
Spot
None
None
None

E. Long Stress
None
1.00
0.90
T2
1.00
0.90
0.85
0.80
1.00
0.90
0.85
0.80
I .00
0.90
0.80
0.65
+
I
I
0.80
i
None
Full
1.00
Spot
None
0.85
0.70
0.90
0.80
0.65
i
I
0.85
0.70
0.65
* C weld governs on head and longitudinal
*L
stress calculations.
Weld governs on shell circumferencial stress calculations.
Seamless
Head Thickness Calculations
0.80
! C Weld go\ern5 ior head dnd longnudinal slre,s calculalion\.
Head-Seamless Shell
E. Long Stress
0.85
0.80
Table 4-2 continued

Seamless (Non-Hemispherical) Head-Seamless Shell
Head Thick. Calcu.

E. Long Stress
E. Cir.
Stress
Full
Fart
1.0
1.00
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.70
0.65
Spot
\one
Seamless (Non-Hemispherical) Head-Welded Shell

Radiograph
Head Thlck.
TYPC
Calculatlons
Full
Full
Full
Full
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
c'
Full
Spot
1.00
0.90
r00
Part
0.80
I
Spot
85
None
Part
None
None
Full
I
I
I
Spot
Radiograph
Type
0.90
I
I
Full
Full
0.65
0. 70
0. 65
Welded (Non-Hemispherical)-Seamless Shell

Head Thick. Calculations
-Tl
1.00
E. Cir.
120.90
Stress
100
1.00
0.90
6
-)
0.85
0.80
1.00
0.90
0.85
0.80
1.00
0.90
0.85
0.70
0.80
0.65
Part
Spot
None
Full
Part
I
I
Spot
0. 80
I
I
None
Full
None
None
Part
None
Spot
None
None
*H
1.00
E. Long Stress
85
None
None
None
Full
Full
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot
100
Part
None
Full
Full
E. Cir. Stress
100
85
100
----:v
0.70
-U. 65
Weld governs in head calculations.

+ C Weld governs in loogitudinal sfress calculations.
6)
165
166
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL PRESSURE

VESSELS
The analysis of horizontal pressure vessels converges
on the design for internal pressure and vessel supports.
This chapter only considers metal, cylindrical vessels,
and focuses on the supports of horizontal pressure vessels.
L. P. Zick [2] of the Chicago Bridge and Iron Company developed the method of analyzing supports for
horizontal cylindrical shells in 1951. We will not derive
the method, but rather summarize it in a seneral discussion along with guidelines and useful praciices thar make
the design of such items more straightforward.
Horizontal vessels should be desisned to withstand
internal and external pressures. and support reactions
produced by the vessel weight and additional loads from
ladders, platforms, piping, etc. Zick [2] showed that
supporting horizontal vessels by more than two saddles
is not only inefficient, but incurs additional undesirable
problems. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 illustrate a horizontal vessel supported by two saddles.
-- - '\
/'\-
,\l
---,..T.,-
>\.----r<"
]''..- 9--7
Figure 4-1. Horizontal vessels are
r = mean radius, ft
supported on saddles. The saddles

can be supported on concrete piers
LONGITUDINAL BEITIDING STRESSES
A horizontal vessel supported on two beams is the

same as a beam overhanging two supports. The maximum longitudinal bending stresses occur at the supports
themselves and at the center of the vessel, as shown in
Figure 4-3. Zick [2) and Brownell and Young [3] give a
detailed derivation
ts
of the equations for longitudinal
bending stresses at the saddle and at mid-span. This analysis is summarized in the following:
At
Saddle
qr =
longitudinal bending stress at saddle
oa1 allowable stress in tension. psi

o"r = B = allowable stress in compression. psi
Figure 4-2. Horizontal vessel with saddles on concrete piers.
For tension,
01
Eoan
where
op
E:
welding joint efficiency
op
pressure stress, psi
The allowable stress for compression is based on the accepted formula for buckling of short cylindrical columns, which is
/"\i,\[, - (,1,'*,(i)]
\-rt \;i f
or the allowable stress in compression is

o1
<
Bl2
where
r
D
= radius of cylindrical shell, in.

thickness of cylindrical shell, in.
modulus of elasticity of shell, psi
B factor in the ASME vessel code, psi
2A :
Referring to Figure 4-3, oy occurs at either lBl6 + 0l2l

degrees or zero degrees at the shell acting in the longitu-
arc, in radians, of unstiffened shell in plane saddle
effective against bending
dinal direction. This only applies to unstiffened shells.

The vessel must meet the allowable with or without ores-
At Mid-span
sure.
":-t*-[..(,
l-
*'-
I *ll,AL
3L
+
o:
"41ll
I +
longitudinal bending stress at midspan
The longitudinal bending stress at midspan has the same
IJ
(4-3)
(4-r)
Thneential Shear Stress
where
A, H, L, Q, r, and t.
=
0:
CA
are defined in Figure 4-3.

corrosion allowance, in.
angle of contact of saddle with shell, degrees
(Figure 4-1)
* l<a \
4 = _al1 +:Ol
180
\r2
l.
_ _
/r- "r"- - rrr-tAr\ L-H
(0.r8)Q
lA-)
For shell stiffened by ring in the plane of the saddle,
o3
<
ze
u\
/
0.08ou1
\
--il
\
.-11--T-
l-/
zT\-[ll
ll/r\rr.,
| \lll
ffi-["
V-t-+
'Y
||
tt/
Figure 4-3. Bending moment diagram for a horizontal vessel developed by Zick
l2l.
(4-4)
168
;&p
Figure 4-3. Continued.
I
I
Figure 4-3. Continued.
Vessels
169
17O
z
z
o.os-
=
=
o
z
z
UJ
)
t-
zgJ
,'u o'o2=
E
1.O
RATIO A/r
Unstiffened shell with saddles awav from head (A
If A/r>1,
>R)
where d
/L-H
1=
r,#
r! :
tangential shear stress, located at an angle of B/20
& B in
,j.
Shell stiffened by head,
15
0sin0
1t
cos P
sin 0
R
.ltu\
\-/
of (l9l2O)P
. - r(#)'+
(4-7)
2cos2B
(4-12)
^/^\:i
srnpcosp,
.lslnpl
as shown.
Q lsin o[ "- sinocoso \l

+ tin
r(rr-C{)1" \"-"
""oso/l
o,
\B
circumferential comDressive stress
This stress is located at the horn of the saddle If o; (

outr, it is not necessary to take credit for the wear plate.
-1. Shear stress in shell,
q [.in rI o- rino.oro \l
- r(t5-CA)tn
\" - " +.sindcose/ I
(4-S)
06 is the same as 05 and also is located at (19/20)0. With

rhe shell stiffened by the head, then
sin 6
-[
shear stress in head
an angle
o6
(4-11)
(4-6)
degrees
This stress occurs only when t}re shell is stiffened by the

head and when the head is located less than one shell radius from the saddle. The rnaximum shear is located at
"6
ot710
,o-r,
..
rq],
O.42Z2e-a
',r'here
K6:
then K6 : K3/4
Otherwise, use Figure 4-3.
:in," I
'(\7r-@+slnqcosd/
(;
then
deg
171
If A/r < 0.5,
-2A'l
''v- - 11-ctr \ L+H
Vessels
0.8o"1
o7
<
l'50
ou1
Additional Stress in Head When Used as a Stiffener
"s
Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle

08 S
sin']"
3Q I
3'-1u
6e,1
Lr .o, + sin "
cos
(4- 13)
"l
oall
For shell stiffened by head the maximum circumferential

stress at horn of saddle is,
IfL>8R,o7: 4(
-
CA) (b
-a
1.56(r(r
-,'QIu
=
2(r -
Wear Plates-Ring Compression in Shell Over Saddle
CA))u)
p.s)
(t
CA)'?
If L < 8R, o
-a
@
_
oe
12&QR
L(t
CAf
(4_lo)
CAXb
1.56(r(t
{\7r-q+slnacosq/
'1':'"
Ca;101
}o"(0.5o,
ring compressive stress in shell over the saddle
This stress is located at O
7r
(4-14)
172
This stress is compressive and acts in a radial direction

between the saddle and shell. The limitation of this stress
IS
Longitudinal Bending Stress
0.5ori"ra
ot T op : o' i,DP a
where oyi"rd
the yield strength of the saddle material

(metal or concrete)
For thin wall vessels with large diameters, it is desirable to locate the saddles close to the head, where A =
ID/4, using the stiffness of the head. Although arbitrary
on what a thin shell is, and Zick [2] does not define the
term, a shell is generally regarded as ',thin" when D/t
> 100, where D shell diameter and t shell thickness. For shells where D/t < 100 and the distance from
the head tangent to head tangent is rather large (approximately L/r > 10), the saddles are best spaced when the
longitudinal bending stress at rhe saddle, or, equals the
longitudinal bending stress at midspan. o2. Undei no circumstances should the distance from the saddle center
line to the head tangent, A, exceed 0.25L.
A listing of allowable stress criteria is siven in Thble
4-3. Each of the previously menlioned stress values
should be evaluated with this table and the appropriate
code.
Wear Plate Deslgn

One of the first things to consider when designing a
horizontal vessel is the need for wear plates. Too often
these plates are "auromatically" included with no
lhought given to their necessity in each application. Wear
plates involve material and labor expense and are a waste
if not needed.
Wear plates are not required if two criteria are met:
The circumferential stress at the horn of the saddle must
be less than 1.5 times the allowable stress, and the ring
compression stress in the shell over the saddle musr bi
less than one half the minimum yield strength. These cri-
teria can be written as follows:

o1
oe
02 +op =
ff
02
o4 E. where
E = joint efficiency
'o'' r
Tangential Shear Stress
Location ot Saddle Supports
ir
Table 4-3
Allowable Stress Values
1 7.5 o^x
( 0.5 o, 6n
Table 4-4 shows minimum allowable shell thicknesses

required for horizontal vessels without wear plates. The
values are based on using a fluid 1.75 times the weight
of watet and the metal has a minimum yield of 30,000
psi and an allowable stress of 17,500 psi. For vessels in
seismic regions wear plates should always be used to
minimize stress concentrations at saddle plate-shell juncture.
q4
06
03'
o5'
<
<
0.8
oall
0.8
Circumferential Stress at Horn Saddle
o7
<
1.5
o"1
Circumferential Stress at Bottom of Shetl
oe
0.5
(or1-i") *
Compressive Yield
Zick Stlffenang Rings

When the Zick stresses in a vessel become excessive
and the location of the saddles no longer is a factor because the stresses are below the allowable stress, then
two options are available-increase the vessel wall thickness or add stiffening rings. Almost always it is more desirable to add stiffening rings because it is cheaper to add
a few rings than go to a larger size shell thickness, particularly with expensive alloys. Also, if the vessel is subjected to external pressure , the Zick rings can act as external pressure stiffening rings as well as Zick rings.
Referring to Figure 4-3, if two Zick stiffening rings
are located on each side of the saddle, then
Ln,n :
l.Jb Vfl, It
Lr* :
r, ft
The stress in the ring is
_- _ -KuQ
nAWhere
KuQr ,
n7,
= l-/c for ring in the plane of the saddle,

tn.'
z : I,-,/d at saddle horn at tip or flange of
I*-
:
"
r
K6
:
:
:
:
stiffener ring, in.3

moment of inertia of stiffening ring about
axis x-x, in.a (includes wear plate
thickness if one is used)
cross-sectional area of stiffening ring, in.2
number of stiffener rings per saddle
mean vessel radius, in.
previously defined
175
Table 4-4
Minimum Shell Thickness Required lor Horizontal vessels Without Wear Plates
lD (in.)
78
8
l0
84
90
r/r
r/s in.
t4
108
120
132
144
lllro in.
5/r in.
rYrt in.
9/ro in.
?ro in.
?/x
in.
20
30
40
50
156
l6
l8
114
in.
_r-
t2
102
96
t2
ll/rc in.
tn,
r/+ in.
60
lYro in.
65
Nots
1. The above table is based on the following:
a. vessel is tully loaded with a fluid of specific gmvity of 1.5.
b. The ratio of the shell outside radius, R., to shell thickness, t, is R-lt
c. vessel weight is computed with not (a.) and hemispherical heads.
d. Vessel material has the following properties:
d,i" y,.rd = 30,000 psi and o.rr* = 17,500 psi
2- In seismic zones 3 and 4 wear Dlates should be used.
>
'72.
Is/r6 in.
78 in.
in.
in.
174
In compression, oro is negative,
oleAB(0.5o.,
In tension, o,6 is positive,
o'e
oo
o.1 [tension]
where B
=
o", :
op
ASME compressive stress (see ASME Section

8 Division
l)
compressive yield stress (see ASME Section g

Division 2)
internal pressure stress (includes wear plate
thickness if one is used)
In defining the parameter K7, it must be noted that the

Zick stiffening rings can fit on either the inside or outside of the vessel shell. Many clients object ro the rings
strengthened with stiffener or web plates. but often too

many are used. which increases laboi and material costs.
In the past, saddle plates have been purposely over-designed to guard against uncertainty. This is no longer required, since literature on flat plate theory has increased
with mounting experimental data. One such organization
that has engaged in extensive research is U.S. Steel [4].
Figure 4-4 shows a typical saddle configuration for a
horizontal vessel. Section A-A shows that only an effective portion of the member will resist compression.
shear. and bending loads because when rhe member is
loaded, the outside fibers ofthe web plates and the center
of the saddle plate -shown by rhe sh;ded areas in Figure
4-4-go into the plastic range. The rest of the plate area
is still in the elasric range because of residual
being external to the vessel surface because of aesthetici.

However, after insulation is applied, the rings are no
longer visible. We will consider rhe rings in both ways.
The constant K7 is defined as follows:
b":KL
For a ring in the plane of the saddle-
where b"
Kr:
+ 1.0
0.340,
0.303,
0
0
0.250,0
:
:
:
(4-15 )
120"
combination of these loads (see Figures 4-5,
150'
4-6, 4-7, 4-8,4-9, and 4-10).

c, b, s, or a combination of these characters,
plate buckling coefficient for compression,
i :
180.
K. :
For rings adjacent to saddleFor internal rings,
Kb
\:
Ks
-1.0
(o.271,
l.0.2r9,
[0.140,
Kz:
0
0
:
:
:
120"
150'
180'
plate buckling coefficient for sheaq
We now have
-a
4(t - CA)[b" +
-1.0
(0.27 | , 0
10.2t9,
{0. r+0,
dimensionless
plate buckling coefficient for bending,
dimensionless
dimensionless
For external rings,
effective width, in.

plate buckling coefficienr for either
compression, shear, bending, or a
K; =
where
Kr:
stresses
that were created by non-uniform heating during rolling

or welding. Presently, this "effective" area can be determined only by experiment. Equations 4-9,4-10, and 414 are used in saddle design as follows:
: 120.
:150'
= 180'
STEEL SADDLE PLATE DESIGN

Once the shell conditions have been met. the saddle
plates must be analyzed. The main phenomenon encountered with saddle plates is local buckling with the plates
undergoing bending, compression, shear, or any combi-
nation of these loadings. Normally, saddle plates are
1.)K.
;:--.
1.56{rrr
rf L >
CA))o']
(.4-9)
8R
o
4(t
CA) tb"
1.56(r(t
-.lt*'gl.,rrL
L(r - LA)'
4ft
cA) tb.
<
CA)
fI
(4-10)
8R
1.56G(t
'(
CA)f
I1
7t- (\
5l
cos ol
sln a cos
-l
(4-r4)
175
d"
t/ll
lffl
b
- b"-:l
fI t---------1
\r
.,-.-lN
'.-lF 1l"'l*"
'-ff I
*lJL.._"1
-
-.T----
sections A-A and B-8,

shaded areas are in the
plastic range.
elevation view
Figure 4-4. Horizontal vessel saddle support detail.
Figures 4-5 to 4-10 are courtesy of United States Steel Corporation.

USSC makes no warranties, express or implied, and no warranty as
to the merchantability, fitness fot any particular purpose, or accuracy
of the information contained in any material reproduced herein from
its Steel Design Manual. In the event of any liability arising out ofthe
publication of such material herein, consequential damages arc excluded.
--'t------------- -
--r
--i
cAS
--'l-----------_---l
CISE 4
r- -F
F-
_.1-...---------.1=
casE 5
F
-l
ri\
E
E
\\'
---\
i\
loaoEo
EDGES
FtXE0
z.
LOADED EDGES
SIMPLY SUPPORTEO
\\.
ta.'a
Figure 4-5. Buckling coefficients for flat plates under uniform compression. (Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
176

aaTro oF
EENDING STBESS
-TOU\IFOR\,I
COVPBLSSION
ST-8ESS,
LOAD ING
\l
T--
EDGES
SUPPonTED
UNLOADED
EDGES FtxED
.]
t7/
tl
-t!ft.
{PU8E BENOING)
jr:=-2l3r,r
5.00
\-V {, = 1/3r, Y
-tK
2.OO
F----E y
H "=o
't.00
Fry]=
!l r, = r/3f I E/
0.50
\t_-_____tr/
Ir
UNLOAOED
Sll\,4PLY
3H.
,.1
MJNII\,4UI\,IBUCTI.NGCOLfFICITNI.'I,
r-r____-_r_:
F= f: = f, t=
I,
rp,,..
. -... "îiil.*
--.....,--jtoN)
4.0
Figure 4-6. Buckling coefficients for flat
.VALUES
GIVEN AAE BASED ON PLATES HAVING LOADED EDGES

S{I\4PLY SUPPORTED AND ARE CONSERVATIVE FOR PLATES
plates under compression and bending. (Cour_
HAVING LOADED EDGES FIXED.
tesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
i
j
Figure 4-7. Buckling coefficients

(Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
for flat plates in
shear.
LONC EDGES FIXED,SHONT

ED6ES SIMPLY STIPPOfi TEO

Figure 4-8. Buckling. coefficients for stiffened plates under
uiform compression (one longitudinal stiffener at mid-point).
0.6 0.8
177
1.0
2.O
,Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
2.2
14
13
12
tl
I
tr
U
o
o
=
f
F
1.O 1.2
1.4
34
2.8
30
3.0
2A
810
12 14 16
NONDIMENSIONAL PABAMETER,
18
26
24
22
:
o
(,
=
20
18
t6
12
35 40 45 50
NONDIIUENSIONAL PAsAMETER. d
55
Figure 4-9. Buclding coefficients for stiffened plates under

uniform compression (two longitudinal stiffeners at third
points). (Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
178

0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2 1_4 1.6 1.8
2.O
2.8
3.0
z
q
n
o
Figure 4-10. Buckling coefficients for stiffened plates under
uniform c_ompression (three Iongitudinal stiffeneis at quarter
points). (Courtesy of U.S. Steel [4].)
NONDII\,4ENSIONAL PARA]\IETER, d
no web plates are used then b" : t,. It is very comfor engineers and designers to use the we6 plate
width, b, instead of b". This is wrong. The only time b"
: b is when t, = b, as is true for a solid concrete saddle. With steel this never happens, as values of b can be
as great as 24 in. and obraining plate that thick is impos_
sible (ar least on this Dlanet).
Values ofb" depend upon K, and t,. Since the value of t.
is known, the real independent variable in Equation 4-15
is K,. Once again referring to Figure 4-4. we analyze the
If
mon_
saddle configuration for end (boundary) conditions. Sec-
tion B-C is considered fixed-fixed in Fisure 4-5. since it

js stiffened by sections A-B and C-D.
S=ections A-B and
C-D are considered fixed-free since the outer web Dlate
is not stiffened by another section. The fixed-free condition is the most critical because it is more susceDtible to
buckling. and rhus ha: a lower value oi the plaie buckling coefficient than the fixed-fixed case. [t is interestins
to note that the plate buckJing coefficient for uniforri
compression for the fixed-free case, when multiplied by
t., yields approximately the effective width, b", that is

used for residual stress. In other words, if a member is
known or suspected to have residual stress and is sub-
jected to compression, bending, shear, or a combination.

the plate buckling coefficienr is equal [o rhe effecr:ve
width that is determined by the residual stress crirerion,
which is as follows:
d,t,
ti-
ldit.+2r*(b-l)l
(4-16)
The general equation in which the saddle plate stress distribution is defined is as follows:
o{:
K,
zr2
\,
rztr--l- 4ld'1"
\\/
(4-17 a)
shere di
saddle plate length normal to vertical axis
thickness of saddle plate, in.

effective width of saddle plate that is
perpendicular to the web plate, in.
of
stiffener (web) plate, shown in Figure 4-4.

modulus of elasticity, psi
Poisson's ratio
effective saddle width, in.
saddle plate thickness, in.
with
d.=d,(0.25+0.91\)
Substituting the elastic buckling stress
in
\:lll
Equation
-1-17a into
\dJ
o,
,
or:6y-7
J(r
a column, psi
Horizontal Reaction on Saddle
,. oy'l-l
Jol
/")
;; ;; "' ,l[
\7-D
o,,
o.l2
(4-17b)
gives the relationship of the plate buckling stress in the

inelastic range. This equation is based on the conservarive assumption that a plate will always buckle before the
yield stress is reached. However, U.S. Steel [4] states
that plates will deform plastically without buckling because of strain hardening. This process is similar to the
"elastic shakedown" described in Chapter 2.
In most applications, as already cited, saddle plates are
reinforced with stiffener plates. A simplified analysis
can be made to design saddles by using
n(A,
A,
n
maximum unit load the stiffener can carry as
1o.,
= or-
where Fs
o*2
/, \2
Fs:
179
:
:
:
2b"t.)o.
force is as follows:
- ^h * cos 0 - 0.5 sin'z0l

l't-lJ+sInPcosP.l
l9)
is As, shown in Figure 4-11 and calculated as follows:
Ae
: iRl
l;l t,
where R
outside vessel radius
t
1
Figure 4-11. The load distribution on a saddle.
(4-
The effective cross section to resist the horizontal force
(4-18)
buckling load for compressive loading, LBq

section area of stiffener, in.2
number of stiffeners
As shown in Figure 4-i 1, the load Q has a horizontal

component exerted on the horns of the saddle. The saddle must be designed to p{event the horns of the saddle
from separating. To accomplish this make sure that the
minimum cross-sectional area at the lowest point on the
saddle can resist the horizontal force component. This
R/3
180
SADDLE BEARING PLATE THICKNESS

.Designing bearing plates for saddles requires knowing
what type of foundation the vessel will rest on. For concrete the following analysis applies.
Consider a bearing plate with the dimensions shown in
Figure 4-12. From ACI Standard 318-77 par. 10.16.1.
the allowable bearing strength on concrete is
o=
@10.85
'J
e,r
/,r
\o
(3
(4-20)
For bearing on concrete (ACI 9.3.2.e)
:0.70
0
a;
3000 psi
in which
(0.70)(0.85)(3,000)41
:1:-3,L,,:
\Ar
(,A
L-1,1"
l-"
Table 4-5
Bearing Plate Thickness Values tor Various Saddle

Loads
L1 L, Q.ax (tbs) t (in.) Bp (psi) o,(psi)
17
26
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
s4
s7
60
63
66
69
72
76
84
95
r4-1rl
4
2,858 0.165 42.029 108.852.563
4
5,043 0.178 48.490 162.100.694
4
8.103 0.2t0 67.525 t85.744.857
4.25
.13l 0.241 79.365 213,447.893
4.25 16,007 0.277 1U.62r 232,042.324
5.'75 20,418 0.350 91.050 320.269.t3r
5.75 25,387 0.3?6 lo5.t22 344.024.233
5.75 33,523 0.4t7 129.557 367.1-1.7.375
5.75 40,154 0.442 145.486 39t.528.914
5.75 s9,549 0.508 r9r.784 439,028.224
5.75 68,777 0.531 209.846 462,776382
s.75 84,203 0.573 244.067 486.523.,736
5.75 101.759 0.6t4 280.908 5t0,270.399
5.7s 114,664 0.637 302.145 534.016.463
6.75 t28.417 0.715 275.721 637,918..163
6.15 143,003 0.738 294.245 665.0.1s.973
6.75 174,748 0.794 340.639 701,285.2,75
6.75 210,035 0.828 370.432 773.70r.873
6.75 2s0,290 0.850 390.316 873.271.364
Using a factor of safety of 1.6, Equation 4-21 becomes

Thus, the maximum stress in the bearing plate is
,' :
*=r,
rs.63 A,
(eir2Mtl!)"'
Using a minimum yield strength of 30,000 psi we have

the allowable stress for bending, per AISC recommendatron,
o.n
0.66
o,
0.66(30,000)
riq\/bj
op
=;
M= ,\2r"1\tl
"
-,
(4-))\
lil
\6i
19,800 psi
Qt" lo'.,n.
,: I\24.600
Lrl
where b :
Q:
BP:
A-)
7l
Lz
load on saddle, lbs

bearing pressure
Table 4-5 depicts values

various saddle loads.
Q ao'
= LrLz
of bearing plate thickness for
DESIGN OF SELF.SUPPORTED VERTICAL

VESSELS
Ar=LrLz
Az=LoL+
Figure 4-12. Bearing plate dimensions.
Today's tall, cylindrical process towers are self-supporting, i.e., they are supported by a cylindrical or conical shell (skirt) with a large base ring attached to a con-
,'rete foundation or steel structure with anchor bolts

embedded in the concrete or steel. Normally, a vertical
\'essel must be at least thirty feet tall to be classified as a
"tower." This height is used because thirty feet is the old
first wind-zone demarcation in code use. However,
smaller vertical vessels are governed by the same design
criteria, but are not usually referred to as towers.
The various phenomena that affect towers in normal
operation make their design complex and worthy of experienced engineering personnel. Therefore, towers
should never be taken lightly by any design office, because a failure could result in massive loss of material
and possibly lives.
MINIMUM SHELL THICKNESS REOUIRED

FOR COIIBINED LOADS
High-speed electronic computers now provide detailed, exact solutions to complex mathematical probIems, and so have replaced the "strong arm" approximations of yesterday. An example is solving the equations
of the moments of inertia and section modulus. Before
the advance of computers, the following expressions
were used to quicken computations on a slide rule or a
small electronic calculator:
I = nR3t; exact: I: #,o""
.I
A=
rRztt exact
?Irt;
= z = ,a (gd
exact: A:
l,o" -
ar'"'D
D,)
4-15 |
(.4-26)
Using R as the mean radius minimizes the error and

using R as the outside radius results in considerable error. Solving for the thickness or stress with the exact formulations involves iterative analysis, which is a key attribute of today's computers.
The minimum shell thickness required for internal or
external pressure alone is often not sufficient for addi
tional stresses induced by bending moments and weight
loads. Bending stress is a result of static wind, dynamic
wind gusts, vibration or seismic response spectra. In design the engineer takes the largest bending moments induced by one of the following: wind, vibration or seismlc.
Referring to Figure 4-13, we analyze the stress element depicted. The maximum stress resulting from internal pressure occurs along the x-axis, i.e., the hoop stress
is twice the longitudinal stress. Wind, vibration, and/or
seismic forces cause the shell to bend about the z-axis, so
181
the internal stress in the circumferentiai direction is com-
bined with the bending and tensile (or compressive)

stresses. Writing this expression we obtain,
"= -(.*J'H-(x)
where
Z:
A:
(4-27)
section modulus of the shell cross section,

area of the shell cross section, in.2
in.l
Substituting Equations 4-24, 4-25, and 4-26 into Equatior 4-27 produces
: * (ryf - (":zlur..
_
- \4,/=
,(
to
\nrtO"
2w
*
, h- iLr,
_
"io^lra
ipo\ /
= \",tnt
"J
@-zB)
-t DitrDr D,:t/
(4-29)
Ot1
or
'
to o"t'.1
/po\ /
\
- \+r/- \norD,-r D,rrD"r - D,2r/
2w \
* t1
,(
(4-24)
D'a)
Vessels
(4-30)
= \""fr5
Referring again to Figure 4-13, we summarize the following:
1. For the tension or windward side,
'
/po\ /
\ +t
\rrr D"
ro
o"v
D,tt D"2
lzwl+ DJ/
D,2t /
(4-31)
\"(D"
or
16 D.M
. - /.o\ I
\
' \+, /- \ro{D" --J,DJ + D-l-,/
- /zw\
\"r(DJ-D)/
2.
t4-1)\
For the compression or leeward side,
/po\ i
\4tl
o.r,a
ro
\Tt(D" + D,XD.r
lzwi
\"(D" + D)/
D,r)/
/4-11)
182
Mechanical Design of Process Sysrems
o
u,
U'
o
-3
ttGt
q)
o
tt,
lo
th
at
l--lo
l-
3lt
ld"d
l^'l
-
'
clF
ll,
stN
=ll
x
l=
1t--l
--r'l
tr
,. f---l
-\'l II< l<-l
/
ll'
'E'
l<1_
î^
Lo-l I
> E-
s-^
o i.;
ci
Nls
" lci r
\ |
lr
tk
/
irlol<rrl
o"
--41ll < lr>- I
q)
tt
to
C'
EO
bp
!'<f
r.u 3
o)
o.
3 ielo
Rl+--i- ",*
;l*
,ll
lll
- !l < l<L
flti
-t'i1
"
^r
^"-'l= i' Ii.- - l''

' oo- +
' {i ll I'
-rdo[<rlt
ti
--l-
Rlr
!:J
t
I
a,l
o
rl)
E(/,
o
o-
E"
O,o
3
5x
^, i rine*
)
o
r
i -tu
r
N
"_12 ^lil+
.Jt ql I/
- +;l
it I:+
il= "-1
- ' f---------1r
Fl_
-\1il <lKlr
..-t-''_ Ir
t-l
I
Y\
. pl*
x ol
o- td
a9
or l:
!:
(1,
U'|,,l
q)
IL

OT
._
- /ro\
'
\4"/-
ro
o.rra
\""(DJDJ(DJ
lr*\
+-3/
(4-34)
\"r(D" + DJ/
3. For
vacuum vessels the maximum stress occurs on

the compressive side, such that Equations 4-29 and 430 become
- l2wl
\"(D. + DJ/
(4-35)
Vessels
183
the cost-plus contractors seek to standardize designs and

use lower pressure vessel code allowables. As with wear
plates on horizontal vessels, most lump-sum contractors
would elect to omit them whenever possible to save material and labor costs. This phiiosophy is becoming increasingly popular with recent economic upheavals and
increasing international competition.

Types of skirt supports are shown in Figure 4-14. Figure 4-14b shows the most common and desirable skirt,
since the shear is eliminated by the type of attachment.
This type is used primarily on short vertical vessels.
The skirt is designed to resist loadings caused by bending and the tower weight. Writing the expression that describes this we obtain
and
ro o"r',r \
.' - /po \ /
\4")-F',D.+ qnD"' i-DI/
_l 2wl
\"t(DJ
Substituting Equations 4-25 and 4-26, as before, we obtain

(4-36)
DJ/
16MD.
7r't(D" + Dr(D"2 +
l6MD"
SUPPORT SKIRT DESIGN
no(D" +
The design ofvessel skirts is one area in which designers disagree philosophically. Lump-sum contractors seek
to use higher allowables and thus less material, whereas
2W
Di)
irr(Do
(4-37)
D,)
2W
5tD"'+ D-5 "'@. + D)
Once again, Equations 4-37 and 4-38 must be solved by

iteration. Normally, these equations do not govern the
skirt thickness, as the reaction of external bolting and
IAINIGHf CIRCULAF CYLINDBICAL SKIBT
t,/
l\l
Jt tE,
l
16I
(4-38)
EXTEiNAL LAPPING SKIRI
Figure 4-14. Skirt designs.
184
compression rings is not considered. The stresses in the

skirt shell that result in compressive loading on the compression ring and bolting chair can be quite high in appli-
cations where external chairs shown in Fisure 4-15 ire

used. See Brownell and Young [3], for a derivarion ofthe
reaction expression. The skirt thickness required to re_
sist the reaction of external chairs or comp;ession ring
for a chair of the type in Figure 4-15 is determined ai
follows:
see below
=
N=
operating weight, lb
empty weight, lb
number of anchor bolts
(4-3e)
: skirt thickness, in.

: radius of skirt, in.
: bolt spacing, in. or 28 in Figure 4-15
= uplift bolt load, lb
: radial distance from outside of skirt to bolt
r
m
F.
B
G11
circle, in., Figure 4-15
The minimum initial bolt load required to maintain compression between the base plate and compression ring exist when o" 0. Thus, using Equation 4-40 and substituting o. 0 we have
Anchor bolts are one of the most important aspects of

tower design, and, unfortunately, are often not taken seriously enough. Consequently, many problems related to
towers during construction or operation can be linked to
anchor bolts.
Wind and seismic loads are dynamic and result in cyclic loading of the anchor bolts. For this reason, I will
only present the method for analyzing preloaded anchor
bolts. Initial preload is significant since pre-torquing the
bolts reduces the variable stress range the bolts experience during cyclic loading. The tower weight and bolt
load allow firm contact between the compression ring
and concrete or steel such that the support base rotates
about the neutral axis of the contact area, as shown in
Figure 4-16. Referring to this figure we see that under a
moment M at the base plate-concrete juncture the maximum and minimum stress is
_
8M
[oJ
- (**J
f,to"t
o,r;
I,=#(D"4-D,4)
D.-
N(D", +
D,1-
W,
____:
(4-40)
(4-41)
The required bolt area is
[*")-
*'
No,
ANCHOR BOLTS
where A"
-'
f,:
gusset height, in.
Equation 4-39 is normaily the controlling criteria for a

skirt with external chairs. Howeveq for a skirt with or
without external chairs, Equation 4-38 must be satisfied.
" = H).
yessel weight, lb
WE
,=176[#r]",,,
where
Fi :
W:
W. :
(4-42)
: bolt circle diameter, rn.

: allowable anchor bolt stress, psi
M : in.lb
where BC
ou
Equation 4-42 is one of the major differences in designing a tower under a lump-sum contract versus cost-plus.
Most cost-plus designers use vessel code allowable stress
values that are based on a factor of safety of 4:1. This
large a factor of safety is intended for components containing pressure. Thus, using vessel code allowable
stresses for bolts leads to large anchor bolts, which is undesirable because more concrete is required and larger
bolts are much harder to torque, requiring bigger

wrenches and being more susceptible to galling. To keep
anchor bolt sizes down follow AISC euidelines for bolting- since anchor bolts are purely stirctural in nature.
Table 4-6 provides the allowable stresses for boltins
per AISC
l5l. Type 4325 bols and ASTM Al93-87
high-strength bolts are used in most applications. A307

bolts are used where bolt loadings are not large and the
bolt size need not be massive. When bolt sizes get large
(231a to 3 in.) or it is desirable to reduce the bolt size.
then Al93-B7 or A325 bolts are used. One can see from
Table 4-6 that A325 has more than twice the allowable
stress value as A307 bolts. The extra cost of the hieh-
strength material will still be less than rhe addirional c6ncrete and labor costs associated with a larger bolt. Certainly. if one pays more for high-strength stleel, he should
be permitted to use the larger allowable, as given by
AISC. Normally, 40,000 psi is used with A325 and 193-
87 bolts.
The spacing of anchor bolts is another critical parameter. Spacing the anchor bolts too close to one another
f*-
r?
lzA,l
185
"---|
1I
IT
t[
liill
Iil
J IIL
r-*-l
F-r:-'-_i
k----il--+l
NOTES:
all dimenslons in inches BTHK to be evaluated by
eouations 4-57 or 4-60 all welds to be size
BOLT
SIZEABCBH
'I
'l
tl'
'l1la
1q8
1112
11la
2tl+
21h
23lq
"t"
CHLLJMNP
31lz
31la 3
6 9e 51lz 5
3{+
6 Ye 53lq 51lc 31lz 3
5112 33t+ 3qo 4
6 4t 6
33lq 4318
7 4q 61lq 53lq 4
41lq 41la 4112
8 3lq 6112 6
7
6tlz 4eh 4alc 43lq
9 1
Stlq 51lz 6
10 1
7112 7
Telc 7112 53lq 5718 6112
12 1
7
13 11/e 81lc 74c 64a 6
'14 11lq 8112 I
61+ 6{e 71lz
16'l1la98r/+777slq
GH
31lz 'l4a 14q 1112 2

3{+ 148 17k '1518 21k
4221s1c2112
41lq 21la 2118 148 2sla
2sl+
4tlz 21lc 21la 2
5
2112 21lz 2th 31lq
51lz 24c 23lc 21h 31lz
Sslc 3
24c 23lt 34a
61lc31l+334118
Srla 4112
61lz 3rlz 3
7
3glc 31lc 31lz 4gla
4e
9e
4e
llz
112
5lB
3lc
3l+
4e
1
11k
31lt
33/e
33lq
41le
41lt
5
51lz
53lc
64a
71lz
Figure 4-15. Typical designs and dimensions of chair and base plates
74s3
731rc3
1'tlq th
7112 1lq
81|q4
5h6
9
'12 {e
13 {e
144rc8
16 1lz
18 llz
3
3
5
6
7
9
10
186
ANCHOB BOLT
MAXIMUM TENSILE
UPLIFT FORCE- q
FOUNDATATION
MAXIMUM
COMPBESSIVE
JI
<l
FORCE = nFc
zt<
E.
I
I
I
I
+-
COMPRESSIVE
TENSILE FORCE DISTRIBUTION
FOBCE
CENTROID
DISTRIBUTION
CENTROID
Figure 4-16. Anchor bolt loading force distribution.
prevents the strength of the bolting in the concrete from

becoming fully developed. It is advisable to set the bolts
at least 18 inches apart. To accommodate this minimum
spacing a wider base ring with gusset plates can be used
or the skirt can be tapered with a conical skirt. As shown
in Figure 4-14, with a tapered skirt the apex angle should
not exceed 15 ".
factor. The modulus of elasticity of steel is approximately 30 x 106 psi and that of concrete approximately
2.O to 4.O x 106 psi. Defining the ratio of the two as n.
we wnte
BASE PLATE THICKNESS DESIGN
since E.
Base plate design involves the loadings passed on from

the tower to the foundation. The base plate is a circular
ring plate used to distribute these load-s around the cir-
and
cumference of the bolt circle. Anchor bolts normally

vary in diameter from one to three inches-bolts smaller
than one inch are more likely to strip or shear off; bolts
larger than three inches require large wrenches and create excessive problems for construction personnel. For
these reasons it is desirable to attemDt to adhere to the
one to three inch size range.
In the case of a concrete foundation, the relative
strength of the concrete to steel becomes a significant
(4-43)
E. :
:o"
os
s
and e,
e. because
os(induced)
of the base plate-concrete bond we

noc(induced)
have
(4-44)
Listed in ?ble 4-7 are values of the moduli ratio n and

the various concrete mixes from Brownell and Young
[3]. Figure 4-16 shows a detail ofthe compressive force
of the concrete, F", multiplied by the value of n shown
opposite the maximum tensile stress, Fr of the base plate
steel.
187
Table 4-6
Bolis, Threaded Parts, and Rivets

Tension [51
Allowable loads in kips
Bolts and Rivets
Tension on gross (nominal) area
Nominal Diameter. d. in.
ASTM
Fi
Designation
Ksi
3la
20.0
44.0
54.0
23.0
29.0
0.7854
0.9940
6.1
0.4418
8.8
13.5
19.4
16.6
23.9
0.6013
\2.O
26.5
32.5
'7.1
to.2
13.8
18.
8.9
12.8
r7 .4
22.8
13ls
11lz
1.227
1.485
29.7
1.767
35.3
11la
Area (Based on Nominal Oiameter),

0.3068
A307 bolts
A325 bolts
A490 bolts
.\502-l rivets
A502-2,3 rivets
'l1la
4s
in.'?
15.'7
19.9
34.6
43.'7
54.0
65.3
77 .7
42.4
53.',1
66.3
22.9
28.8
?8.2
35.6
80.2
34.2
95.4
40.6
43.1
51.2
The above table lists ASTM specified materials that are generally intended for use as structural fasleners.
For dynamic and fatigue loading, only A325 or A490 high-strength bolts should be specified. See AISC Specification. Appendix B. Sect. 83.
For allowable combined shear and tension loads. see AISC SDecification Secl. l 6.3.
Threaded Fasteners [51

Tension on gross (nominal) area
Nominal Diameter. d. in.
F,
Ksi
F,
Ksi
Ksi
A.r6
58
19. I
4572. Cr. 50
65
ASTM
Designaiion
Ft
11ls
13/8
11la
'l1lz
0.3058 0.4418 0.6013 0.7854 0.9940 1.227 1.485

A588
A,149
92
8l
d<l
I <d <
lr/:
120
105
2t .5
5.9
6.6
8.4
9.5
23.
7.1
10.2
39.6
31.7
12. i
7.5
l l.5
r5.0
19.0
t2.9
16.9
2t.4
26.4
3.9
18. r
23.0
28.3
23.8
3l.l
3.1.5
12.6
23.4
28.4
31.9
34.3
1.767
33.1
38.0
40.8
Thc abole lable lists ASTM specified nulc.iul\ !!ailirblc in round blr sr(xk rhat lrc genrr!lly intcnded lirr u\c in rhreaded appljcaoons such rs rie rods. cross
bracing and similar uscs
The rensile capacir! ol thc lh.cadcd porlion ol an upsrl r(xl shall bc largrr lhan lh! b( ) lrca rrnrs 0.6F..
F, = specified minimunr tensilc strcngth oflhc lasrener nutcrill.
t. = 0.llF, = allowable tensile srress in rhrcldcd iasrener.
Table 4-7
Design of Supports lor Vertical Vessels
Values of Constants
C"
0.050
0. 100
0. 150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
0.450
0.500
0.550
0.600
0.600
0.852
1.049
1.218
1.370
q,
C", Z,
Function of k
Cr
3.008
2.881
2.772
andJasa
Average Values ot Properties ot Three

Concrete Mixes
ZJ
0.760
2.66r
2.551
o.418
0.7'79
0.781
7tlz
6
2000
2500
3000
3750
o.'766
o.7'7
0.776
1.765
1.884
2.t t3
2.000
2.113
2.224
2.000
0.438
o.427
0.416
0.404
0.393
1.884
0.381
0.783
0.784
0.785
0.786
0.785
r.765
0.369
o.784
1.&0
Water Content
oi
n
U.S. Gallons 28-day Ultimate 30 x 106
0.490
0.480
0.469
0.459
a Ana
2.333
2.224
1.510
[31
Sack
ot Cement
per 94Jb
63/c
Compressive
Streigth,
psi
Ec
Allowable
Compressive
Strength, psi
l5
t2
800
1000
10
8
1200
1400
'188
Equation 4-44 is shown as a linear proportion by the

straight line shown in Figure 4-16. Even though the tensile strength of the bolt is, by Equation 4-44, equal
to the ratio n times the concrete allowable comDressive
strength. it is not necessarily evenly distributed about the
neutral axis as shown in Figure 4-16. This "offset factor," known as the "k Factor," is determined from
os
(d
- kd)
noc
kd
(4-53)
f
(ER)(SFC)
After computing an initial value of k, this process should

be repeated five times in order to converge on a value for
k.
Once a value for k is determined, we now solve for the
maximum induced stress at the outer periphery in the
concrete,
ork =
(4-4s) oq.*,
: (sFC)t*X**]
tro"
using
Equation 4-45 is solved by iteration using the following

steps: Thke values for C", C,, Z, and j in Thble 4-7 for a
D"
(skirt OD)
, ln.
(4-s4)
(4-s5)
given value of Z. Normally, k = 0.333, C" : 1.588,

C. = 2.376, Z = 0.431, and j : 0.782 to start the process. Then the following equations are solved:
we solve for the base plate thickness, BTHK,
rt--/\
(4-46)
where ou1
psi
(4-47)
By using Equation 4-56 one assumes no gusset plates on

the base plate-skirt connection. To reduce the required
base plate thickness in Equation 4-56 the additional
strength of gusset plates can be used, because with the
gusset plate stiffening the base plate at the skirtjuncture.
the base plate between the gusset plates can be considered as a rectangular, uniformly loaded plate with two
edges simply supported (at gusset plates), a third edged
fixed (skirt side), and the fourth edge free. The deflections and bending moments are tabulated by Timoshenko
[6] and are shown in Thble 4-8. The process of using gusset plates to stiffen the base plate is begun by making the
number of gusset plates equal to the number of anchor
bolts. Doing this we write
/^^\
M _ (W,r(z)l!!l
" lt)l
.. lBcl
rJrl;l
BrHK = L
[tf,]"'
(4-s6)
allowable working stress for base plate metal,
\'.1
(Ah)N
''
r(BC)
F
Ir =
/ -\
(4-48)
rt,r l!91c,
\2/
fc:
fi +wE
BPW
base plate
width, in.
Bpw:(D.)-(Di)
(4-4e)
tz
BPW
(4-s0)
t;
(4-51)
(c.)(1,000)
NG :
let NG:
modulus of elasticity of base plate metal, psi

compressive strength of concrete, psi, denoted in
5U=
Thble 4-7 as o"

f,
J|L = --
(h
where SFC :
circle and
/^l
(Enxt ))
-/IIat
NG + N bolts
(4-57)
RAT:!SG
(4-s2)
(]Jrc.r
number of gusset plates

N bolts
M- :
compressive stress on concrete at the bolt
M,'
1E,1o"1.""(SG)'?
(4-58)
lE,1o"1."-(L)2
(4-59 |
Maximum Bending Moments in a Bearing

Plate with Gussets [61
{' = b/2\
\v
=r
0
0.0078f"b,
o.0293f"bl
0.0558f"b,
0.w72f.b,
0.123fJ2
0. 131f"b,
0.133f"b,
=
:=
bt2
I
Typical designs and dimensions of chair and base plate

designs are shown in Figure 4-15. The compression plate
thickness is determined by
I rr,rc I
-0.500f"1,
-o.428f"t,
*0.319tP
f^^ :
t _____________
-o.124f"t2
-0.125t"t2
-0.125f"1,
gusset spacing (x direction) inches.
bearing-plate outside radius minus skirt outside radius (y direction)

lnches.
where
BS :
Fi :
o.11 :
where
lortalo
'
(4-60)
The gusset plate thickness is determined by the following:
M,
or
Mr
This iteration can be repeated as many times as desired to

reduce the base plate thickness. In normal practice, it is
unusual to use more gusset plates than anchor bolts.
The bearing pressure on the base plate must be
checked to prevent exceeding the allowable compressive
stress of the concrete. Computing the uplift force on
each anchor bolt we have,
--'
o^ -_
96MD" WF ,,
a P:; N'''
A" A.
12MD"
DSI
21,
o" ( 1,200 psi for-.weight and wind

where, M : ftJbs
where
A" =
t-
r[(D")'?
(D)'?]
r[(D")a
64
.
*:
[+r'a
\4-@l
gusset plate thickness, m.

gusset plate width, in. (A in Figure 4-15)
gusset plate height, in. (see Figure 4-15)
] - [w. I
[.o"j
["o*l
=
(1.33Xo"r)(0.55)
and
:
w = 2F*
:
M:
D.r :
where o"1
weld size
(4-65)
smaller of the allowable stress values for the

base plate and skirt metals
moment at base plate induced by wind or
seismic forces, in.-lb

outside diameter of skirt, in.
ANCHOR BOLT TORQUE

(4-62)
There have been many recipes proposed for the computation of bolt torque over the years. The mystery of
bolt loads is unveiled by such authorities as Bickford [7]
and Faires [8]. Their extensive research into bolt loading
produced the following recommended formulation:
T:
CDFi,
where
(DJa]
a],,2/F \
=0
- l"'i='
I,J|.ru
(4-61)
N1D"z
N"
WF
----:: + -----: +
(F,)ta
by
Fw
in.-lb/in.
The minimum skirt-to-base plate weld size is determined
[_oJ
(4-63)
BSI
bolt uplift force, determined by Equation 4-61

allowable stress of compression ring metal, psi
where tc:
Gw:
GH:
ornN
and C are dimensions in Figure 4-15

1.25
nominal bolt size
18,000 Gw ta
Where o"1*n,; is determined by Equation 4-55, using the

greater of M, and M, we have
::-
l4('.rr(A
-o.22'7 f:r2
-0.119f"F
-0.125f"t2
0.133f"b,
189
COMPRESSION RING AND GUSSET PLATE

DESIGN
Table 4-8
M,
Vessels
C:
C:
D=
F1
in.lb
0.20 bare steel
0.15 for lubricated bolt
nominal bolt diameter, in.
anchor bolt uplift force, lbs
(4-66)
190
Mechanrcal Design
ol
Procg55 g151snlt
2.3<+<2.6
groutl-i
-f--
Boltom of sleeve
or top of concrete
concrete
L = 17Du
Figure 4-17.
"J"
and
"L"
type anchor bolts are used for small vessel..
In most tower applications, Fel-Pro C5A is a very

common bolt lubricant. The field of bolt desisn and bolt
lubricants is almost as involved as tower desien and the
interested reader is relerred to the excelleni work of

Bickford [7].
Figure 4-17 shows the two most common types of anchor bolts, "J" and "L." For large towers where large
loads are anticipated, the bolt in Figure 4-18 is used.
orout
-,L
T_
WIND ANALYSIS OF TOWERS

Analyzing wind loading on towers requires combining
loads induced by wind, internal or external pressure, and
weight. Such an analysis must be made to ensure that the
tower shell thickness is sufficient to withstand the combined loads.
Wind and seismic analyses are completed separately,
with their respective bending moments being used to determine the tower shell thickness values at each section.
Before examining the design criteria, let's consider the
following terms:
ow
op
o"
=
=
stress due to wind or earthquake

stress due to internal or external pressure
stress due to weisht
concrele
Figure 4-18. Straight type bolt-used for large vessels,

cially towers.
espe-
Referring to Figure 4-13, we see that the stress ele:lent in the shell is affected by the combined loads more
::r the longitudinal direction than the circumferential di:ection. However, for the longitudinal axis the internal
rr external pressure stress is governed by the relation
-4t
(4-67)
:
:
:
:
,rhere D
P
op
T
mean diameter of vessel, in.
internal or external pressure, psi

Iongitudinal stress, psi
shell thickness less corrosion allowance, in.
There are two conditions where Equation 4-67 is used

to combine stress values:
L. Combination of wind (or earthquake) Ioad, intemal

pressure, and weight of vessel.
For windward side,
\'s:qw+op-o*r
,rLs
op
ow
+ op-
:f and only
- owr
- o*,1 ) o"1E
where ou1 : allowable stress in tenslo, for a given
material at a given temperature and pressure
E : weld efficiency
o*,1
if
l oo
) 1oo-o*-o*,1
l>
lool
oo
Another form of Equation 4-71 may be determined by

rewriting the equation as
op
o*,
or
0.40
W69)
o*,1
(4-70)
(4-7
t)
reversed and
|>
Equations 4-70 and 4-71 hold,
Inwhrchfi{
which is true for most applications, when the internal

pressure stress is greater than that induced by the weight
of the tower above the section. However, for a few
cases, the stress induced by the weight is greater than
Ihat induced by internal pressure for low-pressure thickivalled applications. The thick walls at low pressure
could be for controlling tower deflections due to wind.
For these limited cases the allowable stress is that determined by UG-23 (b) of the ASME vessel code, which is
known as the B factor. The B factor is commonly associated with external pressure, because the case of the
weight stress exceeding the internal pressure stress is
rare, but it must be emphasized that the B factor is the
allowable value of stress for longitudinal compressive
loading like that encountered in towers. Thus, the B factor is more comprehensive than its external pressure application would indicate. Therefore, if Equation 4-71 is
o.,
If
(4-68)
Comparing Equation 4-68 with Equation 4-69 we have

ow
loo-o*-o*l < Bfactor
P(R,
For leeward side
(4-72)
191
such that the leeward side governs, then
lo* -f
PD
Vessels
_
-;Rl W
-TI
pn,tl
r [: w - t.zo
L fSp" I
(4-73)
Equation 4-73 is another form of Equation 4-71, in

terms of the vessel dimensions, where W is the total
weight of the tower above the section being analyzed.
2.
Combination of wind (or earthquake) load, external
pressure and the weight of the tower-
On windward side
OWS
= O*-Op-O"n
On leeward side
OLs:
-O*
op - O*,
For most applications with external pressure we have

ols
>
ows
| - o* -op-o*, ) rw-op-owt
oo*0
Since the value of oo is for external pressure, we must
apply the B factor in Equation 4-67 . After these criteria
are satisfied, we turn our attention to the determination
of wind loads that induce o".
192
WIND DESIGN SPEEDS

The procedures for determining wind design speeds
for structures, towers, and stacks varv from Counirv to
country, depending on how well records have been kept.
The wind velocity is a function of the temperature gradient and terrain roughness. The first representation of a
mean wind velocity profile in horizontaily homogeneous
terrain is the power law, first proposed in 1916. This law
2.
used are as follows:
states
,t: r.\r:)"
:
Q:
where Vo
Z. =
Z=
(4-74)
3.
mean wind speed at a reference height Z

reference height (normally 33 fr orl0 m)
a constant dependent upon roughness of
(a) Importance Coefficient, I, a hospital or nuclear plant would be designed moie conservatively than a barn on a farm.
(b) Variation of wind speed with building height
and surrounding terrain.
(c) Gust response factor.
(d) Velocity pressure coefficient, K2.
Test a model of the tower and its surroundings in a
wind runnel. Even though rhe 1972 ANSI stindard
does not mention this, the 1982 version sDecifies
certain requirements lor wind tunnels.
terrain
height above ground
Other proposals have been made to determine wind

speeds. Simiu [9] states that the logarithmic law is a supenor representation of strong wind profiles in the lower
atmosphere. What is relevant to the reader is to be familiar with whatever standard is used. The discussions and
examples presented in this text are slanted toward those
standards in the United States. However, the technioues
and base principles of engineering are applicable to all
countnes.
In the United States there are four basic codes soverning wind- ANSI A58. | 1982. the Uniform, thi Basic,
and the Standard Building Codes [10]. The ANSIA58.1- 1982 differs from the ANSI-A58. I - 1972 in that
three optional methods of determining wind design loads

on a structure are given [11]. These options are as fol-
lows:
l.
ing hit by one is extremely small; however, nuclear

sites are designed to withstand tornado winds.
Using site and structure factors calculate the design
wind speed. The factors on rhe ANSI l98Z tesr
Choose a design wind speed (50-year mean recurrence interval) off the U.S. map provided on the
document. The national map is a graphic display of
isopleths (lines of equal wind speed) of the maximum values of the mean speed for which records
have been kept. i.e.. basic wind speeds rhat can be
expected to occur within a particular period. This
"particular period" is called the return period. The
problem with a nalional map consisting bf isopleths
is that localized wind speeds can vary as much as
30 mph over the speed shown on the isopleth (particularly in mountainous regions).
Hurricanes are fairly well accounted for on these

maps. Tornadoes are considered to be nonexistent,
because it is not economically feasible to design an
entire building for tornado wind speeds. The reason for this is that the probability of a structure be-
These three options are new to both the ANSI-ASg. I

standard and to the three building codes-the Uniform.
Basic. and the Standard. The larrei three codes do not au-
tomatically adopt newly revised ANSI standards, thus

making for inconsistency in wind code provisions in the
United States.
The basic wind pressure in the ANSI-A5S .l-19j2 rs
q3a= pv2l2
0.00256
:
V36 :
where q.s
(0.5X0.00238)(5,280/3,600fV30
v3o
@-'75,
basic wind pressure at 30
ft,
above grade
lb/ft,
basic wind speed, mph
The effective velocity pressures of winds for buildings

and structures, qF, is
9r :
KzGrQ:o
where
K2 = velocity pressure coefficient that depends

Ge
(4-76
upon the type of exposure and height Z above

the ground
dynamic gust response factor
In the 1982 ANSI-A58.1 Code the effective velocin

pressure for wind is partially a combination ol Equarion.
4-7
:
I:
qz
V=
and 4-76,
0.00256 KzGV)2
basic wind speed, mph
importance factor
I
\417)
A value of V can be approximated for the United States

from the isopleths shown in Figure 4-19.
One of the major differences between the ANSI
A58.1-1972 and 1982 is how the velocitv Dressure coefficient, K2, is determined. In the 1972 Cod'e the value ot
J
-
Vessels
o;
-;
b
\-\ .E e.
oot;9
\\ ;]
\
\\
b9;.0
*-t!cb
; !b69
3. iaEg
o-i=H9
a'*-w*
*
ird\
ii:# .s i
"E
/\,r\ *i *tid
\px
i4'
^;it
9\i
!ii.s
-
\F 9!.o
: R:
'-+!-
2
: \8. E i a;
f : ]{
.: IEE:
I"
i-'q
-i
Hf;n*
s
:,'' s 18 ;:
g;ni:
I-* l(U*963
$ " !;i;
:
;
;
:
o-!o
let
6 r. E'=-
i" f i:.E
?i
4:' ig
>iif o
-6
6
o
No
-:
z
O
.9
TL
.l
!L
rl' I jll\
193
194
Vechanical Design of Process Syslem,
Table 4-9
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, Kz
[1 1l
Height above
Ground Level, Z
0- l5
o.t2
20
0. 15
0.1'7
25
30
40
50
0.19
0.23
o.27
60
70
0.30
o.37
0.42
o.46
0.50
0.57
0.63
0.68
o.73
o.77
0.82
0.86
0.93
0.99
0.33
o.37
0.40
0.42
0.48
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.67
0.78
0.88
0.98
80
90
100
120
140
160
180
200
250
300
350
400
450
1.1
t.24
K7 is a linear function of the height Z from heights of

thirty to nine hundred feet. This results in a triangular
wind distribution on the tower. In the 1982 Code the
value of K2 is a parabolic function (can be approximated
with a step function) for wind loading depicted in Table
4-9 and for dynamic gust response, K7 is governed by
lhe power law, Equation 4-74.
,r*
lz\2'
\r,)
@-78)
forZ <
15 feet
where values of Z" and d are given in Thble 4-10. The

parabolic function is a reflection of the old classical approach used in the ASA 58.1-1955, but is a more refined
distribution. The treatment of K2 in the dynamic gust response analysis is a new development in U.S. codes.
The force exerted on a tower immersed in a movins
fluid is a function of the properties ol the tower shapi
and properties of the fluid. The fluid properties of importance are the viscosity, density, and elasticity. Writing
this relationship in functional form we have
F = f(p, Y, I, p, a)
1.46
1.52
1.58
1 .63
1.67
19
1.29
| .34
1.38
1.45
1.52
1.58
I .63
1 .68
1.87
1.92
1.97
2.01
2.10
2.18
2.25
2.31
2.36
1.',79
2.O5
2.12
l8
velocity of sound
1.81
1.88
1.97
2.
.'7
1.7 5
2.4r
0 in our case, because winci
speeds are extremely low compared
to sonic
speeds
This equation shows that there is a relationship dictated by the dimensions of the parameters involved. Applying dimensional analysis makes the equation
-tpvt,
-t;
forz > ls feet
Kz=
l.
where a
r.32
r.37
| .24
1.16
1.28
1.39
1.49
1.58
1.67
1.75
1. 16
1.20
.27
1.06
1.13
1.05
r.07
500
0.80
0.87
0.93
0.98
P(Y2!2
,}:.
where each of the two components is a dimensionless parameter. The equation can be solved for the first dimensionless combination by
r _ - /pvi\
pv+-'\r/
(4-19
Equation 4-79 implies that the parameters F/(pVri:

(pYllp) have certain definite values that will be equa.
if a geometrically similar body with the same orientatio:
is moved through the same fluid or another fluid fo:
which pVflp has the same value as the first body. Tsi
such bodies are said to be dynamically similar and dr namic similarity is the key to wind tunnel tests. Assumins
and
that p has no influence on the force F, we can deduce
fror
Table 4-10
Exposure Category Constanls [111
Equation 4-79 (see any basic fluid mechanics text) and obtain
Exposure Category
B
3.0
4.5
10.0
orF:
Cp
pYz12
195
7.0
Do
1500
1200
900
700
0.025
0.010
0.00s
0.003
(4-80)
where Cp is a dimensionless empirical constant. Equation

4-80 states that, for a body of given orientation and shape
that is immersed in a moving fluid, the force experienced
is proportional to the kinetic energy per unit volume of the
motion of the fluid (p/2)V2 and a characteristic area f2. Cp
is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the force and
is called the /orce coefficient. Two bodies that are immersed in moving fluids are said to be similar (geometric
similarity) if their Reynolds numbers are equal. Then the
flows are dynamically similar and have equal force coefficients. The Reynolds number pVl y. is called a similairy
parameter. Figure 4-20 shows the influence of the Reynolds number, corner radius, and surface roughness on
the force coefficient on various bodies. The values of Cp
are determined empirically and are shown in the figure.
Sometimes this coefficient is referred to as the drag or
pressure coefficient.
Kuethe and Schetzer [12], use the Kutta-Joukowski
theorem to show that the force per unit length acting on a
right cylinder of any cross section whatever is equal to
pVf and acts perpendicular to V. The symbol f is circuIation flow about the cylinder and | = r'DV. The KuttaJoukowski principle is exemplified in Figure 4-211131.
Here the pressure distribution around the cylinder is
maximum ninety degrees to the air flow. Depending
upon the relative stiffness of the tower sections and mass
distribution. this perpendicular lorce vector can cause a
phenomenon known as ovaling, which will be discussed
r/h =
O.O21
1.8
---j ''--!1,
r/h = 0.167
lz'
0-4
(b)
1.2
,-"-01
I
I
I
t/h=
0.333
o.4
1.2
later.
In computing the wind forces on a tower, Equation 480 takes the following form in using ANSI A58. 1- 1982:
F:
q2GCpAg
whele qz
G:
Cp
Ar =
t/h=
(4-81)
wind pressure at height Z, EgrJation 4-77,
lb/fc
gust response factor for main wind-force
resisting systems of flexible structures
force coefficient
cross-sectional area of tower and other
attachments, ft2
The gust response factor, G, when multiplied by the

mean wind load, produces an equivalent static wind load
tO. 2
8105
ato6 2
8tO7
Ae
sanded
---Smooth
-
$rface
(d)
srrface
Figure 4-20. The curves depict the influence ofthe Reynolds

number, corner radius, and surface roughness on the drag coefficient, square to circular cylinders; r is the corner radius
and K is the sand grain size [9].
O.5
196
112
p!2
Figure 4-21. A sequence ofpressure fields forming around a cylinder at Nq6 = I 12,000 for approximately one third of one cycle
of vortex shedding (Flow-Induced Vibration by R. Blevins. @1977 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc. Reprinted by
oermission.)
that would induce deflections equal to those of a gusty

wind. MacDonald [14] refers to this approach as a quasistatic loading analysis. Quasi-static means that at any instant the stress and deflection induced in the tower are
the same as if the instanlaneous mean wind load were aoplied as a static load. Thus. the significanl factor is identifying the single highest peak value of instantaneous
mean wind speed, or that is, predicting the future worst
peak value. Baker and others found at the end of the
nineteenth century that there is a simple relationship between the gust frontal area and gust duration. This relationship provides a means of determining the size of the
gust, and is illustrated in Figure 4-22. The figure indicates that the worst wind condition for a Darticular tower
is not necessarily the maximum value of the wind velocity, but rather the highest wind speed of the particular
size of gust capable of totally enveloping it. To compensate for this in a simple quasi-static analysis, ANSI
A58.1-1982 gives rhe gust factor as
tJ:
L,.o.l +t
where
p:
lp
\p
11
?tr.,/s
Table 4-1 1
Probability ol Exceeding Wind Design Speed

P" = 1- (1 - P")N
Annual
Probability Design Lite ot Structure in N years

P,
1510
15 25 50 100
0.10 0.100 0.410 0.651 0.'194 0.928 0.995 o.999
0.05 0.050 0.226 0.401 0.537 0.723 0.923 0.994
0.01 0.010 0.049 0.096 0.140 0.222 0.395 0.634
0.005 0.005 0.025 0.049 0.072 0.118 0.222 0.394
D_
probability of exceeding design wind speed

dunng n years, where P : l-(1 - p.)"
annual probability of wind speed exceeding
_11
\r2
|
+ 0.002ci
e-82)
structural damping coefficienr (percentage of

critical damping). For normal working stress
conditions, 0.01 < P < 0.02 for towers.
given magnitude (Table 4-l l)

exposure factor evaluated at two-thirds the
mean height of the structure
S:
2.35(C,- )0 5
(Zl301rt"
structure size factor (Figure 4-23)

average horizontal dimension of the building
or structure in a direction normal to the wind.
ft
(see Example 4-2)
r97
l'--4-l
^,--l
Iv
MEAN VELOCITY: V
|-J
OUnOt'O".?
EFFECTIVE GUST DIAMETER
GUST DURATION
3
5
)165
15
tt
Figure 4-22. Diagram of relationship between gust duration and gust diameter.
For a tower with many obstructions, such as piping,

ladders, platforms, and clips that are comparable in size
to the vessel, the gust response factor can be determined
by:
"
r.:
0.9
:r[o3ora
^
0
20
30 r0 5060
80
t00
200
300 a005006008001000
hlftl
Figure 4-23. Structure size factor, s [l
l].
2000
= "--\/t.zsp
n r<
r.l.:zr,),s \' '

* 1+
o.oolc/
,I
(4-83)
The gust response factors given in Equations 4-82 and

4-83 are for flexible structures, such as towers, where
the height exceeds the minimum horizontal dimension at
least by five to one or the structure exhibits a natural frequency less than one. The fact that the tower may have a
natural frequency less than one is significant.
Simiu and Scanlan [9] point out that for natural frequencies greater than one, the response spectra are dependent on the structure's height. However, for natural
frequencies less than one, the spectra distribution has little influence on structural response, and the magnitude
ofturbulent fluctuation components, such as wind gusts,
at or near the natural frequency of the tower could significantly affect the structural response. For this reason
Equation 4-82 should be used for towers with particularly low natural frequencies.
Figure 4-24 shows a plot of wind gust velocity versus
the structural response of a structure. The cyclic loading
198
platform
Figure 4-24. Quasi-static structural response spectra versus

wind velocity [ 14].
DE
= effective diameter
of area resisting
wind
induced in the tower can result in fatisue failure of various vessel components.
Equation 4-81 contains the last parameter that must be
defined, Ar, the total cross-sectional area of the tower
and attachments that are perpendicular to the wind. This
area is computed by first determining the equivalent diameter of the area facing the wind. This can be expressed
AS
De
+ 2(vessel insulation thickness)

+ (pipe OD) + 2(pipe insulation thickness)
+ (platform projection)
(vessel OD)
(ladder
projection)
(4-84)
Equation 4-84 does not consider extraneous equipment

attached to a tower, such as reboilers. The engineer must
Figure 4-25A. Effective diameter can vary with height.
add the OD of the reboiler, plus twice the insulation

thickness, plus any other equipment diameters to Equation 4-84. Doing this and multiplying by a length over
which D" is effective determines As. Figure 4-25 shows
the effective or equivalent diameter.
FJ,
WIND-INDUCED MOMENTS
After the wind pressure distribution is obtained from
Ma+F"(2,-Z;+F,"rb
+ (F" +
M. + (F, +
Md + (F, +
Mb
FbXZb
Z")
Fb + FcXZc
Fb
+ F,r"
Zd) +
+ F. + Fi(Zd
Equation 4-77 , the distribution of section force vectors is

obtained from Equation 4-81. The force vectors, shown
in Figure 4-26, act through the centroids of the pressure
or in a general equation,
distribution sections. Referring to Figure 4-26, we see

that the wind moment distribution is obtained from the
wind force vectors through the following relationships:
M" = M"-1 * (2" -z 4n_t'Ll,t,,

-r\-p
1
i:
Fdtd
Z") + F"t"
-t c;
(4-85
199
insulation OD
d = plattorm angle
Figure 4-258. Wind area and force calculations for conical sections.
/i = section length, ft
Qi : wind shear at each section juncture
Mi : moment induced by wind profile, in.-lb
WIND.INDUCED DEFLECTIONS OF
TOWERS
Thll process towers and stack are treated like cantilever beams in computing deflections induced by wind.
Like a cantilever beam, when the tower deflects it translates and rotates at the same time. These translations and
rotations are most expediently computed by the method
of superposition. The three cases to consider in the superposition are a cantilever beam with a uniform load,
an end load, and an end couple. These three cases and
their accompanying equations are shown in Thble 4-12.
The first case of the uniform load reDresents the wind
load on the side of the tower, the second case o[ the edge
load represents the wind shear at the various shell sections, and the third case of the end couple represents the
case of couples produced at the shell section junctures by
the translation and rotation of the upper sections. This
combined loading is shown in Figure 4-26.
Adding the three cases we obtain the following:
6,'
llY{*!{,*M')
Er\8 3 2l
where
61
!1
W1
=
:
:
:
lateral translational deflection of section

length of section i
concentrated wind load (wi/), lb
wind profile, lb/ft
(4-86)
For rotation we have

/n- I \
l\-r.l
^,
_\?,'l
Er, \6 *q,r,_,,)
2
l
Total deflection
"=F
"{w,r,
,s
+F
(4-87)
,t.
(4-88)
WIND-INDUCED VIBRATIONS ON TALL

TOWERS
Chapter 2 discussed the phenomenon of vortex shedding inducing vibrations in piping systems. This chapter
focuses on the nature and techniques of analyzing vortex
i,
in.
shedding.
Over the years many researchers have made wind tun-
nel tests, proposed various analytical procedures, and

conducted field tests of various structures subjected to
wind loads. Wind-induced vibration was first noticed on
Mechanical Design of Process Svstems
Table 4-12
Cantilever Beam Formulas
Formula
1
Uniform
w--.'
Load
dITTtrM
End
Load
1i
T-
6EI
Q/'
2El
T-)
:vd
EI
w/,
,-\
4
End
Couple
wl2
6EI
w!2
,
, Mo{
-2EI-Er'
wf'
8EI
Qi,
3EI
lul{
2ET
iw{ -, wr +M)
EI\6
'
A:0t,
I\- olr
A=
tall stacks by Baker at the turn ofthe century. Since then,

many advances have been made in the field of aerodynamics allowing designers to adequately design tall
structures. This chapter discusses tall process towers and
Chapter 5 discusses tall stacks. The differences between
the two will become more clear in the following discussion. Staley and Graven u5l summarized the state ofthe
art of wind vibrations. Their studies indicate that even
though vortex excitation of higher modes has been obtained in wind tunnel tests, existing free-standing stacks
have always been observed to vibrate during vortex excitation at a frequency and with a mode shape associated
with the fundamental mode. Furthermore. the shaDe of
the dynamic lorce amplitude or existence of nearly constant frequency over the height of the stack (or "lockin") implies that dynamic response will almost entirely
be induced by the first mode. Staley and Graven concluded that all higher modes should be neglected in the
dynamic analysis and that the frequency and associated
critical wind velocity ofthe fundamental mode should be
considered. For this reason the Rayleigh method is the
industrially accepted method because it is used to determine an approximate value for the lowest natural frequency of a conservative system based on an assumed
confisuration of the first mode.
\2"1 "tw.t
I'+ w/
I'+M|
Er, l\6
2
What is clear in wind tunnel tests and field observations is that at low Reynolds numbers the tower is dynamically stable, vulnerable only to forced vibrations
and at higher Reynolds numbers a possibility of self-excited vibration will be present. From many field observations it can be concluded that the first peak vibration
amplitudes occur at the critical wind velocity Vr, which
corresponds to a Strouhal number of 0.2 with the forced
vibration as the basic source of excitation. Thus. it is sisnificant that the peak amplitudes of vibration determined
by forced vibration theory are in very good agreemenr
with field observations. This will be seen later in this
chapter in Example 4-4.
Even though the Rayleigh method is the industrialll
accepted method for the present, there are other methods
used to describe the vibration phenomena of tall process
towers and stacks. One such method was devised by N.
O. Myklestad, a great pioneer in the theory of vibrations.
The Myklestad method used in cantilever beams is essentially a Holzer procedure applied to the beam problem. Its strong point is utilizing field and point transfer
matrices to obtain relations that govern the flexural motion and vibrations of lumped-mass massless elastic
beam systems. This method is used in such applications
as aircraft wings where the structural component is sub-
jected to high Reynolds numbers. Since we have already

delineated the difference between cylinders subjected to
high and low Reynolds numbers and the fact that modes
higher than the fundamental mode can be neglected, the
Myklestad method has lost favor to the Rayleigh method.
We are primarily interested in forced vibration peak am-
plitudes of relatively low natural frequencies. Although

the Myklestad analysis is excellent for relatively clean
aerodynamic surfaces such as wings and missiles, its
practical use in process towers with attached ladders,
platforms, and piping is questionable. Even for stacks.
low Reynolds numbers allow for the fundamental mode
to dictate.
Before the Rayleigh method is applied to our analysis,
let us summarize some basic precepts. Equation 4-80
calculated the pressure force exerted on a cylinder by a
static wind. When dynamic effects settle in maximum actual amplitudes, these amplitudes often exceed those under static conditions. The net result is to multiply Equation 4-80 bv a masnification factor. To understand the
Vessels
2O1
magnification factor we must consider some basic principles.

Consider Figne 4-27 in which a system with a single
degree of freedom is subjected to viscous damping and
an externally imposed harmonic force. The spring is
denoted by stiffness k, the friction coefficient by c, mass
by m, displacement by x, impressed force as F sin cJt so,
we have
-X+.x +ki:
(4-89)
Fsin<rt
From the theory of differential equations we know that

the solution of Equation 4-89 is the superposition of the
general or complementary solution of the homogeneous
Equation 4-89 and the particular solution of the same relation. Writing this in equation form we have
X=X"*Xp
where X" is the complementary function and Xo is the
particular solution. This classical differential equation is
T"
*, = ]+ r|",1
lr-eol
I*
i
-7- -,
I
,-il]ur=
,=
--l[:
r6"
_L-
-r
r-i-
14.=s\"
4_.=o"lr,-.+r,.1
6!
-r
I_-r
l)'.
olFrt
==
[.
,r
6.
4_; qlL,.+r,-,+r, .l
.L A
4-.=qlq.,+ r'.+t'-..r.-"1
IA
L*
Figure 4-26. Schematic diagram of wind loadings and deflections of a tower.
202

we have
x.,
fStru"t = forcing function
damper-represents tower's
stiffness
Figure 4-27. The vibration of a tower is modeled as a sinsle

degree of freedom. which i5 exposed to an exrernally impos=ed
harmonic force and subjected to viscous damping.
(.4-9t)
"T -,,f-1_12r*
The maximum actual amplitude X of forced vibration

is obtained by multiplying the static deflection X,, b1
fraction X/X,,.
The fraction or ratio X/X* is called the dynamic magnification factor, D. These formulations indicate that the
nondimensional amplitude X/X,, and the phase angle, 0.
are functions of the frequency ratio r and the damping
factor f and are plotted in Figure 4-28. These curves indicate that the damping factor has a large influence on
the amplitude and phase angle in the frequency region
near resonance. From Equation 4-91 we see that at resonance the dynamic magnification factor, D, is inversell
proportional to the damping ratio, or
n-'
solved in numerous sources and will not be delved into

here. See Vierck [6] for a complete discussion of the
solution. The final solution takes the form of the followlng:
X(t)
e t''(A
cos (,Dt
B sin
ropt)
X., sin (c,rt - d)
{t -l t+ (r'tt
t:
(4-90)
c/c,
2(mk)ri2 is the critical damping factor that is the
criteria for critical damping such that
I : nonvibrating motion : overdamping
I : harmonic vibration : underdamping
a few percent of c. for a tall, slender structure such
as a tower
static deflection of the spring acted upon by the
fbrce F/K
c,,,/o : frequency ratio of forced vibration frequency
to free vibration frequency
E
E
K
M
Letting
and tan 0
X:
.(T
I -r
-l t+ (2rt
Freouencv
r.tio.
(;/o
Figure 4-28. The dynamic magnification factor versus the

frequency ratio for various amounts of damping. (From Slructural Dynamics by M. Paz. @ 1980 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission.)
The damping ratio, , is not known and extremely difiicult to measure at best. A practical method for experimentally determining the damping coefficient of a system is to initiate free vibration, and measure through
decreasing amplitudes of oscillatory motion, as shown in
Figtre 4-29. This decrease or decay is termed the logarithmic decrement, 6, and is defined as the natural loga-
rithm of the ratio of any two successive peak amplitudes,

X1 and X2 in free vibration. Expressing this in equation
tbrm we have
^x,
203
The force coefficient can be readily obtained from Figure 4-29. Equation 4-92 yields the maximum transverse
force per unit area of the projected surface of a cylinder
at resonance.
Equation 4-93 may be rewritten with the velocity in
miles oer hour as
F=
0.00086(CrD)(H)V1'?, for air at 50'F
(4-94a)
0.01I l3pCrDVr'?(dH)
(4-94b)
and
F=
x2
The evaluation of damping from the logarithmic decrement is given analytically by
X(t) :
Vessels
Ce-fdr cos(@Dt
cr)
It can be shown [17] that the dynamic magnification

factor, D, and the logarithmic decrement, A, are related
using the previous expression as
^T
(4-92)
These equations apply when the top third of the tower
is the controlling length. Often, the top fourth of the

stack may be best to use as the controlling length. An example ofthis would be a section on top ofthe tower that
is one fourth the total tower height and is significantly
greater in diameter than the section below (see Example
4-4). Thus, for the top foufih of the tower Equation 4-93
becomes
F=
0.00065(CrDXd)(H)Vr'?, for air at
50'F
(4-94c)
and
Most research data available for practical use are presented in terms of the logarithmic decrement, 6. Table 413 provides values of 6 versus D for various structures.
These values are acceptable for use
process towers and stacks.
in actual design of
Applying the dynamic magnification factor to Equation 4-80 we have

CeDpV2fz
(4-93)
0.07728pCeDVr'?(dH)
where d =
H=
Vr :
Vr :
T:
p:
(4-94d)
outside diameter of either upper r/: or r/+ of

tower, ft
total height of tower, ft
first critical wind velocitY,
3.40d/T, mph
first period of vibration, Hz
density of air at any specified temPerature,
lb/ft
z
=
9
h
6
Figure 4-29. The Reynolds number versus

the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder
tet.
Table 4-13
Conservative Values for Logarithmic Decrement
and Dynamic Magnilication Factor for Tall
Process Towers
Logarithmic
Decrement
Dynamic Magnitication
Factor
Low damping: rocky-stiff
soil, low-stressed pile
0.052
support, or structural
frame
Average damping: moderately
stiff soil, normal spread
0.080
High damping: soft soil,

fbundation on highly
o.t26
stressed friction piles
A:
Structural
25
Coefficients l1
Steel frame
Reinforced or prestressed concrete
Low stress levels

(a) 0.005 ( c ( 0.010
(b) 0.005 < c ( 0.010
Working stress
(a)0.01 <c (0.02

(b)0.01s < c < 0.03
C. =
c":2(Mk)05=28I).'
'
\386/
C:
Near yield
(a)0.M(c(0.06
(b)0.0s<c(0.10
critical damping factor
"
D.M:
k:
W=
damping factor
lbi-sec
ln.
tower stiffness, Ib/in.
^ tLl
\c./
: r/6
tower mass
c
tower stiffness, lb/in.
total tower weight, lbr
For tall, slender towers of constant diameter, the first

period of vibration is given by the expression
the static equilibrium point. For the potential energy o;

the system, the reverse is true. Thus,
T:
(K.E.)-,,
(l/0.5l)(WHa/gEI)o
where
g=
H:
(4-95)
32.2 ftlsec
total height of tower, ft
The Rayleigh method applies only ro undamped systems, but is found to be sufficientlv accurate for comDuting the fundamental frequency of process rowers. e;en
though towers have varying shell thicknesses down the
Iength that result in unevenly distributed mass and stiffness. The Rayleigh method is basically the conservation
of energy, i.e., the total kinetic energy of the system is
zero at the maximum disDlacement but is a maximum at
= (PE.).,- =
total energy of the system
will readily yield the natural frequency of the system.

To estimate the period of vibration using the Rayleigh
method the tower is considered as a series of lumpec
masses. These lumped masses are determined by consid
ering the weights of
The resulting equation
1. Shell and
heads
2. Trays and internals

3. Manways and nozzles
4. Insulation and fire proofing
These are summed for each section and the overall

:ower is considered as lumped masses at the centroid of
:ach section along its entire length. The assumption is
nade that the stiffness is constant along the entire length
Jf the tower; an assumption that greatly simplifies the
;omputations for the various deflections of the section
:entroids. The more sections, the greater the overall ac.-uracy achieved. Such a beam with lumped masses is
shown in Figure 4-30. For such a simple, one-mass, vibrating system, Timoshenko et al. [19] have shown that
rhe angular natural undamped frequency (rad/sec) for
such a system is
lewv\o'
(4-96)
\wv'/
Integrating Equation 4-96 numerically across the section

centroids of the tower results in
- :
+ Wzyb + ... + W,y.)/(W1y]

+ w2y3 + ... + w"yillo 5
(4-e7)
,"
(4-98)
[BOMry"
or
T_
[(i -")/(,8 *,,)]"
The section weights, Wi, are computed by using cumulative weights down the tower. Summing moments about
the base in Figure 4-30 we obtain the moment distribu-
tion in the tower as follows:
Mr=0
/-
+
M,-\21
= W, lKr
-\
K2l
M,
: wr () * *, * nJ + w,(?.
. *,(?)
\2
, Kil
)l
* *,lvr-*,\
-\ 2
205
")
(4-9e)
The moments obtained are used to determine the deflections induced by vortex shedding. The method of deflection computation is based on the area-moment (conjugate beam) method applied to a cantilever beam. In this
method the slope of the elastic bending curve of the actual beam is equal to the shear at the same point on the
conjugate beam, which is an idealized beam corresponding to the actual member. The deflection y of the actual
beam (or tower) at any point relative to its original position is equal to the bending moment at the corresponding
point on the conjugate beam that has the same M/EI area
of the actual beam. Figure 4-31 shows weights of the
vessel sections distributed about the section centroids
along with beam lengths used in the analysis. The conjugate beam method of computing deflection is demonstrated in Table 4-14. For an indepth analysis of the
method the reader is referred to Higdon et al. [20]. The
examples presented at the end of this chapter will clarify
this approach.
OVALING
Ovaling is a resonance phenomenon more common in
stacks rather than process towers. However, towers exhibit this phenomenon mostly during construction, before insulation and appurtenances are added to the vessel. To avoid ovaling, the designer should consider the
following guidelines.
The cylinder is considered as a ring that has a natural
freouencv
u. = w, lI1 +n.
Vessels
''-
7.58r.
of
vE
6oDt
Figure 4-30. A tower modeled as a sectionless beam with distributed lumped masses.
(4-100)
Table 4-14A
Vibration Deflections Based on the Coniugate Beam Method
,f
+*t*t
+ t'+
t-, I r_,
L, l- 15
l)
' -1.
|
w.w"vqq
Xs, = o,
r,
Mr
t4r
M,
E'It
ZE)l)
S,
+A, = A,
Pt*l.z:
ia, + e,\
\?/
Itt
Lr=Pr
M2
W1L1
RI+R'
,
-'
rr
19
EzI:
/v.
M,\
\E,I,
Err,/
52*41 :,A2
t?,
XL2:
M1
W1(L1
*L)
+ w2L2
-2
R,
+R.
I:
M:
E:I:
irur,\E.I-
xL2:
53+A.4
= Aj
M,:Mi r+Li
\-w
Ll
l:
Lo=l+R"
2
'.
14i14)
xL3 =
Sa A,=Aa
/eo +
lrl
xl-o =
shells,
FT
r '2_ Ri +Ri+r
\E,
rli+
M, I
E,l,/
s'
+D
/Ai +
Irl
I. v. /u.-' M"\ s"

E"r. \E"I" E"I"/
xLn:
M"+L"
xFw,
L,l
Co_mputation
A"
lil
S"
of lateral y deflections. For formulas of y
see Table 4-16C.

bending moment diagram oi conjusate beam
slope of real beam elasric curve -- shear of conjugate beam moment diagram of real beam : load diagram of conjugate beam
y1
fu)(12), in.
deflection of real beam
pt
Pa
Ai*ri
xL; :
S:=Ar
Ptr ps:
Pr
el
xl-a =
xl-i = S
M"+r
pt
So
/ M,*,
For cylindrical
Ptl p+:
P2
S1
Mr lM.,M.\
EoL, \E5I5 E4I4/
-v
r:
* ir:
\21
wr(Lr + L2
+ L1) +W2
(L2 + L3) +
W:L,
Pz
52
M, \
E,I,/
XL3:
a.\
/a, +
P1
Pi
irr+r
: I
Table 4-148
Beam Method-Section Break Method
Deflections
Based
on
the
Coniugate
Vibralion
lttrttl
w"
Mi
Mr
w'r
li
:0
Ir
w.{
Y "Y
Ds, = o,
M/Eili
Mr
ErIt
Mr -
sr
p = M;d2xlE;11
Pi
= Mrdx/Eili
+Ar:Ar
/e' +
l?l
2El1
xLq:P1
/-
Mj-
W,lr(r
+ ^\
r(?l
\21
Ir
= W,Lj
M,
/vt, M2\
EtI,
\t'313
s2
+ A,
A/
l'212l
{rf
\2
r!\-w,fIL$,\
2l '\ 2 l
Er
Wr(Lr + Lr) + WrL2
\2
W1(L1
t"
L2
+ Lr) +
'
2r..
xL2 =
52
Mrl
/Mr\E.I.
53+A*:4,
Err',/
lA, +
lrl
Ri
u,' = w l/! +R, +Ri*w,(R,+
2l '\ 2
:
Ir
MJ
EoL
M,:w(q+*,**.*&\
2l
\2
It,
r, \
lrvrl f, wlrl
\E4I4 E4I4/
xL4:
15 l&
E:I:
ra+45:Ad
Po*/r: = lr
\)
xL4 =
P4
54
/tut, , tuto \
\E+ E.L/
s5
Dsi
f,L,+a"\
lrl
xL5:
xL5 =
P3
/eo + ,+,\
+w,l&+n.+!l
'\2
2l
Ps
*ro = rs
P5
55
+ &l
-\21
+ w.lR.
lvl" = lvl^ r+L",
W,-l
r,sr --,
I,
M"
/tut"-,
Ik
\EJ"
tnl"
-, E t/\
_jI
2
L" =
P^
xL":S"
M.+
= M"+L"
<Fw,
t:l
y = (pi)(12) ft
ttz
Pr*t.,:/:
Aql
xL3 =
W2L2
't pt :
xL2 = P'
_M,
M, = w,lR' , R,
Pt
S"=A"
@ : ebrupt section break
k : n + (number of abrupt
Infigureabove,k=n*1
section breaks)
Table 4-14C
Centroids ol Shell Volumes
b(4a
3t)
':'(T i
Conical Section
3H(D":
v
6[{D"r
- Di) + 8Hr@., - Di") tano

-Dit - 2H{D., - D.,) randj
k-t--l
The vortex shedding frequency is given by
f,"D
0.2v
where
process columns, because these vessels usually hare

(4-101)
many external, attached appurtenances. What is more

commonly done with towers is to stiffen up shell sectiont
to offset ovaling resonance. See Chapter 5 for more information on ovaling.
45 mph or 66 fps
If for any section of the tower fi < 2f,, ovaling vibration

is imminent. The resonance wind velocity that would
CRITERIA FOR VIBRATION ANALVSIS
theoretically induce ovaling is

60 f.D
where s
Strouhal number
(4-1o2)
0.2 for this application
To counter ovaling vibration, ovaling rings or helical

strakes are added. These normallv are not oractical for
While there is no absolute parameter available for determining whether a vibration analysis is required, there
are certain guidelines for designing towers.
1. If the critical wind velocity, V1, exceeds 60 mpf.

then a vibration analysis is not required. Very feu
cases of severe vortex excitation have been ot served for wind velocities in this ranee.
Vessels
209
2. If the first critical wind

3.
z- 4-_}
q-
+-
velocity, V|, is greater than

the wind design speed, a vibration analysis is not
required.
The limiting minimum height-to-diameter ratios H/
d are as follows:
H/d
H/d
H/d
4.
columns
)
)
(4- 103)
The Zorilla criterion for vibration analysis is as fol-
LD,
20
vibration analysis must
ZW
be performed
" -' analysis shouldr, vibration

<,^, (- ".
o_.-'il
25 <
5.
(4-lo4)
vibration analysis need
--LDI
not be performed
If
the total force on the tower induced by the first

critical wind velocity V1 does not exceed l/rs of the
operating (corroded) weight W or
1"
:oViHd
')"
i
:
.1+_
13 unlined
15 lined
15 process
lows:
+
q
+-
stacks
stacks
>
>
o15
(4- 105)
Further guidelines and procedures for stacks are disin Chapter 5.
cussed
q-
SEISMIC DESIGN OF TALL TOWERS
++-
There are several ways to analyze earthquake forces

imposed on a structure. The procedures outlined in the
Uniform Building Code [10] are the simplest and most
straightforward, but do not account for all of the signifi-
'--+---1
r+_
Figure 4-31. The vibration ensemble in which each section
weisht is located at the section centroid.
cant dynamic properties of structures. Large, complex

structures, such as so-story buildings, nuclear power
plants, large dams, and long suspension bridges, require
a more thorough dynamic analysis. Fortunately, the

UBC method is accurate enough for most tall, process
tower/stack design problems and is presented here.
In seismic analysis the design spectrum is not a specification of a particular earthquake ground motion; it is a
specification of the strengths of structures. For this reason the tower must be ductile enough to absorb energy
without ultimate yield. This implies that for the structure
to absorb energy that exceeds maximum design conditions the overall structure deformation will be ductile
210
I :
g=
rather than brittle. The result is that while more risorous

analyses are very helpful in determining design ciiteria.
practical design procedures are simplifications of the

complex dynamic phenomenon used as'.quasi" static
criteria applied with elastic srress limits.
The Uniform Building Code 1982 [10] requires thar all
freestanding structures in seismic zones to be desisned
and constructed to with5tand a total lateral force t-base
shear) given by
V:
ZIKCSW
:
I :
K :
c :
s =
=
where Z
(4- 106)
seismic zone factor (see Figure 4-32)

occupancy importance factor : I for all
process towers and stacks
structure type coefficient
structure period response factor
slte structure interaction factor
total operating weight of tower above ground
The structure type coefficient,
K=
K=
K, is as follows:
t,h.n
>
1.5
tskin
^l :
L
(4_107)
15"rF
-sec
T = structure period of vibration, sec, with
c","" : 0.12
where
For short, stiff structures, such as horizontal vessel supports, in lieu of making a period calculation, the response factor C may be taken as equal to C."".
For most industrially accepted design methods, the effects of the soil-structure interaction are considered.
This is done in the Uniform Building Code by using the
ratio of the fundamental elastic period of vibration of the
tower, T, to the characteristic site period, T,.
Formulations used to determine the fundamental natural period ofvibration for seismic response vary as to the
type of structural cross-section considered. The generally accepted equation for towers of uniform cross-sec-
tion is
'l--
1=
17.65e v
and for
29
where D,,,
where
LI
E_
fundamental period, sec

total heighr, ft
weight per unit of height, lb/ft
shell thickness, in.
modulus of elasticity, psi
\D",i
(4- l09
106 psi,
For a tower with uniform cross section and tapered

(conical) skirt the following relationship can be used in
computing the fundamental period:
= 2" (o qod)"
6=
(4-111
the calculated deflection at top of tower induced

by 1007" of irs weight applied as a laleral load
With towers of varying cross sections and attaching

equipment, a method used to determine the fundamental
frequency was developed by Warren W. Mitchell in an
unpublished work [21]. The solution is based on the Ravleigh method ofequating porenlial and kinetic energies in
a vibrating system. The resulting formulation is readill
useful in computing fundamental periods of cylindrical.
tapered-cylindrical, and step-tapered-cylindrical structures common to the petrochemical industry (CpI). The
formulation is as follows:
,: ln)' \,F-4DfEo, +
\100/
where
a.y
T
H
w
lrql"
\EIei
l[)'^1tz*o''
r
mean diameter of tower, ft
t.re
/ \, t::-t0-")
(4-110)
where
The structure period response factor, C, is determined

by
ft
32.2 ftlsec2
When Equation 4-108 is applied to sreel wirh a value of

E 30 x 106 psi we have
2.0 for vertical vessels on skirt supports

2.5 for vertical vessels on skirts when
moment of inertia,
(4- 108)
:
=
(4 Il2r
period, sec
overall height of tower, ft
distributed weight (lb/f0 of each section
concentrated loads attached to the tower
at any level, that add mass but do not
contribute to the stiffness of the tower
modulus of elasticity (106 psi) for each
section
coefficients for a given elevation

depending on the ratio of the height of
the elevation above grade to the overall
height of the tower (h,/H)
Vessels
3
E
xllo
ollR
;llo
ll0
o||o
;''ll,ro
Ell'
!l]f;
tl
"ll:
oLJ
nt
ol
ol
Ll
65
!o
6
6l
-R5C
NI
ol
6l
211
212
Ao, A.y
differentials in the values of a and .y,

from the top to the bottom of each
section of uniform weight, diameter,
and thickness. 6 is determined from
each concenttated mass. Values of
and "r are shown in Table 4-15.
a. 6.
In applying Equation 4-ll2 the following factors
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SHEAR

FORCES
For towers having an overall height-to-base-width ra-
tio greater than 3.0, a portion of the total earthquake
force. V. shall be applied ro rhe top of the tower aciording to the following relationships:
should be considered:
For,
n Ifa tower's lower section is several times wider in diameter and shorter than the upper sections, then the
tower's period can be more accurately determined by
computing the upper section's period, assuming that
the tower is fixed as to translational and rotational displacement. If a tower's shell diameter or thickness is
significantly larger than that of the supporring skirt,

the period calculated by Equation 4-112 may be
overly conservative for earthquake design and a more
accurate method may be desirable.
D For conical tower sections the Mitchell eouation
can'coefficients
not be used because of lack of data for the
a, B, and 7. The Rayleigh equation (Equation 4-97) is
more comprehensive and ubiquitous in application.
Once the fundamental period of vibration is determined, the numerical coefficient for the site structure interaction (seismic site-structure resonance coefficient),
S, can be determined. As previously stated, the soilstructure interaction is considered in most industrially
accepted methods. The value of S is determined by the
following formulas:
For T/T,
1.0
For T/T.
1.2
1.0,
+:T,>
+
0.5
/ \.
ITI'
l:l
\T,i
(4-l l3a)
;<3.0,F,:0
h
3.0<:
< 6.12. F. =
l)
h
6.12, F,
;>
where F,
V=
F^
0.3
E)'
\r,/
(4-l l3b)
s > 1.0
(c) (s) < 0.14
The characteristic site period, T,, falls into the following
sec
When T. is not properly established, S is taken as 1.5,

except when T exceeds 2.5 seconds, S can be determined
by assuming a value of 2.5 seconds for Ts.
total force applied at top of structure

overall height of tower, ft
diameter of tower, ft
total base shear from Equation 4-106
14-1
l5
\-w
r,
LJ "I\
where F* :
W* =
h, =
lateral force applied to a mass at level x, lb

weight of mass at level x, lb
height of level x above the base (normally
measured from bottom of the base plate of
the tower), ft
the sum of the products of w" and h, for all
the masses within the structure, ftlb
The seismic moments are computed from the following

expression:
M:
V, L, _,
where
Lr,-, :
(4-116)
F*,C;
length of section below shear force,
ft
Ci - L,lZ for a cylinder

/.\f 2 ^zrrr' + rr'l
^21
tlme:
0.5 < T. < 2.5
(4-ll4)
0.lsv
tt/ 1,
: (V F,) """
Ewh
I T,
TV
The remainder of the total seismic force is distributed

and applied to the mass distribution in the structure according to the following equation:
1.0,
0.6
h:
D=
0.07
c - lil lrl-+
\+/Lri+rlr,+r;I
foracone tsee Figure 4-33r
For an illustration of seismic analysis, see Example

4-3.
213
Table 4-15
Coefficients for Determining Period of Vibration of Free-Standing Cylindrical Shells
Having Varying Cross Sections and Mass Distribution'
nx
h"
I .00
0.99
2.103
8.347
2.02r
8.12l
0.98
0.97
0.96
1.941
1.863
1.787
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
1.642
1.513
1.506
0.91
1.440
0.90
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.84
0.83
0.82
1.377
1.316
1.256
1 .199
0.988
0.939
4.930
4.758
0.81
0.892
0.80
0.847
0.804
0.762
0.722
0.683
0.646
0.610
0.576
0.543
0.512
0.'79
0.78
0.'77
0.76
0.75
0.74
o.73
0.72
0.7
0.70
0.69
0.68
0.6'7
0.66
0.65
0.64
0.63
0,62
0.61
0,60
0.59
0.58
0.56
0.55
0.54
0.53
0.52
0.51
'vi,cher
.'7
t4
1.143
1.090
1.038
7.898
.678
'7
.461
7 .248
l .000000
1.000000
1.000000
l .000000
1.000000
0.50
0.49
0.48
0.0998
0.0909
0.0826
0.9863
0.9210
0.8584
0.7987
0.95573
0.95143
0.94683
0.94r 89
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.0'749
o.74r8
0.93661
0.0678
0.0612
0.9309'7
0.41
0.0442
0.6876
0.6361
0.5872
0.5409
0.4971
0.40
0.39
0.0395
0.4'7
6.830
6.626
6.425
6.227
0.999999
0.999998
0.999997
0.999994
o.999989
0.999982
6.O32
0.9999't I
5.840
5.652
5.467
5.285
0.999956
o.999934
0.999905
0.999867
0.999817
0.999154
o.999614
0.3 8
4.589
4.424
4.261
0.9995'76
0.31
0.999455
o.999309
4.1o2
3.946
0.999t33
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.27
0.26
o.25
0.24
o.23
0.22
'7
.O3'7
5. 106
3.794
3.645
3.499
3.356
3.217
0.998923
0.998676
0.998385
o.37
0.36
0.35
o.34
0.33
0.32
3.081
0.998047
0.997656
0.997205
0.996689
0.481
2.949
0.996101
0.453
o.425
0.399
0.374
o.3497
0.3269
0.3052
2.820
2.694
o.995434
0.993834
0.992885
0.17
0.99183
0.99065
0. 15
0. 14
0. 13
o.2846
o.2650
o.2464
o.2288
2.OO89
o.2122
1.61'7'7
0. 1965
0. l8l6
1.52'79
2.57
2.3365
2.2240
2.1r48
1.9062
1.8068
1.7107
0.99468 r
0.98934
0.98789
0.98630
0.98455
o.98262
0.980s2
0.97823
1.4413
1 .3579
0.97 573
0.1676
1.1545
I .217 5
0.97W7
0.1421
0.1305
0.1196
1.2002
1.1259
0.96688
0.96344
1.0547
0.959'73
rormura:
r- ,, E wA. . ,ruiE
t {#l
ti--S;;-
0.97301
pB
o.21
0.20
0. l9
0. 18
0. 1094
0.0551
0.0494
0.0351
0.0311
0.455'7
0.416'7
0.3801
0.888&
0.88001
0.0185
0.2552
0.0161
0.2291
0.2050
0.1826
0.16200
0.14308
o.12516
0.10997
0.09564
0.82901
o.0826'7
0.07101
0.7 r 55
0.6981
0.06056
0.05126
0.04303
0.03579
0.02948
0.02400
0.6800
0.6610
0.@13
o.6207
0.01931
0.01531
0.5536
0.5295
0.5044
0.4783
0.0140
0.0120
0.010293
0.008769
0.00-t426
0.006249
0.005222
0.oo4332
0.003564
0.002907
0.002349
0.001878
0.001485
0.11
0.000081
0.00361
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.000051
o.00249
0.00165
0.00104
0.00062
0.00034
0.00016
0.00007
0.00002
0.00000
0.00000
0.
0.01
0.
0.90448
0.89679
o.0242
0.0212
0.12
l6
o.911'73
0.3456
0.3134
0.2833
o.o2'7 5
0.001159
0.000893
0.000677
0.000504
0.000368
0.000263
0.000183
0.000124
0.
o.92495
0.91854
0.000030
0.000017
0.000009
0.0000M
0.000002
0.000001
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.
0.01196
0.00917
0.00689
0.00506
0.87088
0.86123
0.85105
0.84032
0.81710
0.804s9
0.79t4
0.7716
0.7632
0.7480
o.'7321
0.5992
o.57 69
o.4512
0.4231
0.3940
0.3639
0.3327
0.3003
0.2669
0.2323
0. 1966
o.159'1
0.1216
0.0823
0.0418
0.
214

r"o=
OO SMALL END
r-= OD LARGE END
TRUNCATED CONE
that the cone-to-cylinder stresses computed by the equivalent circle method are very close in magnitude to those
computed by more exact methods. Because of its close
approximate answers and simplicity, the equivalent circle method is normally the method used for treating conical sections in towers. The method will only be outlined
here, as others l22l have already derived it.
Figure 4-33 shows how the sections of a truncated
cone and a conical head are approximated by an equivalent circle, which is used to compute the section modulus
and moment of inertia. These formulations are used in
tower design and are demonstrated in the examples that
follow.
Conical shells used in tower sections have a half anex
anglecv ( 30degrees. Whenh. ( 0.10H, rhecon..an
be approximated by considering two cylinders shown
with dotted lines (Figure 4-34). In pracrice, stiffening
rings must be used when required by the vessel code.
,."=[*&l
CONICAL HEAD
Figure 4-33. The equivalent radius for cones.
L
t\/2
T'
TOWER SHELL DISCONTINUITIES AND

CONICAL SECTIONS
Most vessel codes do not discuss the analytical computation of tower shell discontinuity stresses, which are
prevented by welding stiffening rings to the outside shell
of conical sections. In addition, most codes do not consider discontinuity stresses on cylindrical shell sections.
The ASME Section VIII Division I uses a safety factor of
four to one to compensate for not computing these
stresses.
Conical sections can be tieated quite simply by utilizing the equivalent circle technique. Bednar [22] shows
Figure 4-34. When h" ( 0.1 H, the cone can be approximated

by considering the two cylinders shown with dotted lines.
EXAMPLE 4-l: WEAR PLATE

REOUIREMENT ANALYSIS
o:
Vessel
material
:
:
Q : 7,828.981
cA:0
5A-516-70
5.4.-36
Temp:300'F
Design pressure
lb
\12
or =
oo
8(1.750)
R-
l5oo
t.750
or + op :
=k
0.857
o.u5
7,828.981
4(0.94r)[0.375
rad
+ L < 8R
14.00
1.s6[(21)(0.94)]0
-284.547
928.358
|,212.905 psi <
<
1.25 dr,rr
21,875
ring compressive stress in shell over saddle
_
[t# (, ,,1] [H#]
7,828.981
(0.941)[0.375
1.56[(2 1X0.941)]0rl
.I
: iilllt'.t :
5l
l2(0.05x7,828.98 1)(l.7s0)
(10x0.941)r
80.0'
lr -
1,67i.50
os
1,728.00psi
865.678 psi
<
<
I
I.990
19,000
psi
- cos(u4)
+
sin
(l t4) cos (l14,
0.5 o,
Since the ring compressive stress and the circumferen-
tial
At Midspan
stress at the saddle are less than one half
of yield
stress and the allowable stress, respectively, wear plates
are not required.
From Equation 4-3
'
1,715.34t0r'
50.501 psi
: -!D
orr
8R
From Equation 4-1 at the saddle,
., = 10*13910)
oo
circumferential stress at horn of saddle
_
1.396
r:lrso-91 =tzo'
\21
t l5e
I
.r = __: l:: + 301 :
180
02
o7
671 psi
120"
37.845 psi
o2-r:
A horizontal vessel containing hot oil is to be completely analyzed using the Zick method to determine
wear plate requirements (Figure 4-35).
Saddle material
215
3(7,828.981X 10.0)
?r(21.0)11.0)
EXAMPLE 4-2: MEGHANIGAL

DESIGN OF A PROCESS COLUMN
o 600]
A detailed mechanical design is required for the proin Figure 4-36. The design criteria
10'-o'
cess column shown

are as follows:
I
ol
i-l
c\t
*l
-l
Design temperature: - 150"F

Design wind speed
100 mph
Internal pressure at top head: 150 psig
Internal pressure at boftom head: 162 psig
Shell material: 304 SS
Skirt material: 436

External pressure requirement: None
PWHT: Yes
o-o
Figure 4-35, Horizontal pressure vessel containing hot oil.
Radiograph: Full
Ambient temperature
lO"F min, 100oF max
Wind distribution is to be computed from ASNI-A58.11982:
216
towER ANo
TNTEFATS
(Nor
ro
scAL)
Ill;,
TTJBE
I ltt
I rtt
r rrtl
ltttr
_!_rt-!-!
'..
VIBBATON ENSEMALE
-7
SHELL AND
HEAT EXCHANGER
l:'
"oo
-------+
t$
'roP
aEo
1.,
-'..
,tt
__ _.j--L___
___i-L__
____--L__
-------lr:l-
r*-------lli-I:
csruliiinny
,"r"*""
-T
I
I
BOTIOMBEO
-ti
.__i1___
-Tl
"-*.-,J:l
l*IU
l"l
F.-i-----+r
N.RMAL LrourD
.."r.
ri
--l
-f
FI
+-
Figure 4-36. Tower analyses ensembles.
WINO
ENSEMBLE

9z
Kz
:2.58
0.00256 Kz (IV)'z;
2.58
Top portion of tower,
/r
s\'"
IZJ
for
z<
rs ft
Tower is in Exposure Category C, for which
217
Effective Cross-sectional Area (Figure 4-37)
= 100 mph
D" = 66.5 tn. + (12.75 +

Kz
Vessels
.0, Ze
900,
D" =
12
in.
in. + (12.75 + 1l) in.
12)
12 in. pipe
12 in. pipe
plus
insulation
plus
insulation
127.00 in.
\-7-
ladders
0.005
and
platforms
.At 15 ft,
Bottom portion,
l1\''' = o.rot
K,:2.58f
\900/
D.
47.O il:'.
ForZ)15ft,
K,'. :
2.58
/ 7
l:l
V=
I=
az
in. +
12
in.
ft,
f:
0.01
107.50 in.
100 mph,
h=
104.292
0.981 Hz
/szzor\
c = 1""'-- I { l27.ool
and 5 of A58.1-1982,
\r04.2921
1.0
0.00256(0.801)( 1001
I 7
o,
'" = 0.00256(2.58)1"
\D
I
20.506 lb/fC,
z<
15
I7
66.048
fr
.(t+*)(ro75o) = 11s3s5
286
(100F
From A.58.1 Table A9,
\900/
11)
Structural damping coefficient
0.00256(0.801)(Iv)':
From Thbles
+ r2) in.
Gust Response Factor
\900/
(12.75
(12.'75
\0286
For 15 ft and under,
qz
1.00
- 0.5 Ih (10.5X0.981)1104.2921
r:_=#=lu.t4J
(1.00X100)
sv
\0.286
(eoo-1 . z > ts rt
tz'?erre1*
u'r","*-rr*I.$
'*"u'o''on
ffJ
Y
Figure 4-37. Effective cross sectional area.
s:
1i'0
PtpE
6" THtcK
INSULATION
214

1o4,292ft
ir rs.:os\
\ t'? /:
9:
h
1o4.292
ffi:
o.oe5:c
I 18.305
+-
_>..
9.859
#----->r
ooo"
I-
0.0055,
y=
D_
fly :
(10.743)(0.0055X0.145)
6.145
0.009
*--->..
o
oo.*,(fr-o|"'",0r,,.
=
: l.l
For a tower with many attachments and connecting piping,
c-
0.6s
, [g!q * [(3 32x0 147)l?(l l)105

0.01 I { (0.002X9.85s).1
q--->E
(4-83)
G=
0.65
1.076
1.726
*+r-
30'oo
From Simiu[9],
\+-{)-->
9:9zG
f00t
Figure 4-38 shows the wind pressure distribution q plotted along the tower length.
l5.oort
'|
+;
Figure 4-38. Wind force distribution (q) along tower is para

bolic above 15 feet. Section wind force distributions are combined into a force vector located at the centroid of the wini
Centroid of a Spandrel Segment
section.
The centroid ofa parabolic segment is shown in Figure

4-39. Applying the general equation, Equation 4-117, to
our case we obtain
. t^
\
i _ tn + Ql llaqn I ngn.tl ,.t
2(n + 2(}\ \dqn + nqn r/
.t
.r
(4-117)
From Figure 4-39 we obtain a general expression for the

composlte area,
t7 -7
.\
Af - ::l-----:l--I
{dqn + nqn r). lb/ft
(n+q)
(4-118)
Solving for the wind resultant force acting through each

centroid we obtain,
F:
AO"CI
Using this equation we compute the wind force distribution. From Figure 4-20, Cr = 0.6. Solving for sectior
properties we have the following:
aa
'" :66.048
Section
Z:
I7
\2t1
1.-l
\900/
A
104.292
tt
Vessels
)|
) l^l
NINI
il:
$l-
il-
-l;l
il-
st?l
.l+l
Nlcl
IN
ql
,_l-l
Nt
-,I
^,1
:l
qo
N
I
6
F
YI
1F
(l
r<
T-l
'-l
.el
gilrl
Lr-'
t:-o
Nir++
re
g^1
ihl
Ll
rN
Jii
Q,ni+++
u,-
E
(JO
=x":
N.
I.t
"l
^lN
rf.f
^
r',.'NS
Ntd
ol
tN+
1l
--t^
!L!
!L
>
tL>
(!
:l'
:-^ ldl
o* l.
l
<t)
-___t91
- t:
F[?
'iYrl
tl
,Yl.l
dlB
<ft
tl
q)
^l
tt
rr llld
!
ilisl
N' ll
tql
'i! | -;-
o.l' nu' xl
d;d
(G
q
Rt
-----i:--
--J9
'l
.9
=N
oo
tN
lt
IN
\t-l
IN
:*
()+
i l'l
Nl.
rl-
ll
'N
219
220
/rr}4 rq?\0
--l 28o
l:: :
9z
66.048
q"
(l.726X3s.659)
9n-
\vwi
/ qR \0
q":48.852
6r.547
e"-r
286
l:;l
726t
Section D
35.659
166.048)
(12.75 )[(7X48.8s2)
(6.292)l(7)(6t.s47)
: (r.726)ffiul- (66.048):44.573
60.461
(2)(44.s73)l
(2)(60.461)l
2+7
610.739
385.735 lb/ft
r9r [r2rrzrror.5+zr r- r2x60.461)1,. .^..

2t2 . A, [ {ix6tJ47) + {2x60r'61) l'" "''
3. 151
o.
\o
(66.048)
(8.00x7)(60.461)
^_
:48 I
103
(2X59.007)l
(7x60.461)
+
+
(2
X59.007,,l
{8.00}
(2)(59.007)l
s l{zxzlt++.stz) + )(43.097)l (3.7s

z: tlnl
0e4.sb + (2)@3.097
0)t44.s7,
(2
t)
4.009 ft
1.881
ft
Section F
59 007
(43.50X7)(s9.007)
(7)(s9.007)
22.128 ft
(66.048)
4s.352
(2)(48.852)l
2,468.640 lb/ft
(2X7X59.007) +
z: zl
32 [
+
(2X43.097)l
165.919
q.-, = (t.i26) (*#)""' (66.048) =
(66.048):43.097
s9.007
lb/ft
(2)(7)(60.461)
J2
Section C
x,r4.571)l
ft
286
\vw/
q"
6.430
{2
60.461
/ qn
Section E
, = 1l.726] lîl
-s
11211t11+r.tsz1
ft
Section B
q" =
,,., ,.,
nL 0@e8sz)
nL
a)@e8sz) + t2\44.s1rll"'''l
39.943
(2)(39.943)l
296 .713lblft
(2)(48.8s2)
(2X48.8s2) ]
,0, ,0,
eI(2)
nl
32 |
(7
('7
)(43.o97)
)|43.097)
+ (2X39. 943)
+ 12)(39.943)]n
oo,
Section J
Section G
q"
39.943
35.347
/ro
C"
oo\0
28o
| = (1.726) l-:::::l
(66.048)
\vlru/
^ :
z-
(3.00)ft?X39.943)
: 38.378
(2X38.378)l
9"_r
1.506
q(2"
Z" ,) =
(3s.347X15.0)
530.205 lb/ft
ft
z.so r,
Now solving for the section forces we have
38.378
(1.726)
:
:
/r?
on\o
Section
(66.048)
36.63s
(2X36.635)l
e l2IlI38.3Z8rj i?I36.61s)l ,r nn,

321 (7x38.378) + (2)(36.635t'- "-'
(1.726)
/, <
^^\o
286
lj':Y:l
\vUU/
(2.00)[(7)(36.63s)
^_
72.697
t66.048)
35.347
FB
Fc
FD
Fr- =
(481.103)
(3
ft
\ rl
(2.468.&0) {l?lq.
^
0l
\tzl
2,44e.4r7 tb
(6r0.73e)
{toLtol ,0.u, =
\12
n65.919r l'07
501
\12l
ro.ur
(ue- ) ,0 u, :
\ 12 /
es6.ii3)
F6
(u8.786) {'ol=to) to.u,t

\ Lz I
r," = (n3.e7z) (!Zi2t\

\
(s30.205)
,o
/'
\12
3,2E2.i22 rb
u,
31,,141.650 lb
Eel.8r5
rb
,5e5. r55 rb
638.475 lb
612.6oo rb
3e0.746 lb
Ito],to) ,0.u, =
,r.oo,
Fc
t5,675.864 lb
3.055.004 lb
(0.6)
FF
Fr
,0." :
{'t]ôol to.ut
lblft
32
32[
1.003
(385.7rs) ('']=oo)
12 /
Ft = (72.6si) I'ol=tol to.u, =

r2
(2X35.347)]
- s[(2) (7 (36. 63 s) + (2) 5.347 )

Z=-l
(7X36.635) + (2\(3s.347)
:
":
ft
q":36.635
ArD"Cr
2s6
l:::-:::;
\7wl
ll).972lblft
1.507
F=
FA
q"_r
35.347
ll :
(3.00)t(7x38.378)
^_
-i
lb/ft
118.786
Section H
At
rle9.:]s{ c.oo,
: 32e [r2rtrr32i+rt
| e)e9.943) + {2x38.378)l '- --'
q"
9n_r
2,84e.852 lb
222
Solving for section moments we use the following ex-
presslon:
n-
"OD 16 BWG TUBE
M"=M" t+(z^,-z^)DF,_,
+
af\
F,z.
(4-8s)
M^
(2449.417)(3.151)
Ms
7,718, 113
Mc
39,560.960 + (5504.421X43.5)
+ (15,675.864)(22.128) = 625,g7g.rt
MD :
ME
Mn
Mc
Mr
7,718.113 ft-lb
+ (2449.4r7)(8.oo)
(3,055.004X4.009) : 39,560.960 ft-lb
tt-tt
+ (2r,180.285)(12.75)
(3,282.722)(6.430) : 917,035.328 ft-lb
625,878.792
Figure 4-40. The tube bundle is modeled in banks ofconcentric circles used to approximate the section moment of inertia.
The tube bundle enhances the section stiffness.
9r7,035.328 + (24,463.007)(3.75)
+ (891.815)(1.881) : 1,010,449.109 ft-lb
1,010,,149.109
(25,354.822)(7 .00)
(1,s9s.155)(3.s2s)
1,193,555.784
Mu:
Mr
I,193,555.784 ft-lb
(26,949.9'77)(3.OO)
(638.475X1.506)
+ (27,5 88.4s2)(3.00)
+ (612.600Xr.491) : 1,359,046.001 ft-lb
1,275,367.258
1,359,046.001
1,415,840.023
+
+
(28,201.052X2.00)
(390.746X1.003)
1,415,840.023 ft-lb
For l-in. OD i6 BWG tube,
|,275,367 .258 tt-tb
(28,591.798)(15.0)
(2,849 .8s2)(',7 .s0)
1,866,090.883 ft-lb
I :
A:
K:
n :
0.0210 in.a
0.191 in.2
metal cross section

metal area
number of tubes per circle

number of circles
Thus, from the parallel-axis theorem the composite moment of inertia is
Section Moments of Inertia

Section
,."
a-rl+-in.
" ffs+.sol, _ ile\"]

64 1\t2 I
\12/J
Section
b-3/a in.
I:
: 0.756
DKIG + AL)
Values of
The shell and tube heat exchanger section moment of

inertia is approximated by a set of concentric circles of
tubes. The concentric circle pattern approximates that of
the exchanger tube sheet. Using the parallel-axis theorem, we arrive at the section moment of inertia. Referring to Figure 4-40 we analyze the exchanger as follows:
are tabulated in Table 4-16.
For enclosing shell, :/a-in.
rta
"
64'1s+.zs)o
)-l
=
Lt'
:
(54.00)41
t,
-
23,676.070 in.'
rr4.i35.44r in.a + 23.676.070 in.'

138,411.511 in.a
or for the total cross-sectional area
Ib
6.675 fC
The Engineering Mechanics of pressure Vessels
Table 4-16
Values of I for Tube Bundle
16.364.299
t6,364.299
14.127 .503
30,491.802
12.104.531
;
10
;i#.uZr
17.00
14.50
210.250
89.000
0.191
0.021
l9l
o.021
0.
10.284.531
s2,880.927
8.574.543
7. r38.100
5.871.903
68,593.s70
74,465.473
86
r.765.174
6r,45s.470
.7s,230.641
85,937.106
88.197.856
89,860.696
91,063.953
9l,901.445
92,456.266
Jf,
t7
92,79t.181
92.980.407
18
93.074. 195
t9
t6
93.109.836
93.119.576
93.120.846
l0
2l
t55
Section
c-
I/z-in.
)ectlon
/s+ oo\*l
- 64" [/ss.oo\[\ t2 / \12 /J
d-5/s-in.
64
0.917 fta
Section
r=
:
e-
t/ro-in.
L[(r#| (:gl
I
.013
ff
rL
_/+z.ool.l
1.1 10 fta
Section
l1:1.735.1,+1
I \12lJ
_/+:.oo\.1
,: "[or4f
l\ t2 I \t2lj
,=.[+:1!f
64 l\ 12
1.533 ft4
Section
t-rA-tn.
2t,6t4.595
g-r3/r6-in. t
ll43.62sl- _
- 64,r L\
t2 I \ t2 /J
142.001"1
1.208 fta
Referring to Figures 4-36 and 4_41 we calculate

the
of inertia as follows:
sectron moments
Section h
,.r:(
26.193
21.812s
cos 6.934"
\t-
24. I80 in.
224
Deflections
lso
Ia
ydla
! _ tb.292tt ltz.++s.+ngxo.zoztl
"'
(i.157 x lo") [I
:
h.
$ lo
a"\
2.416
10-s
ft
(8.oot
.-
(2.787
[(e,oss.oo+)(a.oo)
10'9
(:2,449.4I7)(S.OO)
--3-21
-
{Z,Zrr. r r:l1
reo=21.8125 in
rho=26.1925 in
x l0
3.088
ft
tto:29.1109 in
1o=
51.o in
Figure 4-41. The equivalent radii for the skirt sections.
.
'
(43.50)'? I (15,675.864X43.5)
(6.402
10') [
(s,s04.421)(43.5)
+'32-)
:
t /.- .-\+ | ,- ^.\q
t.'' - o- | lr+6 rol - l4o dol l =
64[\12/
\12ll
(3 ,282
frr
/zs.rrr + zo.rs:\
r-* = t___t
\ 2 cos 6.934' /
27.856 in.
(21 , 180.285)(
0.017
''
L'
/sr.oo +
2 cos
:s.rrr\
L\
iI
[tal
r. s
x r0) t
(7.00),
(4.
7.846 fta
of each section's wind force, shear, bending
moment, and moment of inertia are summarized in Thble

4-17 for the entire tower.
razs,ttt.to4]
2l
rs)t:.zs)
8
(917,03s.328t
[(r,sqs.rssxz.oo)
t-
635,10)L
(2s ,354.822)(7 .0O)
Values
0.002
6.934' /
j'" l/so.uor\t
"" "1 | =
ll"" '" 1 '1hs.ozo\*l
64
12
12
l2.75)
, (24,463.OO7)(3.75)
-J-rl
5)
ft
(4230
"[/ss.zr,z\* /s+.oaz\tl
64 L\ 12 /
\ 12 /l
.7
(3.'/r,
Section
.722)(t2
('1
Section i
soo)l
0.055 ft
l.5i3
+ Q2lOo
0.006
ft
, (1,0r0,449.109t
-2)
1l
Table 4-17
Force, Shear, Bending Moment and
Wind
Summation of Section
Moment of lnertia
Fr (lb)
2.449.4t7
Section
a
3,055.004
15,675.864
Mi
39,560.960
5.504.421
li (fta)
0.756
3.157
6.6'7 5
2.78'7
6.402
3.829
4.230
21. 180.285
625,878.'192
1.533
917.035.328
0.917
891.815
24.463.00'l
25,354.822
26.949.971
1,010,449. 109
1.013
27,588.452
1,193,555.784
1,275,367.258
1.110
638.475
28,20 r.052
28,591.798
3,282.',722
(ft{b)
7,118.113
Qi (lb)
2.449.417
612.600
390.746
2,849.852
3l,441.650
El (lb-ft'?)
t3.0t
=
-',
0.001
(6.402
1.533
6.402
10'
1.415.840.023
1,866,090.883
2.54',7
x
1.064 x
7 .846
3.899
lOa)
"
orn:-l
3 .27
^
^' ,,:
I (2.849.852)( 15.00)
L
0.006 ft
?.718.I r3l
I
14.2e2X43. s0) [ ( 1s,67s.864)(43. s)
0.027
15't
lOY) [
39,560.960]
ft
.792yr2.7s11(3 ,282 .122)(12 .'t s)
oJ29
(r,3s9,046.001t
. lo) [
(21 , 180.2
(28,59r.798)(r5.00)
7x8.00)
10 5ft
(6.402
x t0 a ft
(15.00),
(J.276 l0'9
(5,504.421)(43.s)
ft
(28,201.052)(2.00)
2.626
, (r,27s,367.25U]|
-)l
+'32ll
A'r:-l
12.001/ [(3e0.7abx2.00)
8
tr.oo+. ro9[
":
(2,,149.4
1.19J.555.7S4)l
[(612.oo](3.0u/
109
1,359,046.001
(27,s88.4s2X3.0)
0.001
10!)
loa
ft
13.oo1r
t-
lOto
I .208
(6.2e2)(8.00) [ (3,05s.004)(8.00)
3'l
10'q
t
4.635
^
5-045 x
(rJ8i ,, 109 t
t26.s4s.s71
x
x
x
x
85X12.75)
625.878 792
0.148 ft
I
r70.542rr3.75,1{8q1.815)r3.?51
^
't-
r+.::ot
, 1,415,840.023)l
-21
tolL
24 .46 3 .001 )\ 3 .15
0.060 fr
, _ q tr,u:S.:28
I
|
><
t}e
101r
1010
l0t'r
226
Mechanical Design
^ -_
-)6
r74.292n7.00) [{ t.5q5.155x7.00)
(4.6iai
ro1
Process Systems
Tower Section Stress Galculations
Section
(2s,354.822)(7.00)
"
ol
1
-,010,449.t09]I
a-ll+-in.
For tension on the windward side, using Equation 4?1
0.124 ft
/po\ /
\4tl -
(8r.2s2)(3.00)[(638.4 75X3.00)
^1
Dt
(5!45 x rO
l-
(26 ,949 .977)(3 .0O)
* , "--'---"1
,oa aaa ,ool
0.060 ft
(27,588.452)(3.0)
2
0.052
(87 .2s2)(2.oo)
(1.(064
)64
t0ro)
t0ro)
l3s0.7 46)(2.o0)
6
|.
+l(28,591.798X2.00)
+ 1,359,046.001]
2
:
O.O23
0.423 kips
Di
54.0 in.,
rJ.276 < tolor
:
rt
":
(2S,s91.798)(1s.oo)
\-,1
* \-,r
L/"
L/
ft +
ir.
0.25 in.,
o=
8,218.43 psi tension on windward side
q=
161.009
42.57
,896.42 psi compression on leeward side
Internal pressure circumferential stress,
PD
2t
16,200
1s0.0)(54.0)
2(0.2sX1.0)
psi
<
18,800
o"
The circumferential stress governs in this section and is

less than the allowable stress.
[t
b-
:/a-in.
r:o.orrs+.orl
, [ 16(54.75)(39.s60.960)(12)
-1
0.561
ft =
0.649
ft
T : -100'F,
54.50 in.
L(4)(0.37s) I
0.067 ft
0.088
'7
.787
t:
8,100
Section
I
1,4r5,840.023.j
D"
1.0,
o=
:
-^ '" _
-
2(1.8t4) I
- [tr(0lsxl08
d
'
(89.292x 15.00)
[(2.849.8s2r 5.00)
+ Di,
[rrsO.Orrs+.orl I r6(54.50,{l2r{7.trA.rr:rl
t {4x015) I = [.{015x t08J0)6J86.2t]
o^=
ft
150 psi,
ao., -'"1
,aol
' ,-'-,ra'''"
ft
D,XDa
lzw\
\"<n. * o,
^ _ 184.2s2t(3.00r fr6l2. 60x3.00)

-r8-(6J02^toq)L6
+
ron^na
\?r((D" -
[r{ 0J7s x 10850X5-9{3J63)l
[ :rrs.zor.oor I
t.(0 3is,(t08
itl
5,400
550.16
237.30
5,712.86 psi tension
(150.0)(54.0)
< 18,800:
Section
16(43.3?5)(1,010,,149. 109)(12)
*[
-t r(0.688)(85.375X3,645.39r)
10.800 osi
zw,sor.sztt I
- It"(0.o88x85.3?tl
o"
c-\lz-in.
l/re-in. f,
o=t-l [rrso.otr+z.or]
[ {4x0.688) I
4,612.5 4 psi compression
2(0.375)(1.0)
e-l
Section
2,289.24
12,509.56
482.98
= 14,315.82 psi tension < 18,800 psi :

o : - 10,703.30 psi compression
o
Ir rso.olrs+.orl
0r = t-l
:
o:
o
r=
(4x0.s)
I
rorss.oolrozs.s
sot os. ool (5.9a

[-lr(0.
(t
oo) I
lzot.tzz.oll
(lsq'Pl!4? oo)
2(0.688)
f-:/+-in.
Section
t"rcJ0l t0r)l
4,050.00
6,497 .53
<
18,800
(150.0x54.0)
6.luuDSl
2(0.s0x1.0)
Section
d-s/s-in.
q:
o:
o:t-l krso.ox+z.orl
[ (4)(0.62s) I
*l
-t
(L 6)
(43.25) (9 r7,03 s .328\ (12)
op
zt+:,+rs.oor I
4,578.488 psi
Iro(+s.soxr, ts:,555.7s4x12t
I
"(0Jsxs550)(3,6562s0)
Izr+o.sst.sssl I
t"(oisx8s5o)l
2,100.00
13,533.81
l5,l67.61psi tension
<
466.199
18,800 psi
-11,900.01 psi compression
(1s0.00x42.00) _
4,200.00 psi
2(O.75)
r(0.688)(8s.375)(3,&s.39r)
- t-l
krso.olt+z.orl
[ (4)(0.75) I
440.@6
-2,888.176 psi compression
o^ = ::
'
'-
o"
78.isu'l2t]
Section g-t:71u-in.
lr(0.688t(85.375r1
2,520.00
11,320.361
<
18.800
9,290.944 psi compression
(150'0x42'o)
2(O.62s)
o:1-l krso.otr+z.orl
l(4)(0.813) I
470.584
5.o4o.oo osi
psi
o,
(r2)
|,27 s,3
s.367
67 .258)
.258)(t2
6(43. 625) (1,27
116(43.625)(
1.
=[
"(0-813X85525X3'667140
Izt+s.ozl.+ssr I
t"(0-8t3l8s.6rtl
o,
228
q
=
o:
q:

1
,937
.2'l
13,319.972
<
-ll,822.342 psi
D":
:
D; :
:
439 .64
18,800
psi
da
compression
All section stresses are less than the allowable stress of

18,800 psi. Thus, the tower thicknesses are acceptable.
OO of base plate
ID of
base
plate
98.00 in.
-rn2
- nll =
'-o------1-
A.
First we determine the size and number of anchor bolts

reouired.
Using an A- 193-87 high-strength bolt with an allowable stress of 40,000 psi per AISC and assuming a bolt
circle of 107 in., the required bolt area, ,4.6, is
toz
*,. ,rrl
"---)
^.
l.o I I ln-'
102
in. + 2(.2.375)
1.615 in.'?
<
W.
(4-.+
70,219.061 Ib
(12)(70,219.061)
1.s0)
63,815.727
63,8rs.721
2,22\.302
1.866.090.883X12)(l I L50)
2(3,059,323.380)
The concrete bearing strength criteria are met, so we ca.

continue to the base plate design.
l2)(40,000)
p"
- D, _ lll.50 - 98.00
22
= 6.'75 : Base f, width = BP t
=
1.680 in.2
21.947
(4-,11
: 379.340 + 28.'129 + 408.069

o. : 816.138 psi < Fb : 1.33(900)
= I,197 psi
(4_1j
20,000
)
in. >
lo.
t2
2(6.j 5)
3.059.323.380
2,22t .302
-63,81s.727f
r( 106.75
lJOrr sDaclng
.302 in '
(8)(12X1,866,090.883X1
(.12)(22,036.250)
111.50
106.75 in.
The new required area becomes
[*tgg-
2(2.375)
o"
We select a lsls-in. d bolt of 8-thread series with a

minimum root area of 1.680 in., Thus, using Figure 415, the new bolt circle becomes
BC
(12X40,000)
8MD,,
N(Di + Dl)
_
'
(4-42)
l2){ 1.866.090.8S3)
/vl)
" = iryl).
\A.i iv).
\A./ \2r.i
SKIRT AND BASE PLAIE DESIGN
[{4){
106.75
2221
fr4l
" "",'- "'
:
I. = -/na
64
^,: [+-*]/*".
111.50 in.
18
in. minimum
Maximum bearing pressure on contact area:
,000 psi
oJo,
0.333
19
allowable working stress for steel, psi
1.588, C, = 2.376,2 = 0.431,

of Equation 445 using Thsix
iterations
0.782,
and
J
ble 4-7, we obtain a value of k of 0. 186.
with k
c"
0.333,
0.186,
655.834 psi and o, = 26,850.892 psi
The allowable stress in the base ring = 36,000 psi
3,000 psi
The allowable shength in the concrete
o.
ti
- 0.845 ta -
r6s{ o,o, [zro.tg.]xtoo.zsr
o.1.,"y
769.139 psi
15116
in. thick
*(*
irun'n n.
\rDsr/
-n2
f. octmar lo5
nlfu\ : L l-l
I o,ll I
0.901 in
4M
kt
,lJ
Calculating the minimum skirt-to-base-plate weld size

we have from Equation 4-65
+ o.zsl
2(0. r83x 106.75r I
0.046
Make gusset plates
Using Equation 4-54 and solving for the maximum induced stress in the concrete,
229
Equation 4-64 becomes
tc =
k=
For
Vessels
(4-56)
s83rl
rll02.00tr I
r2X r ,8oo,090.
t
:
61.815 727
lrt102.00)
2,939.611
For wind or earthquake,
111.50
102.00
_,
?<n
i-
o*
:
:
weld
BTHK
Make base
lqrlo
" '""|
-I v?6q
=
L 20.000 I
fr
t4.75t l
15/8
[4{20.000)14.75
1.25I
1.33( 12,700X0.s5)
2.939.611
(2)(9290.0s)
size w
0.158
Anchor bolt torque is determined by Equation 4-66.

For lubricated bolts with Fel-Pro C-5A,
in. thick
(b4,605.803x2.37s)
Use at least a 3/re-in. weld on each side of skirt.
1.613 in.
Solving for the compression ring thickness using Equation 4-63 we have
1.33 o.(0.55)
9,290.05 psi
:
T:
C
0.15
(0.15)(1.62s)(64,605.803)
15,747.664 in.-tb
or
^-^-
T:
1.625'1].j
1,313
ftlb
with torque wrench
Make compression ring :/+ in. thick
Checking the skirt thickness for reaction of the bolting

ring against the skirt we have from Equation 4-39,
Using Equation 4-64 and Figure 4- l6 in calculating the

compression ring thickness, we have
18.000
Fi
G*r"
{F,)tl
64,605.803
9.00 in.;
Grr
G* =
t-! ztE
1.500
4.25 in.
pp
1.76
/
\..
l--_5- I r' '
(4-19)
\m(GH)o"11/
r=
@-64)
t =
l. /o
[t_(70.2le.06rx2.3zsr
t,
Q.672
q
x
"00X
l'
/rozl'
t'z /
'
':a'4?
'z0"000)l
in. < r3lroin. skirt thickness at chair
Skirt thickness meets chair ring reaction

cnterla.
A sketch of the skirt and chair design is shown in Figure 4-42.
230

NOTE:TOFOUE BOTTS 1313 tr-|bs WttH
FEL-PRO C-sA USING TOROT'E
f 11td
^-$.-87
BoLls
Figure 4-42. The skirt detail.
Section Gentroids
Section c
Referring to Figure 4-21 we have the following:
ROO
y.=;=4.00ft
Section a
Lz
b(4a
-30
tot r.rt>
3(0.25)
ul"r"'", - o.rr)
t :
Lr =
s.857
in. =
0.488
2.50 + 4.00
6.50 ft
Section d
,F-l
toio
0.488 ft
50
ft + :_: =
z
2.988 fr
_ 2.00 : r.w tt
lo= Z
L: : 4.00 + 1.00 :
Section e
'-2L.+
24oo
1.00
Section
Section b
t,=+=2.5ort
5.00 ft
=
+
12.00
13.00
ft
v :2'75 :
-2
L5
l2.ooft
12.00
1.3?5
ft
1.375
13.375
ft
Ltt =
Section g
Ld
+ 4.00 :
1.3'75
5.375
Section
Section
,, _
4.875
'"2
ft
L13
+ l.'75 =
D".
2.625 ft
D3,
3HrDl
'mol
1.875
+ 3.50 :
5.375
ft
3.00
3.50
1.50
5.00 ft
- Di) r 8{D" -
D, ) ran a
- Di, = 43.25 - 42.00 = 1.25

D;. - Di : 1,870.563 - 1,',761.00 =
t.\
cr = arctan lll : Ze.-scs'
= 43.625,D,.: 42.125, D". : r,903.r41, Di, = 1,774.516,
o=
arctan
/roz.oo
|
\
+:.
ou
s\
2(240.00)
D,.
D;.
- Di :
1.500 in.
t28.62s
6.934
3(36)(128.62s) + 8(361(1.50) tan (6.93,1)

6[128.625 + 2(36X1.50) tan (6.934)]
D.,
106.563
\t2l
3(12X106.563) + 8(I\2(1.25) tan (26.565)

6[106.563 + 2(12)(1.25) tan (26.56s)]
ft
Section o
l.75oft
0.875
8.00
Section n
t,
'2 :350:
La
Lr:
4.00 + 0.875
v,=17s=0.875ft
"2
1.875
7.00
ft
Section h
Li
Section m
8oo:4.ooft
i," =
'"2
6.125
231
18.556 in.
= 1.546 ft
Lr,r = 1.50 + 1.546 = 3.046 ft
y.
6.247 rn.
Section p
t =
0.521 ft
Lq
1.750
(1.0
0.521)
2.229 ft
Section k
D.,
52.381 in., D1
50.756 in., D".
DZ"
2,743.'t9s,
2,s'76.r97,
D3.
j'^
) ?S
'1-'
6.125 fr
:
Dl. :
0.521
+ 6.125 =
3(204X167.598)
Section I
"2
3.75
= l.X/l tf
6.646
ft
Di.
- Di = 167.598 in.
6[167.s98
Lro
+ 8(2}4)r(t.625) tan (6.934)

2(204)(r.62s) tan (6.934)]
: I13.044 in.
yp : 9,420 tt
L,. : (3.00 1.546) + 9.420 :
Lro : 17.00 - 9.420 : 7.580 ft
10.874
ft
1.625
2.625' 4.a75 5.375'. r3.375' 13.00'
.. 9
q ;iI qS
p
.9
9
9
|
i
q
H
E
!
$
R
3
H:
H
s;^x^x^^x^^^;^;xx
.'
:.
Figure 4-43, The vibration ensemble of lumped masses.
Vortex.lnduced Vibration
Referring to Figure 4-43 we have the following:
M.:0
Mb: (0.423)(2.95 8) : 1.251 *o-t
M" : 1.251 + (1.814)(6.50) : 13.042 kip-ft
Ma : 13.042 + (15.201X5.00) : 89.047 kp-ft
M" : 89.047 + (16.192X13.00) : 299.543kip-ft
Mr : 299.538 + (29.004)(13.375) = 687.472 ktp-ft
Mc : 687.46'7 + (30.813Xs.375) : 853.091 kip-ft
Mh : 853.086 + (35.084X4.875) = 1,024.126 kip-ft
Mi - |,024.r2r + (36.016)(2.625) = 1,118.668 kip-ft
Ivl = 1,118.663 + (37.s32)(2.229) : r,202.322 ktp-ft
M,. = ,2o2 .322 + (37 .913)(6 .646) : | ,454 .292 ktp-tt
Mt : |,454.292 + (43.171)(800) = 1,799.660 kip-ft
M. : 1,799.660 + (4s.028)(5.375) = 2,M1.685 kip-ft
M" : 2,041.685 + (47.662)(s.o0) = 2,279.995 Y,tp-ft
M. : 2,2'79.995 + (50.684)(3,046) : 2,434.379 kip-ft
MF = 2,434.379 + (s 1.937X10. 874) : 2,999. r42 kip-ft
Ms^, = 2,999.142 + (63.816)('7.58) : 3,482.867 kip-ft
1
M' (30
,
{,
- = E.I,
4.320
lOe
&=
ro-5
1.038
10
687 ,472
l0)(0.756)
10)(6.675)
er+;ffi1j3,,
10)(1.533)
8s3,091
,4
=
t't _
A
!"
'<ro
?)
lft"t,
"
r Sll' - 1.288 '
1.O24.t26
r
Jx) = 1.546
l'118 668 :
1.689 r
(4.32
14.32
l0e)(1.533)
10-4
to
'
lo
'
.202.322
.lo"ltt.gtot
'
I L<L )A)
(4.32 r t0")(0.917)
r,, -
(4.32
\4.32
_14?|v|^4
f'7q9'660 4.tt2
t
x 10,X1 .013) -
ro
"
204l'685
-4.258xlo1
^ l0')(1.1l0)
3.830
10-7
!,,.
'
4.523
l0-1
<r4
r.345
1o
,
r,<
(4.32
\blf
13,042
(4.32
4.523
tO")tb/in.,(t44tin.b/ft,
1,251
(4.32
* : 6r?ffir,rral :
(4J2
1_70 00<
169 x l0
/' 10\1108) - -' '
2,434,379
(4.32
l0)( 1.s32)
--r.u78xl0a
2'99q'l42 =
r,- =
(4.12 \ I0'X7.011)
q.902
r. . (4.121482'q67
/
l.l5o
10)(7.01l)
''
,.
ro
Io
Sr: =
\rl
x l0
)(2.958)
S:=
t(3.83
2.?15
x l0 ) + (4.523 x
x
10
3.678)( r0-4)
(3.678
10
1+
(3.046)
9.902
1.226
x l0 r
x l0 ) (10.874)
(9.902
8.111
10-'
x l0 5 + 1.150 x
10 r)
(7.58)
(6.s0)
10
x l0
[(4.523
Sro
?)l
10
(,1.369
2.538
x l0 '
5.665
_ 2.t57 ,, l0
Sr+
/. + l,l,\ ,
^ = 18,*t
Li
J,
l-l
(3.83
t4.258 + 4.369x10 "r(5.00)
s,,
?)
(1.345
a =q+\-q:s+,1
x l0-)] (s.00)
j=n
3.476
Ss:
:
5"') -
3.814
9.966
10
10
t + (1.038 x
l0-4)l
(1.288
1.546)(10-1
L689)(10
e.625)
4.246
3.506
x r0 I
r,.
P,. :
(1 689
+ L457Xl0r)
e.2zg) =
Sr
s,, =
10-) (6.646)
9!\?9(8.00)
(4 112
+ t258xl0
x l0 I
s,
3.671)(
l0
6.908
(1.546
b.2sr
(4.875)
(1.457
(13.375)
- !?88110'-,5325,
011
A: =
)] (r3.00)
10
s8
Sro =
: 8.111 x l0
8.111 xl0-4+2.538xl0r:3.349xl0 l
4.575 x l0-r
$ : 3.349 x l0 3 + 1.226 x l0 Ir =
At : 4.575 x l0-r + 2.15'7 x 10 : 6.?32 x 10 r
As : 6.'732x l0 3 + 2.249 x l0 3 = 8.981 x 10 l
Ao = 8.981 x l0-3 + 3.113 x l0-r : 1.209 x l0 r
1.704 x 10 3 = 1.379 x 10-2
N : 1.209 x 10 2+
2+3.506
x 10-1 : 1.414 x 10 l
As : 1.379 x 10
As = 1.414 x 10-2 + 4.246 x l0-1 : 1.457 x 10 r
r
No : |.45'7 x 10 2 + 6.908 x 10 a = 1.526 x 10 r
Arr : 1.526 x 10-2 + 6.251 x 10-1 : 1.589 x 10
Arz : 1.589 x 10 '? + 9.966 x l0 a - 1.688 x l0
Ar: = 1.688 x l0 2 + 3.814 x 10 a = 1.'726 x 10
N+: 1.726 x l0-22 + 3.476 x l0-56 :: 1.730 x l0-'
1.730 x 10':
Ars : 1.730 x 10 + 2.115 x l0
Aro = 1.730 x 10 2+5.665 x 10 r = 1.730 x 10'?
Ar
x l0 4
t(4.523
,-1
x l0-) + (4.523 x
[(1.345
10
:
(s.37s)
1.704
3.113
r0-l
10 r
/\
p'\21
lA'+
=
1.o
8.111
t,,\.349
r
:
)(7.58)
10
l0-2
(
.262
lr-,
: (ry,
x ro l
z.z4g
A'.
1.207
x10r
x l0
3.s74
"
ro
+ 3.349
10
+ 4.575
l0 1 (3.046)
t
,
10.874)
234
Pr.:( 4.575 x l0-3

:
2.827
6.7
P,r:(
=
4.223
.428
l0-r +
_d
10
(8.00)
x l0-
lO-'z
P":(
1.414
l0-z +
1.457
10-
(2.229)
T
10
.457 X 10, + 1.526

'r.4
1.915
1.526
x l0
(2.62s)
10-2
xl0,
x l0
7.593
+ 1.589
l0 -i
Pr:( /r.osa x
=
P":(
:
P,:(
:
1.730
8.650
:
tt5 :
:
pro :
:
pB :
:
730
5.117
l0-2 + 1.730
10
_n
-) (6.s0)
x l0-,
x
10-, + 1.730
x l0-
(2.958)
x l0 ']
x l0 3 ft : y(16) : 0.037 in.

x 10-3 + 2.262 x t0-2
x 10-2 ft : Y(15) : 9.39t n.
x 10'? + 1.207 x I0
x l0-2 ft : V(t4y = 9.45, .r.
3.'176 x l0-2 + 2.827 x l0-2
6.603 x 16-z 1 : y(13) : 0..792 in.
az = 6.603 x 10'? + 4.223 x 10
: 1.083 x l0-rfr : y(12) : 1.399 1r.
p11 : 1.083 x l0-r + 8.428 x 10
'
: 1.925 x 10 ! ft : y(11) : 2.310
in.
p.6 : 1.925 x l0-r + 9.281 x l0-2
: 2.854 x 10 ' ft : y(10) : 3.425 'n.
: 2.854 x 10-r + 3.200 x l0-2
: 3.174 x 10-' ft : y(9) : 3.809 in.
= 3.174 x l0-r + 3.915 x l0
: 3.565 x 10-'ft: y(8) : 4.278 in.
: 3.565 x l0-r + 7.593 x 10 ,
: 4.324 x 10 I ft : y(7) : 5.189 in.
: 4.324 x 10-r + 8.807 x l0-2
: 5.205 x 10-r ft = y(6) : 6.246 tn.
: 5.205 x 10-r + 2.283 x 10 '
: 7.488 x l0-r ft : Y(5) : 8.986 in.
: 7.488 x lO-t + 2.246 x 10 |
: 9.734 x l0 rft: y(4) = 11.681 in.
: 9.734 x 10-r + 8.650 x 10-2
F3
: 1.060 x l0-'ft : y(3) : 12.720 in.
: 1.060 + 1.125 x l0
: r.r72 ft : y(2) : 14.064 ir'.
,
Pl : 1.172 + 5.117 x l0
: r.224ft: y(1) : 14.683 in.
p16
3.074
3.074
2.569
2.569
3.776
(5.37s)
ro t +
1.726 x. 10 -,\
(r3.37 s)
|.726 x. t0
2.246
5)
10-'
x l0
2.283
(.4.87
1.589 x l0 ' + 1.688 x l0P.:l

'\
,
8.807
(6.646)
1.125
15 175I
L730
1.209
l0-1 + 1.414
9.281
Pr:(
10
t0-3 + 8.981
1Q-2
P'r=( 1.379 x
3.2(
.200
Pr:(
:
:8
Pr:(
(s.00)
l0-z
8.981 .v
P'':(
10-
10-2
32
+ 6.732
+ 1.730
l0-1
10-, + 1.730
> l0-2
10
_n
)
,\ l0-
13.00)
(s.00)
Section weights and displacements for computing the

tower's period of vibration are listed in Table 4-18.
The first period of vibration, T, is determined as follows:
,=r"\E
leDwv
(4-98)
--__-4
-
Table 4-18
Tower Vibration Def lections
Dellection
w (lb)
(in.)
Section
(in.lb)
wy
14.683
423
6.2 r0.909
14.064
12.720
1,391
t9 ,563 .024
170,282.640
I1,575.871
13,387
9l I
11.681
5.
4.278
1,516
3.425
381
,774.444
s )sR
12,145.980
.300
1.857
2.414.100
0.792
0.453
0.308
0.037
2.634
)s?
2.086.128
1.368.966
385.924
20,493
439.523
3.O22
t] .056.797
2r ,994.85',/
4,469 .368
| ,304.925
2.310
1
70,5'73.64r
rr4,999.754
22,162.219
3,98'7 .096
4.271
3.809
t35,217 .749
I,034,545.887
fi,299.0r4
1,809
189
91.194.771
5,134.3'70
2,165,995. r 81
2'7
t15,128.632
12.812
8.986
6.246
Wy' (lb-in.'?)
28,057.214
3,138.330
1,652.213
62Q.142
l 18.865
16.262
D*, = 3l6,t2s:ss
(386.4)(386,129.39s)
f : l/T :
Hz =
0.976
0.981
Hz
The second critical wind velocity, V2, is

1.024 sec/cycle
104.292
34.764
54.00
1.00
t2
ft
4.583
1.024
ft
sec
6.25
Vr
F,
10.375 mph
65.163 mph
: 0.00086(0.6x60)(4.583)(104.292)(10.37 r,
= 1,592.930 lb
if we have a problem with vortex-induced

vibrations, we must compare the force amplitude of
1,592.93 lb against the corresponding maximum wind
force amplitude for the same region (either top l/r or r/+
of tower-in this case, the top r/:). Using Figure 4-39 we
have the following:
To determine
34.764
ft, from
1M.292 tt-34.764
above
ft :
69.528
n. = al 716x15 659)
se:
cycle
fi
L:
(3.40)(4.s83) ft
3.40 d
Yz
From Equation 4-94a and Table 4-13 we have

the initial assumed
value
Considering the upper third of the tower as being the

effective length for vortex shedding the first critical
wind velocity is as follows:
T_
D*r,:3.g64,78s.40.
o"
,=
9" r
/60 srr\o
1l.726)
61 547 lb/trl
286
l"-^^"^-"I
\900/
54.808 lb/ft2
ft
(66.048)
+
(2+7)
(34.7 64)l(7)(6r.
F=
t2087.559r
s47)
/r rr nn\
l'-;;""1
\ rz I
(2)(54.8o8)l
(0.6)
= l?
:2,087.559
Finally, if the Reynolds number is greater than approxa vibration analysis is not required, because in these regions the vortices break-up. In our case.
imately 350,000,
)55 000 rhNn"
or
F*,0
13,256 lbr
Since F*;"6
>
1,608.56
F,iu.",ion,
lbr
where
DcVp
D. :
F"
0.071
the wind stresses are greater
1.285
lhan those at resonance vibrarion, so no further vi6ration

analysis is required.
If the vibration amplitude force had been greater than
the maximum wind force, further investigation would

have been required. Dynamic stresses ar the-crirical wind
velocity can be approximated by taking the ratio of the
vibration force amplitude, F", to the maximum wind
force amplitude, F1,, and multiplying this ratio by the
bending stress term in Equation 4-29. The pressure
stress, which is a primary stress, and the weight load
stress in tension are unaffected. Shear is not considered
in the equation because it is almost always negligible.
Defining the ratio of vibration force amplitude to the
maximum wind force amplitude as R. Equirion 4-29 be-
effective wind diameter at top r/: or r/+ o:

tower : 127.0 in.
critical wind velocity = 15.292 ft/sec
N"" :
lb./fc
x l0 5lb-/ft-sec
/rzzoo\
rh
"f fi tts.292t /n\
lj:i--:,
l:'
lrO.Orr,)
l
" I
\ Lz
\sec/
11-
(1.285
894,215
1o-1 ;lb.
It-sec
Since N*" : 894,215 > 350,000, a vibration analvsis is

not required since we are outside rhe range of vortex formatron.
Vortex formation has been observed at NRe > 3.5 x
106, but wind velocities encountered would not cause
Reynolds numbers that high.
comes
oD:
t(?J--[**"un#.J
.l 2w \
In determining wind loadings in this example we used

the formulation to compute wind forces:
= \",rO. +
where
Equivalent Diameter Approach versus
ANS|-A58.t-1982
oo
oD
DD7
= dynamic stress, psi

< static allowable stress
Staley and Graven [15] state rhar when dynamic

stresses are combined with axial compressive stress. the
result can be compared to the allowabie sutic srress. The
same is generally true for tension, but one must be cognizant of discontinuity stresses at the locations or irregilar changes of geometry, such as welds. The latter can be
avoided by using stiffening rings. Certainly a more accurate and detailed analysis, such as the octahedral shear
stress theory of yield, can be used, but such a detailed
analysis can be avoided in most tower designs. A detailed fatigue analysis is mandatory in many aipplicarions
and should always be used in case of doubt. Weaver [24]
discovered in wind-tunnel tests that vortex sheddins cannot prebently be analyzed as a response spectra beiause
of its random nature and unpredictable motion.
This
greatly complicates the study of vortex excitation by use
of finite element methods, but efforts are being made.
p:
q.CC,A,
(4-81
in which Ae is
computed using the total width of the

tower, insulation, ladders, platforms, and attached piping as an equivalent or effective diameter of a cylinber.
called the effective or equivalent cylinder. This iquivalent cylinder represents the total wind area. Suih an
analysis is called a quasi-analysis, because it is not exact.
The equivalent cylinder concept used for conical sections
is similar when compared to the exact analysis of a cone.
The ANSI-AS8.1-1982 uses a more refined and
equally complex analysis to determine the wind loadings. The relationship used for wind force is as follows:
F:
q7G2CrA61
where G2
Acr
416
+ qzcciArr
gust response factor for cladding and compo,

nents calculated at heisht Z
area of insulation tclaJdingt of tower. and al.
external attachments such as platforms. lad
ders. and piping rhat resist wind
area of the tower shell itself that resists winc
The term G7 is given in Table 8 of ANSI-A5S.1-1982

rhat is determined by the following expressions:
Gz
-L1
0.65
:-
2.35 (D")os
(z/3o1tt"
1,500
q - 4.5.22:
1,200
For category B,
0.010,
For category C,
D" = 0.005,
a :7.0,2e:
9OQ
For category D,
D.
0.003,q
10.0,
ze =
700
G2, which is used for cladding and components, varies

with height and is a parabolic distribution. The term G is
used with the tower shell and only is constant along the
height of the tower.
Comparing the two methods we set Equation 4-81
equal to the comparable expression given by ANSIA58.1-1982.
q/GC,A,
q7G7C,A,
qrCc,e,
We now define the following variables:
Acr
. Arr
Ar
Ar
average value of G7 across the height of the
above more credible.

After applying the real numbers for several cases, it is
seen that the equivalent diameter method using the
D" = 0.025,o:3.0,2e
tower.
Also, rarely is y as great as 0.5, making the inequality
3.65 Tz
For category A,
D.
where G21u"ry
ANSI-A58.1-1982 gust factor for flexible structures,

G, is more conservative than the ANSI method of using
the two gust response factors G2 and G. Thus, being
more conservative than ANSI A58.1 1982, one meets
the minimum requirements ofthe standard, as it is stated
in the title, "minimum design loads for buildings and
other structures." Certainly, using the formula for lattice
structures, Equation 4-83, is a conservative approach.
For designing a tower without a computer software
package, the equivalent diameter method is recommended. In such a design, one is faced with numerous
calculations, which leads to a greater possibility of error.
Also, the use of two gust factors with one varying in
height adds considerable complexity to the problem.
When using a high-speed electronic computer the use of
two gust factors would be a very good method to use,
although cumbersome to verify. Certainly, some could
argue that with less conservatism a cheaper vessel is produced. Such a consideration must be analyzed in each
separate circumstance. For some, the additional manhours may offset the economics of the vessel or time may
be the ruling criterion.
EXAMPLE 4.3: SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF A

VERTICAL TOWER
A client has a vertical tower that is to be moved from a
Dlant in Jackass Flats. Nevada to a location northeast of
Los Angeles, California. The vessel must be analyzed
for seismic zone 4 to determine if it can be moved. This
result is to be compared to a wind analysis for an 80-mph
wind.
from which
qzcCA:q2C,A1(xQ.+yG)
G-xGzayG
G1t -y; > xc'
Now, for many, if not almost all cases,
c>G,
This is certainly true as one moves up the tower in computing Gz. It can be safely said that
Gau,er
Seismic Analysis
V=
ZIKCSW
(4- 106)
For zone 4,2 : t,I = 1, K : 2.0, W : 15,571 lb

Since the tower is not of uniform thickness, equation
4-108 cannot be used. Either the Rayleigh equation
(Equation 4-97) or a modified form of the Rayleigh
Equation, the Mitchell Equation (Equation 4-112), can
only be used. For illustration purposes the Mitchell
Equation will be applied and then compared to the more
accurate Rayleigh method.
238
Using values in Table 4-15 we determine the values to

be used in Equation 4-112. Connecting piping exerts a
concentrated load o12.7 kips at the support point midway in Secrion @-@. using the values in Table 4-15 we
construct Table 4-19,
n:
Ee(,f,)'.a,
\2
3,484.0 lb
36
+ Fr =
(0.15)(3,484.0)
0.15V
s22.60
From Equation 4-115 we obtain
0.673 sec/cycle
Ft) -YYhY
13.484
D*'*"
i=
522.60)
w)hv
515,380
Using the more accurate Rayleigh method, Equation

4-97 , the value of T is
F- : (V -
u00/
(1)(1X2.0X0.078X1.434X1s,571)
Using Equation 4-114 to find F,, we have the following:
Fr
Using Table 4-18 we have

111
v:
h72
D2
A = !twa" + *Btt;
where
Solving for V we have
0.0057 wr,hy
0.734 sec/cycle
in which the Mitchell Equation is in 8.3 % error (which is
quite normal). For application ofthe Rayleigh Equation

see Examples
4-2 and,4-4.
Now, we must solve for the bending moments induced

by the seismic forces. First we find the base shear using
Equation 4-106. To accomplish this we have the followrng:
1""'r
(r.i" -
l:125
l.U
Flexibility facror
1.t25
< t.5... K -
= C: -]=
15(l1tr':
W)h). F,- and V, we solve for the seismic moments using

Eouation 4-116:
MM,
M3 :
Ma :
M5 :
M6 =
M7 :
Ms :
2.0
O.OZA
The characteristic site period, T,, is determined by

soils consultant to fall within the following range:
To solve this equation we must set up the table shown
in Thble 4-20. After determining the values for W, h",
:
:
Mrr :
M,
M16
a
M12:
Vxi Ly_r
Fx Ci
Dt
: 2.770 2.'770
: 8.138 10.908
9.s88 20.496
3.810 24.306
16.72o 4r.026
: 9.240 50.266
: 25.sm 75.766
:
103.966
:
13r.624
:
rs7.304
:
166.828
(0.30)(5.083) + (0.49)Q.s42)
(0.49)(7.50) + (1.19X3.75)
(1.68)(5.417) + (0.18X2.708) =
(1.86X2.00) + (0.09x1.00) =
(1.95X8.00) + (0.28)(4.00) =
(2.23X4.00) + (0.16)(2.00)
(2.39X10.00) + (0.32)(s.00)
(2.71X10.00) + (0.22X5.00)
28.200
(2.93)(9.083) + (0.23)(4.542)
27.658
(3.16)(8.00) + (0.10X4.00)
25.680
(3.26)(2.917) + (0.01)(1.458)
9.524
0.5<T.<0.55
To be safe, we
O ?14
_l s - ;;u.)u =
will
use the lower value
1.468
> 1.0 in which Equation 4-tl3b
applies. Thus, we have
:
s:
S
1.2
+ 0.6 El
\TJ-
1.2 +0.6(1.468)
1.434
of 0.5. Now,
0..
El'
\TJ
0.3(1.468f
The wind moment for an 80-mph wind was calculated

ro be 106,716 ft-lb. Since 166,828 ft-lb > 106,716 ft-lb
seismic phenomena govern.
The skirt and base plate analysis is identical for seismic and wind analyses. Just as in Example 4-2, the seis-
mic forces and moments are used instead of the wind

forces and moments. In the case of this tower a thicker
base plate was welded on, the number of gusset plates
were doubled, and anchor bolts of a high strength alloy
were used to meet the seismic criteria. In an earthquake
zone other than zero, a comparison of seismic to wind
should always be made.
t
-
Table 4-19
Numeric Integraiion ol Period
ot Vibralion, T sec/cycle
whv
kipsfft
Aa
1
.00
1.506
o.567
0.878
5.840
0.820
0.939
0.329
0.100
o."t45
0.067
0.1r7
0.543
0.607
0.265
0.552
0. 168
o.278
0.125
0.097
0.161
0.r24
0. 161
o.414
0.3t2
0.998
0.998
0.997
0.997
0.986
0.986
0.973
0.973
x l0
0.904
0.021
0.006
0.763
0.0649
0.002
0.504
0.1175
0.0001
0.160
0.040
9.541
0.0080
0.020
0.504
0.0004
0.0015
0.016
0,0004
1.234
0.0010
o.763
0.007
0. 151
1.000
0.035
0.007
0.285
1.000
0.904
0.037
0.276
1.000
0.010
0.0,14
0.155
1.000
0.033
0.610
0.t42
1.000
u0i
o.219
0.045
0.079
1.000
l9l'to"
0.054
0.597
0.923
WAB/H
2.103
0.091
2.'7
WAa +
0.160
0.0412
0.380
0.000
A:0.,140
B:0.261
10-6
240
Table 4-20
Wind Load Distribution

x"'o-ri. Lzt
w\-r
kips
ztttp
\:
+
+
+
+
63.2
0.542
l. l9
56.7
30.73
0. 18
0.284
53.0
15.05
0.09
1.0
48.0
48.00
0.28
0.645
42.0
27 .09
0.16
1.613
15.0
56.46
0.32
1.550
25.0
38.75
0.22
2.581
15.5
40.01
0.23
2.493
'7
.45
0.10
1.109
1.5
l .66
0.01
207
.':
->s,* i
+2s.k1.0'
-l
/:
--> rsr
..:
'+
+
@
-+
3.289
Fx
.86
-\3
w,h,
ffi
!r
72
o
5l
v,
*,1-u
0.49
2.770
2.770
1.68
8.138
10.908
1.86
9.588
20.496
1.95
3.810
24.306
2.23
16.720
41.026
2.39
9.240
41.026
2s.500
15.766
2.93
28.200
103.966
3.16
27
.658
131.624
3.26
25.680
157.304
9.524
166.828
2.7
15.571
.O
17
15.38
3.270
3.27
*,oTi
EXAMPLE 4-4: VIBRATION ANALYSIS FOR

TOWER WITH LARGE VORTEX-INDUCED
DISPLACEMENTS
D.
A phone call from a plant manager reveals that an existing tower needs to be analyzed for wind vibrations.
The tower was designed, built and installed overseas and
is vibrating so badly all the natives drove off the plant
site in fear of the tower falling over.
The tower with the appropriate wind load distribution
is shown in Figure 4-44. The tower is divided into wind
zones at 30 ft,40 ft, and 75 ft and according to shell diameter and thickless. The variation of wind zones based
D"
Zone 1-Sections 7. 8. and 9
D"
in. + 2 (4) in.] + [6.625 in. + 2(3.5) in.]

[2.375 in. + 2(3.0) in.] + [4.5 in. + 2(3) in.]
D" = 40.00 +
D"
72.5
in.
13.625
6.042
4.521
ft
:
D. :
in. + 2(4.5) in.] + [3.50 in, + 2(4) in.]
[24.50
33.50
in. + 11.50 in.
D" = 45.00 in.
3.75 ft
Zone 7-Section I
D.
in. + 2(4.5) in.l + [6.625 in. + 2(5) in.]

+ 2(4.5) in.] + [6.625 in. + 2(5) in.]
136.625
[3.50 in.
in. + 16.625 in.
D"
46.625
D.
104.875
in.
8.740
12.50
in. + 16.625 in.
ft
Moments of Inertia
[32
in. =
8.375
10.50
r:#(D".-Di)
\ :
ft
Zone 2-Section 6
De:[32in.+8in.] + 14.5 in. I

: 4.042 ft
2(2)
in.l
48.5 in.
hl36.62s)4
(36.000)41
5,876.389 in.a
0.283 fta
Transition Piece-Section 2
Referring to Figure 4-45,

Zone 3-Section
5" :
[25.25 in. + 2(2.5) in.]

+ [3.5 in. + 2(3.5) in.]
D"
30.25
in. + 9.50 in.
D"
50.25
in. = 4.l88ft
[4.5 in.
2(2.5) in.]
10.50 in.
Zone 4-Section 4
D" :
D" :
2.521
D"
125.25
30.25 in.
req
2(3.5) in.]
in. + 9.50 in.
10.50 in.
18.375
12.375
2 cos 26.565'
17.
190
D.q
34.380 in
r, =
#(34.380)4 -
(33.630)11
0.279 fta
5791.250 in.a
e4.00)11
r,400.ri2
\ = L64Kz4.i5)o -
(24.00)11
2,133.181 in.a
\ :
:
in. + 2(4.5) in.l + [4.5 in. + 2(2.5) in.] +
[3.5 in.
34.25
2(2.5) in.
ft
Zone 5-Section
9" =
,"r:(
Iz
25.25 in.
241
Zone 6-Section 2
on the shell diameter and thickoess is necessary since the
tower's section moment of inertia will vary.

To begin the analysis we start with defining the effective diameter of each section as illustrated in Figure 445. Thus we have the following:
54.25
Vessels
1,
Kz4.sq4
0.068
in.a
fc
0.103 fta
* ";
".".
'
%: *,*
l\'
'"*
T(
Figure 4-44. Tower wind ensemble.
ry'essels
Wind Moment Calculations

Sections
M2
and 2
es8.4zs)
(#.
tr.r) * o,uno.rrrr(U)
+ 4,450
Mz:
Mz :
Figure
445. Tfalsition
piece of section 2 of Figarc
444.
lL,99O.762 + 18,158.661
34'599.423 ft-lb
(788.425)(15.2W
+
M:
M:
: 1g- [(25.ooy - (24.00)41 :

:
0.139
0,177
@4.oof1
3,667.316 in.a
tr
:
=
17.00)
17.0O)
Q,690.r72)(6.75
+ 4,450 + (1,453.50)
25,394.381
63,891.585
ht\
tt
4,450
12,354.75
106,090.716 ft-lb
Section 3 and 4
lvl4
fll
u.= fir<zs.zsf
=
2,888.744 in.a
4,450.00
Sections 2 and 3
M3
I.
(788.425)(32.209
10.00)
+ 10.00)
(2,690.172)Q3.75
(1,453.s0X10.00)
rroi
+ Q21.5s2\lrl
+ (268.541(+)
Section 7
Referring to Figure 446
_ ,"
-'* =- lrs.as + n.azs\ :14.174in.
,
\-ffi/
D.e
b:
I8
28.348 in.
f,11zt.z+ty4
:
=
2,704.843 in.a
= #rc2.00)4
=
r,
0.565
0.130
fll
r1,i1r.wzin.a
- eo.6zr4l :
8,2e2.684n.a
(30.00F1
fll
fftfrz.oof
0.2t00
(27.72141
ff
Figure 4-46, Section 7 of Figure 4-44.
Mt:33,278.631 + 90,793.305 +
+ 3,607 .76 + 402.821
Mq
147 ,067
4,450
14,535.00
Sections 7 and 8
M8
.517 ft-lb
+8) + (2,690.172X68.833 + 8)
+ 4,4s0 + (1,453.50X35.083 + 8)
+ (721.552)(30.083 + 8) + (268 .547)(26.583 + 8)
+ (349.41 l)(21.083 + 8)
+ (39.328Xr7.583 + 8) + (522.662)(4.542 + 8)
(788.425X67.292
Sections 4 and 5
M5
+ B.O) + (2,690.172)(43.7 s
+ (1,453.50x10 + 8.0)
(721.552)(5 + 8)
(788.425X42.2o9
+
+
8.0) + 4,450
(268.547x1.5
8)
(J4s.41)
l:l
+
Mr =
\21
M:
M5
lll
\zl
(3e.328)
Ma
39,586.031 + 139,216.401 + 4,450

+ 26,163.00 + 9,380.176
+ 2,551.197 + 1,397.&4 + 19.664
Me
/^\
-,
Ms
45,893.431
160,737.'177
+ 4,450
+ 37,79r.00 + t5,152.592 + 4,699.573

+ 4,192.932 + 334.288 + 2,090.648
M6
Mz
M7
+
+
{3e.328X8.s
53,054.695
2t,706.449
691.504
+ 2.gt.l,) + ,Zt+.OOr(2.717\
\z
401.003
413,166.837 ft-lb
Wind Deflections
(788.425Xs8.209 + 9.083) + (2,690.r'12)(59.75

+ 9.083) + 4,450 + (1,453.50)(26.0 + 9.083)
+ (721.552)(2r + 9.083) + (268.547)(17.5
+ 9.083) + (349.411X12 + 9.083)
Ms
17s4.042\A
ft-lb
2'7Q,892.241
Sections 6 and 7
M?
ftib
61,661.931 + 214,541.217 + 4,450 + 66,861.00

+ 29,583.632 + 10,070.513 + 11,181.152
+ 1,120.848 + 8,079.832 + 5,215.709
\21
Mo
390,632.690
5.292 + 2.9 17) + Q,690.r72)(.1 6.833

+ ).:917) + 4,450 + (1,453.50)(43.083 + 2.9t7)
+ (721.5s2x38.083 + 2.9t7) + Q68.547)(34.583
+ 2.9t7) + (349.41r)(29.083 + 2.917)
+ (39.328)(25.583 + 2.917)
+ (522.662)(r2.sQ + 2.917)
lll
rs22.662t
59,362.095 + 206,693.985 + 4,450 + 62,621.t41

+ 27,478.86s + 9,287.16r + 10,161.920
+ 1,006.128 + 6,555.227 + 3,016.168
Q 88.425)(7
222,7&.113 ft-Ib
(788.425)(50.209 + 8.0) + (2,690.172)(5r.75

+ 8.0) + 4,450 + (1,453.50)(18.0 + 8.0)
+ (72r.5s2)(13 + 8) + (268.547X9.5 + 8)
+ (349.411)(4 + 8) + (39.328X0.5 + 8)
/n\
l:l
\zl
Sections 8 and 9
Section 5 and 6
M6
17s4.042t
332,94'1 .484
r 9.083) + rszz.ooz, (9 983)

\z I
185,172.609
7,138.785
2,373.669
ft-lb
+ 4,450 + 50,993.141
+ 7,366.632
1B),
'
t4.176
:
!z
0.00113
[r:.+ZS.:SZtr
t0"x0.28J)
0.04081
ft
ft
(17)'
(4.r76
r:) , +,+sOl
l0)(0.068)
(r,4s3.5_0)(17.0)
821
(10F
l{2,+tt.serot
t3
.o)
+34,s2s.42]:
l1+,vzz.ost11ro1
Y:: Ar?6t-To"xorort
:
E
(99o.o99xro)
_
*,
ff
(sf
(4J?6
(8f
001658
-'6 -
t+'t.OOt.SZ]
*'
2 l-= 0.00989 ri
(56.50X9.083) ft6.833.596)(9.081)
x t0\0260)t
14.176
(572 730x9 083)
6l
(71.583X8)
(4.176
(4.176
Zzz.lo+.tnl
*'
82j
18
(7s4.042)(8)
821 +
-" -
821
l7)
(13.5)(
(1'453 50)(17)
6l
0.00507
ft
0.00201 ft
ro.rnn.or]:
0.05519
ft
(30.50Xr0) ft+.erz.owxror
\4.176 x 10"x0.103)[ 2
'
,
+
,4.
(990'0?9x
6l
t0)
106.090.721
(40.50)(8) [rs.lzz. rvolr

x to\rn t rorl Z
0.07709 rr
r
17,6,
-, --- 6
{388.738x8)
'
, ,,
+, l+/,uo
".1.s2l =
Lz
0-09071 rt
3.58r(2.g t67 [rS. rOO.:OStrZ.l rOrr

x to"1o,+ogt 2
tuo
1+,
17
: total deflection at top of vessel

: \LtA,
2y, + \: 0.743 ft
: 8.910 in. at top for static gust wind
Referring to Figure 4-47 , we determine
[tf.+la.sertr t r r
10)(0.565)
39!.632.69]
looxol68)t
(4.176-,.
0.143 ft
* 121!!!)t2!tfr)+
J90.632.691 = 0.05r74 ft
6)
ft
0.012
a r
332,s47.481
t274.u2\2.st667,
't
(2.gt667tt [rt. roo.:os x z.r reor I

t+.tzo x ronxo,+oott :
ft2,+oo.rz r'11r;
6l
+270,8s2.24rf
[tr.+oo. rzox
t' - ,aJ6 v 1g\05sr[
.l
+(7s4'y2)(8) + n2,s4i.481:
-'* -
(8),
2io.8s2.z41f
0.0r I 15 ri
)-
10)(0.260)
(572.730)(9.033)
ko,:ro.s:+Xs)
Af?6 x ro)(oJ??)-t
t522.66UG)
245
622.662t8t+ 222.764.1131
r, 'T
".. ,., . "l = 0.t3055 rt
fr
ks,szz.rso)(s)
t06x0x9)t
(388,738)(8)
106,090.721
_.-l:
Vessels
0.09560 fr
(48.s0x8) ft6.310.934)(8)
(4.176 x t0')(0.177)[ 2
:0
M, : (4.71)(6.961) : 32.786 kip-ft
Mz : 32.786 + (4.823)(8.789) : 75.u5 kip-ft
M4 : 75.175 + (7.533X13.25) : 174.987 kip-ft
Ms = L'74.987 + (10.013X9.00) : 265.104 kip-ft
M6 : 265.104 + (12.023)(8.00) = 361.288 kip-ft
Mi : 361.288 + (14.253X8.862) : 487.598 kip-ft
Mr : 487.598 + (ri.693)(8.221) : 633.032 kip-ft
Ms : 633.032 + (21.233)(5.458) : 748.922 l<tp-tt
Mrc : 748.922 + (23.143)(1.458) = 782.664 ktp-tt
Mr
T:M/I
Mt
T,
'' = tz -
32'786
0.279
rv.5t2.54
246

T^
:M.:
T4
:Mo:
T6
M'=
-q-
4,987 _
1,698,902.91
265,104 _
|,907 ,223.02
0.139
I5
:Mu=
I6
T-
17
0.103
r4
75,t75 _
I,105,514.71
0.068
I3
:Mr:
11
361,288
o.t77
487598 _
0.130
,041 ,r7
.14
3,7 50,7 53.85
---->4.71k
T8
:Mt=
:M,:
Ie
=M'o=
Ie
Tro
s.
--r.2.71k
Sro
------)
1,872,305.00
0.565
Is
-------e
633,032
'748,922
0.400
,r20 ,4r0 .62
782,@
n /An - 1,956,660.00
M dx/I
(1,956,660.00
1,872,305.00)
(1.458)
:2,791,315.49
----------->2 .48x
(1,872,305.00
2.01k
t,r20,410.62)
------e
8,167 ,120.93
->
^"2
(1.120.410.62
3.750.753.85)
\'-_:___:__________________:__________rv,,,r
2,23k
(5.458)
->
-------
^ ^^"
:20,022,921.55
S7
(.3,75O,7s3.8s
2,041,175.r4)
1,90',1
(8.862)
344k
-----e
: ,5
-->
Sr:
-----l3.54K
(s)
(;\
Figwe 4-47. Tower vibration ensemble.
S5
15
(2,O41,175.14
,793 ,592 .64
(1 ,907 ,223
.02
+
2
,223.O2) (8.00)
2
15
' \-"/
----------> 1.91x
664 017
16,227,566.69
| ,698 ,902 .9r)

(9.00)
t
Sr:
1,105,514.71)
2
18
$=
(1,698,902.91
(13.25)
. _
lE_----_-2-
,579 ,266 .73
(1,105,514.71
lr7,512.54)
(8.789)
^
rt
(117,512.54\
a
172,393,524.9
--------------T-
Po:
6.961\
+ s6.&5.39:.32)
(30.981.357.97
Ps:
1M1
dx)/!
2,791,315.49
P4
(56,645,395.32
72,438,9U .96)
10,958,436.42
30,98r,357 .97
30,981,357 .97
25,ffi4,037.35
15,793,592.&
16,227 ,566.69
18,579,266.73
20,022,921.55
P::
(8.00)
(88,666,554.65
88,666,554.65)
107.245,821.4)
z
1
,297
(to7,245,821.4
t2,620,4t4.7)
Pz=
(112,620,414.7
113,029,417.1)
2
785,374,239.6
88,666,554.65
88,666,554.65
: 2,034,868.99
w : 2,034,868.99 + 37,523,072.96
ttto
rc7,245,82t.4
tu,245,821.4 +
5,37 4,593.25
112,620,414.7
lL2,620,414.7
ps
409,002.40
rt3,o29,4r7.r
pt
2,O34,868.99
lt4
458)
14
39,557 ,941 .95
39,557,941.95
211,951,466.9
172,393,524.9
:
:
211,951,466.9
388,274,143.9
@0,225,61O.8
ffi0,225,610.8
|,116,563,144
516,337,533.2
|,116,563,144
724,974,941.7
1,297,919,492
:
t'.s :
:
,_^.
---:---------:- | l -4)x)
Pro: 2.79t.315.49.-
,U2 .96
t4 =
)u
Q,79r,3r5.49 + 10,958,436.42)
,,...,
lr5'zJ)
,919,492
72,438,987.96
72,438,987 .96
(8.789)
966,202,r7 5.0
56,&5,395,32
56,&5,395.32
(72,438,987 .96
8,t67,120.93
10,958,436.42
37 ,523
$.862)
724,974,941.7
2,791,315.49
o=(*,
$.22t)
516,337 ,533.2
Q9,002.40
e, = Ds, =
30,98r,357.9't)
:388,274,143.9
5,374,593.25
Sz:
(10,958,436.42
ry'essels
1,841,538,086
1,841,538,086
3,139,457,578
= 3,139,457,578 + 966,202,175.0
= 4,1O5,659,753
(6.961)
248
p2
:
:
4,105,659,753
785,374,239.6
t:0]1'868
(4.32 x l0r)
li :4.it0x
aft =
4,891,033,993
r,,:
'
l44Ei
Yz:
4,891,033,993
144(30 x t05
The tower section weights and displacements are combined in Thble 4-21 to determine the period of vibration
of the tower.
4,105,659
,7
53
(43' x tOt
3,1,39,457 ,578
(4.32
t5 -
l0e)
: l.lJ n = lj-)v
0.950
I,841,538,086
1bt =
-..T
11.405 in.
3.40 d
0.727
ft =
8.721 in.
0.426
ft :
5.1 15 in.
L= 16";-=re.24tt
. = (,+*) $740) +(,uaA.,r',
0.258
ft :
3.102 in.
fy
0.139
ft :
1.667 in.
V,
: fvD S
0.049
ft :
0.589 in.
@tt]ott
J9-
First critical wind velocity, V,
ln.
":z1
|,1t6,563,r44 :
600,225,610.8
2rr,951,466.9
$8 16
39,557 ,94r.95
w2t16
0.006in.
q6
(43' x iort
Y8:
ft :
r0
= ,.,,,
From Equation 4-101, at resonance

vortex shedding frequency
to 91)(7.1221
U.l
natural frequency
34.540a
Sec
23.550 mph
Considering the top portion (Section 1) we have
0.009
ft
v-
= 0.1l0 in.
(o
eT(lfa)
u.z
423s
L
sec
2E.eo mph
Table 4-21
Values for Determining Tower's Period of Vibration

Detlectlon
1_!:-!
13.59
w
4.7 r0
869.880.95
14.711.26
064.06
1 54n
64.008.90
1.289.33
23.63t .20
.60
6.231 .00
3.724.10
2,029.60
389.40
1.9i0
19.10
0.19
8.72
710
5.r2
2,480
l0
2,010
1.67
2,230
3.444
3.
0.59
0.11
0.01
Dtr :
First Period of Vibration, T
ILwy'
i 11. t82.441.8r)
r = z,r \/etrwv = zr 1/(386.4X114,020.23, =
J
tou
1.03 sec/cycle
of=
O.9j Hz
114,02s.23
65.01 l.7 t
19.316.10
6.219.25
1.197 .46
Dwy, =
r,182.443.81
Since the field measurements indicated an air velocity

at resonance to be 30 mph and a stack deflection of 13
inches, this analysis agrees with empirical results. From
the calculations for the first critical wind velocity, it appears that the larger diameter of Section t has a larger
influence on this deflection. For this reason we use the
top I/+ of the tower rather than the top 1/:. Now,
Y1
6.25;
Vr
(6.25)(28.90)
180.63 mph
A tower that has been fabricated and installed in the

field is beyond design changes. Unlike stacks (see Chapter 5), vortex strakes are difficult to install on many towers and impossible on others. Shortening the tower
height is impractical, since the tower's internals are necessary (unlike a stack). Consequently, the only resolution is to mount guy wires to the tower's upper section
(normally 2/3 the height). Except for special applications,
guy wires are to be avoided in practice. They use a lot of
space and plant maintenance people sometimes must
temporarily remove one or two to gain access to an area
for equipment installation or some other reason. Problems then may arise in keeping the tower from falling
over during this temporary time interval, remembering
to reconnect the guy wire(s), and making sure the wires
are properly tensioned once they are reconnected. Despite these disadvantages, guy wires were essential in
this application.
EXAMPLE 4.5r SADDLE PLATE ANALYSTS
OF A HORIZONTAL VESSEL
r\36)\'l
expansion of the vessel, so only uniform compression is

considered in evaluating the saddles. Even though a Zick
analysis indicates that the vessel is grossly overstressed,
the saddle in Figure 4-48 is to be evaluated.
To analyze the saddle plate, refer to Figure 4-48 c.
Each section of the saddle plate, A-B, B-C, C-D, is
considered separately. Each section supports a portion of
the vessel weight indicated by the dotted lines. Sections
A-B and C-D support equal weights.
Section
A-B
4.27
and
ft :
C-D
51.24 in.,
_ o,12r'lst.zq _
2 |
15l.2ar1l
l(361 j
259.52 gal in one head
From Equation A-1 in Appendix A the partial volume of

liquid in the cylindrical portion is calculated.
.,
(72)2(150)(l2t
lott+0.+St ^ --l
L 180
9,351 ,647 .46 in.3
40,483.32 gal
Total fluid volume above Section
Y:
4O,483.32 gaI
A-B
2(259.52) gal
5,481.22 ft3
Ri
6.0
ft = i2rn.
is
4t,002.36 gal
The total fluid weight is then
Wres
:
Wrco
t5-48t.22t fr' tOZ.qt Ib,
rr
.+r
478,839.22 tb
Metal Weight Above Each Section, A-B and C-D

For outside surlace on h.ud, thuiur" V, ir,. tt'i.k,
.25 )(7 2 .5
), _
"<t?.r,lsr.t+
62,434.25 in.3
The inside volume in the head was determined in computing the fluid volume as being 59,948.76 in3. The
metal volume in one head is then
VM
62,434.25 in.3
59,948.76 in.3
2,485.49 in.l
For two heads,
Yu =
2(2,485.49)
4,970.98 jn.3
The metal volume in the cylinder portion above Section

A-B is determined as follows:
For outside surface,
From Appendix A, Equation A-8, the fluid volume in

A-B is as follows:
vessel above Section
)z
59.948.76 trl.3
2r\36
A proposed horizontal vessel design shown in Figure

448 is fully loaded with corn syrup used by a confectionery manufacturing plant in Fayetteville, Arkansas.
The corn syrup has a specific gravity of .y = 1.4 un6 . ut
90"F. The thickness of the head and shell is t/z in. since
the corn syrup is at 90'F, there is practically no thermal
(72.5)2050)(12)
2
l""l;';"' - o'r]
9,512,090.41 in.l
250
It
I50
TAN/TAN
lrot
I
lI
i\
A,
f.i.,--" i"['i"'
i-8
wi=3 46
tttl
tl
ABCD
Figure 4-48. Horizontal vessel containing corn syrup.
The inside volume was determined in computing the

fluid volume as being 9,351,647.46 in3. The metal volume in the cylinder is then
V:
9,512,090.41 in.3
160,442.95 ir.3
9,351,647.46 in.3
The total metal volume above Section
vM
4,970.98 in.r
160,442.95 in.3
A-B
lcl
rr AB -
vvcD -
Section
B-C
525,651.36 lb
is
165,413.93 in.3
r : {#["
r- -
.lb, =
rn.J
46,8t2.14 lb
Combining with fluid weight the total weight,
:
:
46,812.14 lb + 478,839 .22 lb

525,651.36 lb
For each saddle,
lb
t#l :
135,483 43
in3
For total volume,
v = 2(135,483.43) :
1r65.413.93) in.J (0.283)
262,825.68
Similarly to Section A-B, for the head, the liquid volume is determined from Equation A-7 in Appendix A.
The metal weight is
wy =
270,966.86 in.3 for one head
For both heads,
v:
2(270,966.86)
54r,933.73 in.3
Liquid volume for cylinder portion is
v :
:
r(72)'?(r50)(r2) in.3
10,611,534.46 in.3
2(9,351,647.46) in.3
{
The total liquid volume above Section
Vr :
10,611,534.46 in.3
11,153,468.19 in.3
B{
vru
is
Ws =
For outside surface on a single head, usin Equation
A-7
- r(7?.s\2[rt * - tr#J :
137,097.43 in.3
135,483.43 in.3
1,614'35 in.3
For two heads,
3228.72 in.3
487,258.58 in.3
B-C
is
lb
.^
-^^-.
(487.258.58)in.i (0.2833)
ft3
137,894.18 lb
in.3
w,- _ (11.151,198.I?)in.r
|
rn.3
(62.4)
,723
:
=
(1.4)ftj
563,869.78 lb
The total weight above Section
Wr
Vr,,r
251
The total liquid volume above Section B-C is
B7,oe7.7e
The inside volume was determined from calculating the

liquid volume as being 135,483.43 in.3 Thus the metal
volume for a single head is
Yu
484,029.86 in.3
The total metal weight above Section
541,933.73 in.3
Metal Volume Above Section B-C
rGssels
137,894.18
lb +
B-C
is
lb
563,869.78
701,763.96 lb
For each saddle,
2(1,614.36)n.3
3,228.72 in.3
Wrc:Q:
701,763.96 lb
350,881.98 lb
The metal volume for the cylindrical portion is determined using Equation A-l and the total volume ofa cylinder as follows:
(72)z(r50X12)
rQz.0)2(15O't02')
V:
Saddle Plate Buckllng Analysls

The critical buckling stress for a plate is determined
from Equation 4-17a.
19,963,181.93 in.3 for inside volume
(4-r7a)
For outside volume,
r(72.5)?(150)(12)
*f0a6.'12"\
V=
(72.5)2(rs0)(r2)
where
+ 2hG
1)
(12)(3.46X0.s) + 2(0.sxls
= 0.59
1)l
in.
19,963,181.93 in.3
For both sides of centerline in Figure 448 c,
Yu =
ldi ts
(12x3.46X0.50)
20,205,196.86 in.3
20,205,196.86 in.3
242,O14.93 in.3
h = 0'50 in'
- 0.551I
The metal volume is

Vr,a
2Q42,014.93)in.3
484,029.86 in.3
Combining both the cylindrlcal and head metal weights

we have
AIso,
: Kt.
h = (1.28X0.5) = 0.64 in. (use.0.597 in.)
b.
(+1s)
Adding more length to web plate will net. increase the

local buckling strength for pure compression. The same
also holds for bending and shear. Substituting the value
of b, above into Equation 4-17a ws have
252
vc,_ -,-____ x- 106) :4.980.860psi

,,1, _ 1l l(3.46x l2 )1,
Horizontal Reactlon Force on Saddle
(1.28)r, (29
From Equation 4-19 the horizontal reaction is
\ e/\ 0.s I
Substituting this value into Equation 4-18 we determine the buckling load for compressive loading as follows:
Fs
n(A, +
FB
(4)[7.5 + 2(0.597)(0.5)
2be
Since 161,321.4
tJo.
lb <
z-
- B * sin B cos p
(4-18)
262,825.7
-:)
'r -f = no"
161,321.389 lb
o=
(rso
lb <
^
v:
2(262.825.68)
we must use more stiffening plates

t/z-in. saddle plate.
Now
FB."
F:Q
350,881.98 lb
if
we are to use a
351,000 lb
350.881.98
438,266.67 lb
8s,294.56 lb
The effective area resisting this force is
From Equation 4-18 we have

351,000
n[7.5
^"
2(0.597X0.5)]o".
= (,u),. =
(9
(o 5o)
12 ss 1n,
This results in a stress of

351,000
8s,294.56 tb: _ ^-^ ^_

/'uJ6 60 PSr
o=
tzttg irtl
The effective plate width normal to the web plate axis is
d"
where
di (0.25
0.91\'?)
\ = (l)[9"
\w,/ \o*i
^
w"
Referring to Table 4-6, the allowable stress for A-36 is

0.60 o, : 22,000 psi. Since 7,058.86 psi < 22,000
osi. the saddle is sufficient for the horizontal reaction.
1{OTATION
(u*;)(':'-'*f':
(3.46)(12)(0.25
0.91 (0.41)'?)
oo'
16.74
dimension from saddle centerline to tansent

head (Figure 4-2) ft, in.
effective area of concrete, ft2
1n.
n=
10.392(
l2)
16.74
7.449 -use E stiffeners
BP
BPW
C
o^,
-8=
FB
l5l'ooo
43.875.0 osi
(8)[7.5 + 2(0.597X0.s)](43,875.0)
2,842,W7.0 lb
Since 2,&42,047
sufficient.
lb > >
351,000 lb, eight stiffeners are
CA:
c.:
cs=
of
plate width (Equation 4-15) in.

bearing pressure, psi
base plate thickness, in.
constant for bolt torque (Equation 4-66), dimensionless; friction coefficient (Equation 489) dimensionless; structure period response
factor (Equation 4-106) dimensionless
corrosion allowance, in.
critical damping factor (Equation 4-90), dimensionless
compressive strength of concrete (Thble 4-7),

psi
D=
Dr :
D. :
D,
E:
F=
F; :
f. :
f, :
Gr :
Gg
G* :
H:
I:
I" =
K:
k:
K' =
Kz :
L:
L" =
M:
m:
Mc :
Mr :
N:
P
Pu
:
:
R:
Ri :
& :
r:
Q:
diameter (Equation 4-27), in.; dynamic magni

fication factor (Equation 4-9 1), dimensionless
effective wind diameter (Figure 4-22), in.

outside diametet in.
inside diameter. in.
welding joint efficiency (Table 4-2), dimensionless: modulus of elasticity. psi
wind force (Equation 4-94)
bold uplift force (Equation 4-39), lbr
natural frequency of a ring (Equation 4-100),
Hz
vortex shedding frequency Equation 4-101, Hz
dynamic gust response factor, dimensionless
gusset plate height (Equations 4-39 and 4-63),
ln.
gusset plate width (Equation 4-63), in.
depth of vessel head (Figure 4-2), in.
moment of inertia (Equation 4-24), in1 ;occupancy importance factor (Equation 4-106), dimensionless
qF
g:o
:
:
T=
:
t6q :
t8 :
tr, :
( :
vo :
vr :
Tr
W=
coefficient of buckling for shear (Equation 415 and Figure 4-3), dimensionless
dimensionless parameter for concrete (Thble 4-
xO =
of effective area of
7)
plate buckling coefficient (Equation 4-15), dimensionless
velocity pressure coefficient (Thble.4-9 and

Equation 4-78)
length of a horizontal vessel from seam to
seam (Figure 4-2), ft, in.
effective column length (Equation 4-19), in.
bending moment, in.lb, ft-lb
bolt spacing (Equation 4-39), in.
compressive bending moment in the shell of a
horizontal vessel (Figure 4-2), tt-lb
tensional bending moment in the shell of a horizontal vessel (Figure 4-2), ft-lb
number of anchor bolts (Equation 440), dimensionless
buckling load for compressive loading (Equation 4-18), lb6; probability of exceeding wind
design speed during n years (Thble 4-11) and
Appendix A), dimensionless
annual probability of wind speed exceeding a
given magnitude-see (Appendix A), dimensionless
mean radius of shell (Figure 4-2), ft, in.
inside vessel radius (Equation 4-13), in.
outside vessel radius (Equation 4-73), in.
inside radius of vessel (Figure 4-2), ft
reaction at saddle (wl2),
lbl
253
velocity pressure of wind on structures (Equation q-i6), rcJf(

basic wind pressure at 30 ft, lbrift'?
Strouhal number used (Equation 4-102), dimensionless; structure size factor (Equation 482)
bolt torque as defined (Equation 4-66), in.-lb

exposure facior for wind (Thble 4-11), dimensionless
compression plate thickness (Equation 4-63),

in.
gusset plate thickness, in.
head thickness (Equation 4-7), in.
shell thickness (Equation 4-1), in.
theoretical ovaling velocity (Equation 4-102),
mph or ft/sec
first critical wind velocity (Equation 4-94),
mph
v30
con-
moment of inertia
crete, in1
Vessels
x.t
y=
Z:
Z=
basic wind speed at thirty feet used as design

wind speed (Equation 4-75), mph
vessel weight (Equation 4-40), lbr
static deflection of a spring acted upon by a
force (Equation 4-90). in.
displacement as a function of time (Equation 490), in.
total lateral displacement of tower (Equation
4-88, Figure 4-21), in., ft
elevation or height above a reference point,
such as the ground (Equation 4-74), ft
reference height in which basic wind speed is
considered (30 ft or 10 m), ft
Greek Symbols
a : ir -
(tr 1180)(012
B=
+ B/20) (Equation 4-6), de-
grees
A=
6; =
d
(180
012), degrees
(?./180x5di 12 30), degrees
lateral translational deflection oftower, (Equation 4-88 and Figure 4-26), in.
angle of contact of saddle with shell (Figure 41), degrees, radians; rotational displacement
of tower (Figure 4-26), degrees

(t/bxE/ocil used in Equation 4-18, dimension-
\ =
less
p : radius of gyration : (I/Af
6 = general term for stress, psi
o" : allowable stress values (Table 4-3) psi
d. : allowable stress induced on concrete (Equation
.5
ogp
4-40), psi; general tern for compressive stress

(Equation 4-16), psi
critical stress in a flat plate defined in Equa-
tion 4-15, psi
:
oE
oP
o.
ow
oy
:
:
:
:
:
z=
elastic buckling stress (Equation 4-16), psi;

28-day ultimate compressive strength of concrete (Thble 4-7), psi
stress due to weight, lbr
pressure stress induced by either internal or
external pressure, psi; longitudinal stress in
Equation 4-67 , psi
tensile stress in steel, psi
stress induced by wind or earthquake response
spectra, psi
minimum yield stress for a ductile material,
psi
Poisson ratio for a given material, dimension-
Building Officials, Unlform Building Code, Whittier, California, 1982.

11. American National Standards Institute, Inc., "ANSI
A58.1-Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures- 1982," New York.
12. Kuethe, A. M. and Schetzer, J. D., Foundations of
Aerodynamics, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
less
15. Staley, C. M. and Graven, G. G., The Static and

Dynamic Wind Design of Steel Stacks, ASME 72Pet-30, New York.
16. Vierck, R. K., Vibration Analysis, Harper and Row,
New York, 1979.
17 . Paz, M., Structural Dynamics, Van Nostrand
Rheinhold Co. New York, 1980.
18. Australian Standard 1170, Part 2-1983 SAA Loading Code, Part 2-Wind Forces, p. 55.
19. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., Weaver, W., Vibration Problems In Engineering, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1974.
20. Higdon, A., Olsen, E. H., Stiles, W B., Weese, J.
A., and Riley, W. F., Mechanics of Materials, John
Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976.
21. Mitchell, Warren W., "Determination of the Period
of Vibration of MultiDiameter Columns by the
Method Used on Rayleigh's Principle," an unpublished work prepared for the Engineering Department of the Standard Oil Company of California.
San Francisco, California, 1962.
22. Bedna\ H. H., Pressure Vessel Design Handbook,
Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co.. New York. 1981.
23. Boardman, H. C.. "Stresses at Junction ofCone and
Cylinder in Thnks With Cone Bottoms or Ends,"
Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, coTlected, papers, ASME, N.Y., 1960.
24. Weaver, William, Jr., "Wind-Induced Vibrations in
Antenna Members," American Society of Civil Engineers, Paper No.3336, Yol. 127, Part 1, N.Y..
N.Y., 1962.
d:
10. International Conference of
1959.
13. Blevins, R. D., Flow-Induced Vibration, Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co., New York, 1977.
14. Macdonald, A. J., Wind Inading on Buildings, Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., London, England,
1980.
concrete bearing parameter (Equation 4-20),

dimensionless
REFERENCES
l.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section

VIII Division I , American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York.
2. Zick, L. P., "Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports,"
Welding Research Journal Stpplement, 1971.
3. Brownell, L. E. and Young, E. H., Process Equipment Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1959.
4. U.S. Steel,
Steel Design Manual, U.S. Steel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1981.

5. American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of
Steel Construction, Eighth Edition, AISC, Chicago,
Illinois.
6.
1980.
5., Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1959.
7. Bickford, J. H., An Introduction to the Design and
Behavior of Bohed Joints, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, 1981.
8. Faires, Y. M., Design of Machine Elements, The
Macmillan Co.. New York. 1962.
9. Simiu, E. and Scanlan, R. H., Wind Effects on
Stuctures, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978.
Timoshenko,
'
Appendix A
Partial Volumes and Pressure Vessel

Calculations
PARTIAL VOLUiIE OF A CYLINDER
v"'
RiL
:
R:
L
|to' _ ,inol 2 \180'

rl
panial volume
shown (A-l)
In snaoeo regron
length of cylinder
J- __
inside radius of cylinder
Examplg lFigure
-/.\
--x^L?-q
-ait
'
I
A.tl
For a cylinder with 144-in. ID find the partial volume

of a fluid head of 60 in., if L : 100 ft:
|= w.+r
(721!zoo)
v,' :
2 ["tlggrsri
r80 - sin (160.81")l
[
Yp
Figure
Sketch for calculating partial volume of a cylin-
7,707 ,650.2 in.3
33,366.5 gal
PARTIAL VOLUIIE OF A
HEIIISPHERICAL HEAD
rry':(3Ri -D)
,,rP _- -------------
r(3sft3(50)
l00l
64,140.85 in.3
277.7 ga|
(A-2)
V. =
A.l.
der.
Example
partial volume shown in shaded region
For horizontal volume in Figure A-2b find partial volume for a head with Rr
50 in. and y
35 in.'
Example
For vertical volume in Figure A-2a find partial volume
50 in. and y = 35 in.:
for a head with Ri
277 .7
255
138.85 gal
256
Example-Spherically Dished Horizontal
(a)
Head
A spherically dished head with a 114-in. @ OD is spun

from l-in. plate. Determine the partial volume of l0 in.
of liquid. From vessel head manufacturer's catalog we
determine the following:
IDD
ll4 -
K, =
Figure A-2. Partial volume of vertical hemispherical

(8) Partial volume of horizonral hemispherical head.
16.786 in. (Figure A-5),

2(1.0)
-=-:
a:
159.43"
L:
108
193
1n.
)O.U ln.
2.78
- 16.786:91.2r
in.
head.
-_r--T
-lY'
ll
I
lv
tl
ln,
I
t?
PARTIAL VOLUMES OF SPHERICALLY

DISHED HEADS
--.-{-}
--
Horlzontal Head
The partial volume of a horizontal head (Figure A-3) is
v="lJGt:lT-{p-v-F
ryl
(A-l)
Figure A-3. Partial volume of spherically dished horizontal

neaqs.
Vertical Head
The partial volume of a vertical head (Figure A-4) is
-.
v:
?rv(3x2
--:--:----------
v2)
v)
(A-4)
or
,,
rry2(3o
3
(A-5)
Figure A-4. Partial volume

heads.
of spherically dished
vertical
n
Appendix A: Pressure ry'essel Formulations
Yi
= 6.786"
Figure A-5.
r=\:.,O/l-
1..,fi082
(91.21)(562
38,893.21 in.3
--61s6-,P
6.7862)
168.37 gal
J(lo-s:
5FF
Example- Spherically Dished Vertical

Head
For the same head above, determine the partial volume
of a head of liquid of 9 in.
55.456 in.
u_r(9)[3(55.a56f+g'z]
14,874 in.3
64.4 gal
End View of Horizontal Head
PABTIAL VOLUTES OF ELLIPTICAL HEADS

The exact partial volume of
(Figure 4-6) is as follows:
Flgure A-6. Partial volume of horizontal elliptical
horizontal elliptical head
u = (I93)'-(Rl
- n1i
(4-6)
6RI
Vertlcal Elliptical Heads

Volume of top portion @ of Figure A-7 is
oR't["
t'I
v^:
- 2 r - 3GDD),1
(A-7)
Volume of bottom portion

.
v^=
2r(tDD)R''?
rRl
'
'
-
_______:
Ilv
2 l'
is
uj
3(IDD)'?j
(A-8)
Figure A.7. Partial volume of vertical elliptical head.
258
Horizontal Head Exampte
Find the partial volume of a 2:1 (Ri/IDD = 2) elliptical head that is 108-in. OD. The level of the liquid ii 35
in.. and the head is spun from l-in. plate.
vertical head
IDD:
108
2(1.0)
26.50 in.
From Equation ,4-6 and Figure A-8 we have the follow_
IDD
rng:
-X
.,t :
a r-6R v{K,' - yi.f
(IDD)
a:138.80":2.42
v_
V:
(19.0)12.42t
.,?r
6(53)
s _ / rEtrl
B
horizontal head
17,512.94 in.3
75.81 gal
Vertical Head Example

For some head above, determine the partial volume for
vertical head with 19 in. of liquid. Using Equation A-g
we have the following:
a
2r(lDD)R,2
_ "n, [,
2I''
,, - 2rQ6.50)(53.U2
V=
V
_ y,, I
3(rDD4
c
vertical knuckle region
-z-'lteo-
zrt53.0) [
77,951.81 in.3
1310.75 in.3
76,641.06 in.3
331.78 gal
H=IDO-KR
D
horizontal knuckle region
Figure A-8.
Figure A-9. Partial volumes of torispherical heads: (A) vertical, (B) horizontal, (C) vertical knuckle region, (D) horizontal
knuckle resion.
Appendix A: Pressure vessel Formulations
PARTIAL VOLUilES OF
TORISPHERICAL HEADS
Figule
For Figures A-9 and A-10,
:
:
p:
Vr : knuckle volume
Vo : dish volume
KR : knuckle radius
y
IDD
4F10.
height of liquid
inside depth of dish
inside dish radius
For vertical heads (Figure A-9c) the knuckle-cylinder

partial volume is
v-: ?
<t, +
4rM2
(A-e)
ri2)
The partial volume of the dish region of a vertical head is
.,vD _
?ry(3x2
y2)
(A-10)
6-
The total partial volume in a vertical head is

?rY(3x'z + Y'z)
oH
v":
'" + 12)
" +
' 6'"(r^2 + 4ru2
6
(A-11)
wherey:IDD-KR
Horizontal Todspherical Hcad$
Partial Volume of Dish
(Figure A-l
l)
Vo:o {F:1tr - vG, - R-5 _ L(&, - yf )
(A-12)
Volume of Knuck-Cylinder Region @ (Figure A-12)
vo = *FI9 + Rr
KR)
(*,
K*)'l
end view of dish

volume
Figure A-11. Sketch for example partial volume calculation

of horizontal torispherical head.
(A- 13)
The total partial volume for a horizontal torispherical

head is as follows:
V1
: V6+
V6
- \GI:TF - L(&'? 2
*
"[#
+ Gi
wherel: p _ IDD
KR)
+ (&
KR),]
yf)
(A-14)
Figure A-12.
260
Horlzontal Head Example
102-in. @ OD flanged and dished (torispherical)
head made to ASME specifications (KR ) 0.60p and

KR > 3th, tr, = head thickness) is spun from l-in. plate.
The head is horizontal and the liquid level is 35-in. determine the partial volume.
From the vessel head manufacturer's catalog and Figure A-12 we determine the following:
p=
R,
96 in., KR
too
=z
6.125 in.. IDD
R,
llR trl 5l
= '-- - 2.=-" -', = 67.50 in.;
132 in.,
KR = 3 in.,IDD = 20.283 in.
- (31 -
H2lo5
66.446 in.
50in., L = 96.0 - 17.562 = 78.4J8 in.

For kluckle-cylinder region,
(78.438)(50'
(5o.oo
14.091.,14
uOai-
tcl
15')
6.12s)
in.r =
r,,
/.) < r1, 14(6.125)

T JT
(50.00
138-in.
6.125f1
)
147.59 ga.
d OD F&D (flanged
Rr
in.
:61.50;ri
Ri
KR
67.50
3.00
67.50 + 64.50
rm=-=ob.ul
Vertical Head Example

A
x = 67.50
vr = Q.532) vaq6t--rsry
Vr =
17.562 in.
From Equation A-14 we have
The head is vertical and the liquid level is 18-in. Determine the partial volume.
From the vessel head manufacturer's catalog we determine the following:
and dished) head nor

made to ASME specifications is spun from 1llz-in. plate.
120.283
(3.0
+ 15.0)l :2.283 in.
" -l-'' l(67.50), +

vv = -()
o
)9,11
4(66.0)2
z(17.283)[3(64.500)'?
(17.283)'?]
Yv = 31,247.726 in.r + 115,645.832

Vv = 146,893.558 in.r
(64.5011
635.903 gal
in.3
64.50
Appendix
A:
Pressure Vessel Formulations
INTERNAL PBESSURE ASIIE FORIIULATIOI{S
wtrH ouTsrDE DlllENslol{s
Cylindrical Shell
Longitudinal Joint
i=
D_ oEt
'-R-O3t
PR
oE + 0.4P
Circumferential Joint
'-
PB"
2'E + 1AP
2:l
t=
2oEl
Ro
1.4t
ElliDsoidal Head
PDo
2oE + 1-BP
2oEl
- 1.8r
D.
Sphere and Hemispherical Head
t=
o_
PRo
2oEl
2dE + O-8P
ASME Flanged and Dished Head

when UR = 16qh
_ 0.885P1
'-;E+o-sP
When
qEt
PLM
2oE+P(M-0.2)
UB <
0.885L
0.8t
161b
2oEt
^'
ML-(M -0.2)
Conical Section
PDo
r=
- 2 cos o(oE
+ 0.4P)
^Y=-
2SEl cos a
- 0.8t cos c
Do
INTERI|IAL PRESSURE ASME FORMULATIONS

WITH INSIDE DIMENSIONS
Cylindrical Shell
Longiludinal Joint
t=
PRi
oE
0.6P
I'ti
+ u.bt
Circumferential Joint
t=
1-\
ilt-----Ti
-'------t
PRi
' -F;- o.4t
2oE + O.4P
2:1 Ellipsoidal Head
^
l'-
2oEl
Or
+ 0.2t
Sohere and Hemisoherical Head
2oEl
R + 0.2t
ASME Flanged and Dished Head

when UR = 16E3
sE
0.1P
0.885L +
l-_,
FOR VALUES OF
SEE SUPPLEMENT
When UR
t=
<
16?e
'-"'
2oE
0.lt
O.2P
2oEt
LM + 0.2t
Conical Section
t=
PDi
2 cos d(oE
0.6P)
o_
^
2oEt cos a
Di
+ I.2t cos a
a
Appendix A: Pressure Vessel Formulations
263
Supplement for ASME Formulations

cylindrical shell, when the wall thickness exceeds one
half the inside radius or P > 0.385dE, the lormulas in ASME
Code ADDendix 1-2 shall be used.
For hemispherical hsads without a straight flange, the efficiency of ihe head-to-shell joinl is to be used if it is less than
the efficiency oI lhe seams in the head.
1. For a
For elliDsoidal heads, where the ralio ol lhe major axis is

other than 2:1, reler to ASME Code Appendix 1-4(c).
4. To use the lormulations tor a conical section in the table, the
half apex angle, r, shall not exceed 30". lf d > 30o, then a
special analysis is required per ASME Code Appendix
1-5(e).
For an ASME flanged and dished head (torispherical head)

Ur< 1643 the lollowing values ol M shall be used:
when
Values ot Factor M
M
1.00
1 .00
Ur
7.OO
1.41
UT
1.25
1.03
7.50
1.44
1.50
1.06
8.00
1.46
1.75
2.00
.08
.10
9.00
1.50
8.50
1.48
. The maximum allowed ratio: L-t=
M=
/ fL\
oit.!;/
2.25
1.13
9.50
1.52
D. When Ur
2.50
1.15
10.0
1.54
>
2.75
1.17
10.5
3.00
1 .18
11.0
3.25
1.20
3.50
1.22
1.5
'12.0
t.co
'1.58
1.60
1.62
4.00
4.50
5.00
1.25
13.0
1.65
1.2a
14.0
1.69
1.31
1.72
5.50
1.34
16.0
1.75
6.00
't.36
6.50
1.39
164s
1.77
16?3 (non-ASME Code construction), the values of M may be calculated by
xrl
-@
Appendix B
National Wind Design Standards
One of the most widely accepted international standards
A standard is a collection of current practices, past experiences, and research knowledge. Standards that are
developed by consensus groups (e.g., ASTM, ANSI),
trade associations (e.g., AISC, ACI), or government
groups (e.g., HUD, CPSC) carry more authority than
other standards because they reflect wider ranges of materials.
The ANSI A58.1-1982 is a collection of information
that is considered to be the state-of-the-art in the design
of buildings and other structures. Local and regional
building codes adopt portions of the ANSI standard for
their own use. These local and regional codes are developed to represent the needs and interests of their respective areas and are written in legal language to be incorporated into state and local laws. Because these building
codes are regional or local in scope, they often do not
include everything in the ANSI standard, which is national in perspective. For this reason, one must be certain that a local code written for one area is applicable to
the site being considered.
The ANSI standard does not have as much authority as
the ASME vessel codes, and, unfortunately, does not
have a referral committee or group to officially interpret
is the Australian Standard 1170. Part 2-1983. SAA

Loading Code Part 2-Wind Forces.
The Australian Standard I 170 is more applicable to the
process industries because in it are shape factors for
geometries that are more common in that industry, e.g.,
circular shapes. However, before applying the shape factors of the Australian standard to the ANSI or any other
national standard, one must be very careful to correctly
convert the factors. This is because the codes have different basis upon which these factors are deiermined,
and a direct application of other parameters is not possi
ble. This is discussed later after we discuss the basis for
the various standards.
CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING WIND
SPEED
Wind is caused by differential heating of air masses by
the sun. These masses of air at approximately one mile
above the ground circulate air around their centers of
pressure. At this altitude, the velocity and direction of
the wind is almost entirely determined by macro-scale
forces caused by large scale weather systems. Below this
gradient height, the wind is modified by surface roughness, which reduces its velocity and changes its direction
and turbulence. A secondary criterion, except for extreme wind conditions, is the temperature gradient,
which affects the vertical mobility of turbulent eddies
and therefore influences the surface velocity and the gradient height. Therefore, the exact nature of the surface
wind at any point depends, first, on the general weather
situation, which determines the gradient wind and the
temperature gradient, and, second, on the surrounding
topography and ground roughness which, together with
the document. Therefore, one must make decisions

based on past experience and accepted methods of design. The ANSI standard (Paragraph 6.6, p. 16) states
that in determining the value for the gust response factor
a rational analysis can be used. A note below the-paragraph states that one such procedure for determining the
gust response factor is in the standard's appendix. The
note at the top ofthe appendix (p. 52) states clearly that it
is not a part of the ANSI 458.1 mirninum design standard. What all this implies is that one may follow the
guide of the ANSI standard's appendix or use another rational analysis, which includes another wind standard.
Thus, one caz use another standard for design purposes.
265
266
the temperature gradient, modify the gradient wind to

the surface wind.
Wind motion is further complicated by the rotation of
the earth, which induces additional forces that cause the
air moving across the earth's surface to be subjected to a
fbrce at right angles to the wind velocity vector. These
additional forces are known as Coriolis forces.
Each country has adopted its own standard for measuring wind velocity. The U.S. National Weather Service
and U.S. codes use the fastest-mile wind sDeed. which is
defined as the average speed ofone mile of air passing an
anemometer. Thus, a fastest-mile wind speed of 120 mph
means that a "mile" of wind passed the anemometer during a 30-second period. Other nations, namely Australia
and Great Britain, use the two-second gust speed. This is
based on the worst 2-second mean as measured by a cup
anemometer. The mean gust speeds are recorded over a
period of time such that a mean recurrence interval is determined. The mean recurrence interval is the reciprocal
of the probability of exceeding a wind speed of a given
magnitude at a particular location in one year. The risk,
or probability, R, that the design wind speed will be
equaled or surpassed at least once in the life of the tower
is given by the expression
R:l-(l-P,)"
where P, : annual probability of exceedance (reciprocal
of the mean recurrence interval)
n : life of the tower or stack
The risk that a given wind speed of specified magnitude will be equaled or exceeded increases with the period of time that the tower is exposed to the wind. Values
of risk of exceeding design wind speed for a designated

annual probability and a given design life ofthe structure
are shown in Table B-1.
For example, if the design wind speed for a tower is
based on an annual probability of 0.02 (mean recurrence
interval of 50 years) and the projected tower life is 25
years, there is a 0.40 probability that the design wind
Table B-1
Probability of Exceeding Wind Design Speed
Pr = 1-(1 -
Annual
Probability
0.10
0.05
0.01
0.005
l0
15
will be exceeded during the life of the structure.

The United States and Australian wind codes use the 50speed
year recurrence interval.

The instrument for measuring the wind in the United
States, Great Britain, and Australia is the cup-generator
anemometer shown in Figure B-1. This device is operated by the wind striking the cups, which drive a small
permanent alternator. The indicator, which incorporates
a rectifier, is simply a voltmeter calibrated in miles per
hour. In most recent cup-generator models the generator
output is used to activate a pen-chart recorder which provides a record of continuous wind soeed.
WIND SPEED RELATIONSHIPS

As stated previously, another method can be substituted for the appendix in ANSI A58. l. What this means
is that another code could be used instead of the appendix. To do this one must be careful to utilize the correct
conversion factors between standards. To accomplish
this we refer to Figure B-2. For a 100-mph fastest mile
wind speed in ANSI 458.1 we wish to determine the
equivalent fastest mile wind speed for a 2-second gust
using either the Australian or British code. From Figure
B-2 we read from the ordinate 1.54 fior 2 sec. Knowins
that one mile ol wind moving at 100 mph will pass thi
anemometer in 36 sec, we read 36 sec on the curve and
arrive at V,/V3666 = 1.30. Thus, the equivalent fastest
mile wind speed is
Po)*
/r
Design Lile of Structure in N Years
PAI
Figure B-1. Cup generator anemometer.
25 50
100
0.410 0.651 0.794 0.928 0.995 0.999

0.050 0.226 0.40t 0.537 0.'723 0.923 0.994
0.010 0.049 0.096 0.140 0.222 0.395 0.634
0.005 0.025 0.049 0.072 o.tt8 0.222 0.394
sa\
V - t;:^lrl00)
\1.30i
mph
tt8.4
mph
0. 100
for a 2-sec gust. For I l0 mph, the values becomes
V:
(1.18)(ll0) mph
129.8 mph
a
Appendix B: National Wind Design Standards
Figure B-2, Ratio of probable maximum wind speed averaged over t seconds to hourly mean speed.
Thus, the 1.18 factor would have to be used in the 2-sec

gust code if that code were to be substituted for Appen-
dix A of ANSI A58.1-1982.

Similarly, the Canadian code we must convert to obtain an equivalent fastest mile wind speed from the mean
hourly. The mean hourly implies that the wind moves an
average of 100 mph across the anemometer in a period of
3,600 sec. Reading Figure B-2 we have V'/Vru* = 1.6.
Thus
lj:
ozor
which yields an equivalent velocity of 76.9 mph. With

the Canadian code one must use 0.769 in use of shape
constants and the various other parameters when using
with ANSI A58.1. A comparison of the major wind
codes is given in Thbles B-Z, B-3, B-4, and B-5.
ANS| A58.r-1982 WIND CATEGORIES

In the ANSI A58.1-1982 there are four wind categories-A, B, C, and D. The categories are described as
follows:
Category A-A very restricted category in which the

wind speed is drastically reduced. Most petrochemical
and power facilities do not fall within this category.
The wind force is reduced because the structure is considered to be among many tall structures. One example would be a ten-story building in downtown Manhattan, New York, where the taller buildings would
block the stronger air currents.
Category B-A classification that encompasses some tall
structures, but not enough to block the majority of
wind gusts. An example of this category would be a
tower in the midst of a large petrochemical facility
where there were other towers that would block some
of the wind force. A forest surrounding a tower is another example.
Category C-The most common classification for petrochemical applications. This category is open terraln
where the tower would receive full impact from the
wind with minimum ground resistance to the wind. An
example of this category would be an open field or an
alrDort.
Category D-A classification for wind moving over water. A beachhead, in which there is flat beach up to a
row of buildings would be in Category D. Miami
beach, from the ocean front up to the facade of hotels,
is a good example. Behind the hotel fronts would be
Category C. Another example of this classification
would be a tall vertical vessel on an offshore structure.
Table B-2
Malor U.S. and Foreign Building Codes and Standards Used in Wind Design
Standard
Edition
Code or
Australian Standard I 170,
Part 2-Wind Forces
1983
British Code of Basic
1972
Data for Design of Buildings
(cP3)
Wind Loading Handbook
(commentary on CP3)
National Building Code
ofcanada (NRCC No. 17303)
1974
Organization
Address
Standards Association
Standards House
of Australia
80 Arthur Street/North Sydney,
British Standards
Institution
Building Research
Establishment
N.S.W. Australia
British Standards Institution
2 Park Street
London, WIA 285, England

Building Research Station
Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR, England
National Research Council of
1980
National Research
Council of Canada
The Supplement to the

National Building Code of
Canada (NRCC 17724)
ANSI A58.1,1982
1980
National Research
Ottawa, Ontario K1A OR6
Council of Canada
Canada
1982
American National
Standards Institute
Uniform Building Code
1982
Standard Building Code
1982
International Conference
of Building Officials
Southern Building Code
1430 Broadway
New York, New York 10018
5360 South Workman Mill Road
with
Congress International
Canada
Whittier, California 90601

900 Montclair Road
Birmingham, Alabama 35213
1983 rev.
Basic Building Code
1984
Building Officials and

Code Administrators
International, Inc.
17926 South Halsted Street

Homewood, Illinois 60430
Table B-3
Reference Wind Speed
Feference
Averaging time
Australian
1983)
(SAA,
British
(BSl, 1982)
Canadian
(NRCC,
2-3
2-second
Mean hourly
second
gust speed
Equivalent reference
wind speed to fastest
mile 100 mph
118.4
1980)
United States
(ANS|, 19s2)
Fastest mile
gust speed
I18.4
76.9
100
'l'*"1iil
Appendix B: National Wind Design Standards
Table B-4
Parameters Used in the Maior National Standards
Australian
British
Canadian
Wind Speed
l,ocal terrain
Height variation
Ref. speed
Terrain roughness
Yes
Yes
2-sec gusts
Tbbles in
appendix includes
figures
Gusts
Magnitude
Spatial correlation
Gust frequency
Gust speed
Reduction for
large area
Dynamic consideration
for h/b
>
is straight-forward.
4
None
Yes
Fastest mile
Thbles, includes
figures
Figures and
tables in
Thbles, figures
and notes
Yes
commentaries
factor
factor
Gust speed
None
Gust effect
Gust effect
Dynamic
consideration
not included
Dynamic
consideration
for h/b > 4

in. or for
This standard is consid- Overall a very good

code, its weakest part
ered by many the best
is the lack of dynamic
for use in the process
industries. Figures and
tables are easy to read.
The standard actually
provides the user with
equations to cutves.
The analysis procedure
None
Mean hourly
h>
Analysis procedure
1982)
Yes
Yes
2-sec gusts
Wind Pressure
Pressure coefficients
United Siates
,1
Parametel
consideration
400
Gust response factor

Area averaging
Dynamic consideration
for h/b
>
ft
An excellent wind Although the appendix

is technically not constandard. The
analysis procedure sidered a part of the
is straight-forward standard, it contains
figures difficult to read,
and the docunamely Figure 6. For
ments-code and
many structures the
supplement contain tables and fig- data extend beyond the
ures easy to read. limits of the curves in
Figures 6 and 7. In the
method in the appendix,
one must assume an initial natural frequency,
resulting in an iterative
process. This method is
extremely difficult in
designing petrochemical
towers without the use
of a computer.
270
Table B-5
Limitalions of Codes and Standards

Code or Standard
Australian Standard
I 170, Part 2- 1983
National Building
Code of Canada
(NRCC,
Statement of Limitation
"Minimum Design Loads
Location
Title
on Structures"
"...EssentiallyaSet
of Minimum Regulations . . ."
Guide to the
Use of the Code
1980)
British CP3
United States
ANSI A58.I
Uniform Building
Code
Basic Building
Code (BOCA, 1984)

Standard Building
Code, 1982 (SBCCI,
t982)
". . . Does Not Apply to

Buildings. . . That Areof
Unusual Shape or Location
For Which Special Investigations
May Be Necessary . . ."
"Minimum Design Loads . . ."
"Specific Guidelines Are Given
For. . . Wind Tunnel Investigations
. .. For Buildings. .. Having
Section 1 (Scope)
Title
Paragraph 6. I
IrregularShapes..."
"The purpose . . . is to provide
minimumstandards..."
Section 102
"The Basic Minimum Wind Speeds
Section 912.1
Are Shown in Figure 912.1 . . ."

"The Purpose of This Code is to
Provide Minimum Requirements . . ."

"The Building Official May Require
Evidence to Support the Design
Pressures Used in the Design
of Structures Not Included in
This Section."
Preface
Article 1205.2(a)
Appendix C
Properties of Pipe
272
Mechanical Design ol Process Systems
PROPERTIES OF PIPE
Th6
tollowilg tormulqs dre used in lh computorior of th6 volues
Tlr lsEilic ste6ls rnay be sbout 5% les!, dDd the crEte.itic stdin_
legs sleels qbout 27o greate! thon the values shown in tbiE tqble
which ore bcsed ort weigbts lor cdrboIt steel.
,bo\|'n in lhe toble:
t weighl
ot pipe per toor (pouDds)
weight ol lPcler pr foot (pou!ds)

squqre leet ou&id ludoco per loot
squorc leet inside surlace Fr loot
inside drea (squdre hches)
dred o{ rnetcd (squore irches)
moment ol
10.6802(D-0
=
:
=
ir6rtia (inches.)
saction moduluB (inches3)
lodius oI gyrqtion (i!ches)
* achedule numben
0.340sd,
0.2518D
0,785(Dr-d?)
Stordord weight pipe qnd schedule rlo qte the scrae in oll sizss
lhrough lo-isdr; lrom lz-ilch thtough 24-irch, stqndard {eight pip6
has d croll thicloess oI %-ircb.
0.049r(D.-d)
Extro BtroDg woight pipe ond schedule
0.26r0d
0.785d,
gO dla the sdEe in oll

sires
lhrough 8-i[ch, llom 8-inch thlough 24-trch. ertrd strong weight
AÊ o'
0.0982(D.-ci.)
pipe bos a wall thicloess oI ){-incb.
Double nr(l 3troDg weight pip6 bss no c-orrespodding schedule

auEbe!,
0.25t/D,'D,+--
An = oted of Eetql (square i4ches)
d
D
R,
t
nordnol
piF .ize
achedule
ou|lide
in
%
0.405
%
0.540
I0s
40
srd
80
xs
40s
80s
40
srd
40s
80
xs.
80s
l0s
%
0.840
40
;;;
80
xs
40
80
;;
xs
i.050
s0
xs
80
I.66'0
80
160
in.
in"
0.01s
0.068
0,0s5
0.307
0.06s
0.088
0.119
inside metdl
rq. rn
0.269
0.0740
0.0568
0.2I5
0.036{
0.410
0.364
0.1320
0.302
0.0716
0.065
0.065
0.7I0
0.0st
0.493
0-423
sq.
in
0.0548
0.0720
0.092s
Bq
li
sq
tt
stoight
outaid6 inlide
F!Il,
surtdce, aurldce,
Ib*
po! tl
Per lt
0.r06
0.106
0.106
0.0804
0.0705
0.0563
0.186
0.215
0.315
Feiqht
o[ wcter
moDttl
aoction
rardiur
OI
psr It.
inertic,
Eodulu&
lior|,
gyrc-
iE
0.0321
0.0m88
0.0216
0.0157
0.00108
0.330
0.425
o,0512
0.00279
0.0451
0.00331
0J35
0.0310
0.538
0.423
0.568
0.739
0.I716
0.1853
0.1765
0.1628
0.1433
0.538
0.571
0.t220
1.304
0.127t
0.00437
0.0052s
0.00600
0.llt6
0.003?8
0.01032
0.01230
0.0139s
0.1694
0.1528
0.1547
0.01197
0.00585
0.00730
0.00862
0.0285
0.01737
0.02160
0.02s54
0.2750
0.2169
0.2090
0.199r
0.171
0.0120
0.0285
0.27S0
0.1547
0.1316
0.1013
0.0740
0.0216
0.0I431
0.0r710
0.m4I
0-2892
0.2613
0.02125
0.0407
0.0178
0.0s27
0.0s77
0.046?
0.0s66
0.0706
0.08s3
0.1004
0.1104
0.3{9
0.443
0.428
o.121
0.107
0.387
0.00t22
0.1215
o.t427
0.2173
0.t77
0.r77
0,t77
0.3959
0.357
0.304
0.2340
0.1706
0.0499
0.1583
0,1974
0.2503
0.320
0.383
0.504
0.220
o.220
0.220
0.220
0.220
0.220
0.0660
1.714
0.20u
0,684
0.857
o.2a82
0.2t57
l.r3l
0.2301
0.2961
1.937
0.r875
0.1284
0,434
0.1d79
0.1913
0.1607
0.1137
1.414
0.614
o.275
0-275
o.275
0.275
0.275
0,215
0.2409
0.2314
0-7 42
0.655
0.614
0.s33
0-132
2.441
0.0641
0.02451
0.02970
0.03?0
0.0448
0.os27
0.0s79
1.185
1.t03
0.3{4
0.868
0.915
1.401
0.0500
0.0757
0.133
I.049
o,37 4
0.087{
0.s57
0.86{
0.t19
1.679
0.179
0.3{4
2.t72
0.31t
0.1056
0.250
0.358
0.815
0.522
0,413
0.494
0.639
0.836
0.478
0.409
0,0760
1.097
0.310
0.2872
o,2746
0.2520
1.076
o.2261
0.1221
0.t2s2
0.28r8
0.213{
0.r570
2.444
0.599
0.344
o.314
0.1329
0.1606
0.1900
0.140s
0.2t37
0.36t
0.06s
1.530
1.839
0.326
0.{01
0.1038
0.1250
0.55{
0.109
t.142
1.633
u.531
1.107
1.805
0.797
r0s
0.434
0.434
0.7tl
0.r60s
0.1934
40s
80s
0.140
1.380
1.496
0.669
0.434
0.361
0.618
0.1s48
0.335
0.304
0.2345
2.273
2.991
3.765
40s
80s
r0s
40s
80s
0.126
0.674
0.822
0.sd6
0.294
0,252
0.06s
0.920
0.884
0-821
0.083
10s
80s
0.113
0.154
0.218
0.308
*ts
r0s
0.545
0.065
0.083
0.10s
0.147
0.187
l0s
rt4
1.900
dioEr-
0.12{6
0.16t0
l0s
40s
80s
l';
i!3ide
thick.
0.1859
xxs
40
wcll
0-220
t60
r%
836.19 6tdiDle3s steel pipe schedule uuEbols
0.1582
10s
40
c: ANSI
woll thichress dosiglqtio!
0.396
0.2333
0.1910
0.1405
xxs
836.10 steel pip DoDilrol
0.111
160
J.3t5
b: ANSI
pip woU thickness (inches)
stel pipe schedule Dub.brs
0.1073
0.0955
0.0794
n(s
;;;
o: ANSI836.10
0.141
160
10
inside didoeter (incbs)

outside diqrnter (incheB)
radius ol gFcrion {iiche3)
0.0970
0.1250
0.1574
ss
%
0.675
=
=
=
=
0.065
0.109
0.710
0.466
0.1041
0-2321
0.333
0.435
0.570
0.718
0.111
0.344
0.344
0.r91
l27A
1.283
0.250
0.382
1.160
r,057
0.88r
1.I07
0.{34
0.43{
0.896
0.631
1,534
0.434
0.065
0.109
t.770
2.161
0-375
0-497
1,682
2.222
0.613
0.497
0.1295
0.1106
0.378
0.463
0.440
0,851
r.08
3.659
5.2t1
1.274
2.08s
0.1011
0.0827
0.0609
0.2661
0.02010
0-022t3
0.ll5r
0.2505
0.2402
0.2rs2
0.343
0.334
0.321
0.304
0.28{0
o.24t8
0.2316
0.2913
0.{58
o.2r32
0.2839
0.342
0.341
0.411
0.5s0
0.540
0.s24
0.506
0.472
1.067
0.ts80
0.962
0.2469
0.1663
0.2599
0.649
0.634
*Couftesr of ITT Gtinncll.
F
Appendix C: Properties of Pipe
PROPERTIES OI' PIPE (Continued)

noainail
prpe !ir(
outride
diotreter
.chedule
trcll
!uEber'
tbicL-
iE"
{0
80
rh
40s
xs
80s
160
xxs
J.900
;; ;;
2.3r5
i|r.
80
160
xs
40s
80s
xx!;
''''.
...'
;; :..
2%
2.875
80
xs
l0s
40s
80s
ta:
)0(s
;i d;
3
80
3.500
160
xs
l0s
10s
80s
xxs
-'
5S
3y2
*Un
40
80
;;
xs
r0s
40s
80s
xt(s
tGs
4.5N
;;
s;;
80
XS
40s
80s
t20
t60
5S
;; -:.
80
xs
10s
4os
80s
t20
r60
,ots
-
Bq.
i|r.
2,036
1.500
t-761
0.28r
1.338
1.100
0.8s0
0.600
0.065
0.109
0.154
0.218
0.343
0,436
0.552
0.587
2.215
0.083
0.120
0,203
0.276
0,375
0.552
0.6?5
0.800
2.709
2-ts7
2,087
1.939
1.689
r.503
metcl
qted,
1.6r0
1.406
0.s50
0.567
0.283
3.96
3.65
3:36
2.953
2.240
1.251
t.774
t-229
1.001
0.187
aq.
i|l.
lt
sq
lt
outride inaid
surtdce, BUttdc,
per It
Frft
w6ight
per It,
lbt
0.7ss
r.068
1.429
0.{97
0.421
2.718
0.497
3.63r
1.885
0.49?
0.197
0.497
0.393
0.350
0.288
o.223
0.157
2-287
2.551
o.472
0.{97
0.979
9.029
0.769
0.533
I.163
1.3I2
1.442
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.916
0.873
0.8s3
0.803
0.759
0.687
0.602
0.537
0.471
t-017
t-o47
t-041
t.047
1.00{
0.98{
3.47
4.57
12.51
1.047
0.929
0.881
0.716
1.152
l.l78
1.135
0.6t10
2.49S
0.710
0.988
0.4s4
0.687
0.988
0.975
2.076
1.530
L064
0.9d,
1.837
1.925
1.339
1.637
1.s98
15.860
0.792
t7.729
0.554
2.353
2.872
3.0890
3.2250
0.924
0.894
13.70
1.535
1.087
2.1490
2.2430
0.8140
0.7860
3.03
4.33
7.58
3.78
1.301
o,144
1.208
3.6r
ta22
1.011
1.195
3.02
t.124
1.164
3.90
5.03
18.58
1.80t
5.99
2t.487
1.431
24.Os?
t.103
6.5010
6.8530
2-228
2.876
3,43
3.7150
3.9160
r.136
14.32
3.20
2,864
2-348
5.0r
1.960
0.980
4.81
4.28
3.85
2.530
2.756
4.79
6.28
9.8480
1.378
1.385
L.312
2.351
t.337
3.t4
1.307
4.92d0
1.2100
6.{0
2.8u
1.249
1.562
6.17
5.800
3.96
5.8500
7.23
1.162
1.549
2.600.0
1.5250
2.175
3,531
3.334
3.260
3.068
2.900
2.62A
2.300
2.050
4.73
8.35
7.39
0.891
0.083
0.120
o.226
0.318
0.636
3.834
0.083
0.120
0.188
4.334
14.75
{.260
14.2S
4.t24
13.35?
2.547
1.178
1.178
4.826
3.826
t2-73
3.-17
1.178
1.054
10.?9
I1,50
{.{l
1.178
r.002
l{.98
t.178
0237
0.337
0.437
0.500
2.680
3.68
6.721
10.33
0.674
0.800
0.925
3.s00
3.438
3.152
2.900
2.650
0.109
0.134
0.258
0.375
0.500
0.625
0.7s0
0.875
1.000
5,345
5.295
5.047
4.813
4.563
4.313
4.063
3.813
3.563
5.793
7.661
I0.01
10.25
9.ll
22.450
l.ll5
1.082
8.560
2r.360
4.98
4.48
4.160
12.71t0
22.51
4.O2
13.21
Lr0
1.178
0.949
0.916
0.900
0.825
9.294
t.178
0.75S
27.51
31.613
t0.384
].l78
0.694
1.868
1.t56
1.399
2.245
4.30
l.{s6
1.386
1.455
1.321
t1.82
6.lI
1.156
t.260
7.95
9.70
1.456
1.195
14.61
Ll29
t2s7
t1.34
1.456
1.456
I1.413
12.880
1.4s6
1.456
0.998
0.933
9.62r
9.24
7.80
6.602
5.513
22.11
22,02
20.0r
18.t9
16,35
6.283
6.62
l{.328
1.178
1.178
1.064
0.r81
r.2140
1.2740
0.083
0.120
0.216
0.300
0.437
0.600
o;125
0.850
9.89
8.89
5.845
0.s19
0.5200
0.4980
1.5130
5.2t2
3.548
3.364
2.728
1.104
0.623
0.605
0.341
10.882
12.385
t,276
1,463
0.756
0-729
0.703
0.971
0.451
0.399
0.334
r.021
0.817
0,802
7.141
t.275
ll.l0
0.581
0.73t
1.825
3.t60
0.508
0.598
0,6470
0.6670
0.868
2.464
7.073
0.483
0.568
0.6140
0.6340
0.666
t.525
1.800
0.326
0.{12
1.280
1.771
4.21
0.310
0.39r
5.O22
2.t25
3.17
in.r
0.2652
0.120
0.s61
2.251
2.915
4.03
4.663
5.42
4.15
3.299
2.543
UoE
inJ
0.499
0.709
0.690
0.646
0.60s
2.228
3.02
9l.rc_
lus,
0.3t5
0.75s
0.753
0.753
0.753
0.753
0.753
0.753
0.753
t.274
modu-
1.7I6
0.128
t.701
0.882
0.765
0.608
0-112
0.218
0.123
ol
inertiq,
1.582
1.455
o.622
0.508
o.442
0.393
0.328
0-262
ol wlter
p! lt,
1.604
3.641
2.190
2.656
0.541
!adiu!
weiEhl
2.638
3.553
3.I99
r.075
t.417
0.588
0.565
4.859
6.408
7.710
8.678
o.622
o.822
o,622
0.822
o.822
o,622
0.622
0.116
1.039
2.469
2.323
6q
4,75
4.24
3.55
0.531
)c;
i!!ide
0.145
0.200
0.400
0,525
0.650
l0s
inside
dicnroler,
in-
3.21
0.64d0
0.84{
1.091
1.o17
1.0140
0.9840
1.510
t.477
9.61
1.445
16.6610
35,318
2.864
2.391
5.18
s.6760
5.90
6.79
7.1050
17.7130
7.8720
1,3380
1.3060
?,77
9,73
9.53
6.95
8.43
2.498
3.03
r.929
t.920
I5.17
5.{5
20-74
27,01
32.98
38.55
t.89
20.68
7.09
25.74
30.0
1.43
9.25
1.878
1.839
1.799
10.80
!.760
{3.8I0
4.9S1
36.6450
t'|.'134
1.232
39.11l0
18.96
r5.29
l-1250
1.416
t.371
!2.10
s-82
13.1750
14.0610
1.6860
t.6s20
274
PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Conti:rued)

pipe size
wqll
irgide
ihick-
diam-
in,
5S
0.109
t0s
schedule
lt
weight
weight
per It.
per lt,
inertiq,
lu5,
radiu3
sYrotion.
in.'
in.1
in.
sq. rn.
sq, ia.
6.407
6.3s7
32.2
31.7
2.231
2-733
1.734
t.677
5.37
r3.98
1I.85
3.58
2.304
0.134
t.734
1.664
9.29
13.74
14.40
4.35
0.2IS
6.187
30.r00
4.4I0
t.734
1.620
15.020
r3.I00
22.6600
6.8400
r0.280
6.06s
28.89
1.734
1.588
t8.s7
l2.sI
28.t4
0.432
5.76I
26.O7
5.58
8.40
2.295
2.2700
2.245
I.734
24.5',1
I1.29
0.562
5.501
23.77
10.70
t.734
I.508
L440
36.39
10.30
40.5
49.6
0.7t 8
5.189
21.t 5
r3.33
1.734
1.358
45.30
0.864
1.000
4.897
18.83
15.64
1.134
r.2s2
4.825
17.662
t.134
l.2l I
60.076
1.125
4.37S
18.192
r5.025
I9.429
t.'t34
1.145
66.084
0.109
8.407
2.916
s.9l
24.07
26.45
8.32S
2.180
13.40
23.59
35.4
0.219
8.187
8.125
22.38
22.900
22.48
5t.3200
0.2s0
2.150
2.127
1s.640
20
2.258
2.258
2.258
2.25a
2.201
0.148
55.5
54.5
52.630
51.8
30
0.211
8.07t
51.2
2.2s8
2.t13
24.70
22.t8
0.322
7.981
7.813
2.089
2.045
35.64
7.625
45.7
2.258
2.258
2.258
28.55
0.406
0.500
50.0
47.9
7.26
8.40
1.996
43.39
100
0.593
7.439
50.87
0.7I8
0.8I2
7.189
I.882
L833
60.63
0.906
1.000
6.813
2.258
2.258
2.258
2.258
2.258
1.948
r20
43.5
40.6
t.784
1.125
2.2s8
5S
0.134
to.482
86.3
4.52
2.815
I0s
0.16s
10.420
85.3
5.49
2.815
0.219
10.312
'1.24
2.815
20
0.250
10.250
83.52
82.5
8.26
30
0.307
10.136
80.7
sld
80
120
40s
80s
160
xxs
l0s
8
8.625
sq
in.
40
6.625
lt
metcl
Bq
inside
40
std
;;
60
80
t40
8.625
r60
xs
80s
10.020
0.500
10.750
80
0.593
9.750
s.564
I00
0.718
9.314
2.195
14.s8
2.153
5S.0
17.81
2.104
66.3
20.0s
2.060
72.1190
76.5970
21.1120
2.0200
23.1244
L98s0
6.13
3.01
a.2l
3.00
2,S53
21.69
20.79
88.8
20.58
2.938
2.909
19.80
I0s.7
24.52
2.879
t8.84
12t.4
28.t4
2.847
17.60
140.6
32.6
2.847
74.69
16.69
15.80
I53.8
I65.9
35.7
38.5
2.777
2.748
I.734
81.437
14.9{5
177.1320
41.0740
2.',1t90
1.669
90.I1{
I3.838
190.6210
44.2020
2.6810
r5.
63.7
11.8S
3.75
3.74
2.815
2.744
2.724
2.10
2.683
I0.07
2.815
3.71
3.69
78.9
ll.sl
2.8r5
4.7
16.10
2.815
7L8
I8.92
I0.48
t2.76
14.96
t1.84
ls.s3
23.942
26.494
0.36S
9.16
8.17
1.284
6.SI7
8.50
t2.23
2.562
34.454
80s
lb
14.69
16.81
31.903
4;;
lbt
63.4
72.5
6.375
xs
lt
2.9700
6.625
std
per
13.3S
2t.97
60
lt
of
-7
6.58
36.5
40
pe!
inside
11.9000
7.00I
l0
t20
3.94
5.800
outside
57
ts
37.4
18.70
36.9
24.63
100.46
28.04
36.2
35.8
I4.30
I8.69
Ir3.7
2l.r6
2.654
34.24
3S.0
137.5
40.48
34.I
160.8
54.74
32.3
2t2.0
39.4
2.815
2.623
2.553
2.504
64.33
3l.l
45.6
22.63
2.815
2.438
76.93
29.5
244.9
288.2
324
60.3
333.46
82.O4
3.72
29.90
53.2
3.60
3.56
3.52
3.50
0.843
9.064
64.5
26.24
2.815
2.373
89.20
0.875
9.000
63.62
27.!4
2.815
2.36
92.28
2e.0
27.6
t40
1.000
8.750
60.1
30.6
2.815
.04.13
26.1
160
l.I2s
8.500
34.0
2.815
u5.65
?4.3
8.250
37.31
2.815
424.t7
79.65
1.500
7.75D
43.57
2.8I5
2.03
t48.I9
24.6
23.2
20.5
399
L2s0
56.7
53.45
47.15
2.191
2.225
2.18
478.59
89.04
0.I56
12.438
t2t.4
19.20
4.45
I2.390
t2.2s0
t2.090
120.6
22.93
t.44
u7.9
6.17
7.t I
9.84
3.34
0.180
0.250
0.330
114.8
12.88
0.375
12.000
l3.l
0.406
I1.938
III.9
;i
30
10s
;,; 4;;
40
3.43
3.39
20.99
24.20
3s.38
43.7'l
s2.7
52-2
t22.2
I40.5
30.r
4.42
{9.7
39.0
4.3S
3.14
3.13
49.56
49.0
r91.9
248.5
219.3
43.8
4.38
53.S3
48.S
300
47.1
4.37
4.33
3.34
3.24
3.34
3.21
3.t1
14.s8
3.34
3.34
15.74
3.34
0.500
I1.750
I00.4
19.24
3.34
3.08
65.42
47.0
362
0.562
11.626
2r.52
3.34
3.04
73.16
46.0
401
62.8
4.3r
0.687
I1.376
106.2
101.6
26-O4
3.34
2.978
88.51
44.0
475
74.5
0.7s0
I1.250
99.40
28.27
3.34
2.94
96.2
43.r
510.7
80.1
0.843
11.064
96.1
31.5
2.897
07.20
41.6
562
88.r
0.875
11.000
32.64
2.AA
10.3
4t.l
s78.S
90.7
120
t.000
10.750
25.49
3S.3
642
100.7
1-t7
140
1.125
10.500
39.68
37.5
701
109.9
L250
I0.250
10.t26
95.00
90.8
86.6
82.50
80.5
3.34
3.34
4.21
4.25
4.22
53.6
35.8
75s.S
60.27
34.9
781
4.13
4.09
1.01
t2
;;
)2.750
80
100
80s
126.82
68.4
r.312
36.9
3.34
4I.l
3.34
45.16
3.34
2.414
2.749
2.68
47.1
3.34
2.651
r22.6
275
PROPERTIES OF PIPE (Continued)

noEit'al
pipo rirc
.chedule
outside
|tumbr'
didr!ter
ilride
tbicL-
diqra-
itr.
i|r
wqll
t0s
l4
;;
14.@o
40
13.6S8
t47.20
13.624
145.80
0.210
13.580
13.562
|rretol
aq.
in
per
lt
216.2
3.55
3.53
32.2
225-l
32.2
3.67
255.4
36.5
3.S2
4t.2
285.2
3.50
3.48
3.41
3.44
45.68
344.3
40;I
4{.9
t9.2
429
61.2
13.3I2
t39.20
14.16
3.87
13.250
137.9
16.05
0,{37
13.r25
r35.3
18.62
19.94
3.67
3.67
12.500
t00
I20
0.937
12.t28
1.093
ll.8r4
109.6
38.5
44.3
140
1.250
rr.500
103.s
50.1
160
1.406
11.188
98.3
3.67
3.42
3.67
3.67
3.40
72.09
3.35
84.91
3.34
8S.28
3,61
3.67
3.57
3.67
3.67
3.27
3.17
108,13
4.10
4,09
4.06
4.03
3.99
28
3.93
82.17
107.50
26.25
0.165
15.670
192.90
a,2L
4.19
15.624
19r.70
9.3{
4.ls
0.250
r5.500
r5.376
188.7
12.37
15.38
4.19
4.19
15.250
185.7
182,6
18.4I
{.I9
15.000
116.7
24.35
14.688
169.4
31.6
40.1
4.19
4.19
0.375
0.500
16.0@
2.929
189.12
42.6
70.3
9I.S
72.1
{.I9
3.35
24S.ll
4.7
4.63
136.46
lt5?
144.6
r64.83
66,1
r365
170,6
10.52
4.71
{.61
17,500
210-S
r3.94
4.71
4.58
20
0.312
17.376
237.1
11,34
17r50
233-7
20.76
l8
30
0.3?5
0.437
t7.126
24.t|
0.500
17.00
230.4
227.0
27.49
r8.o00
40
0.562
r6,876
223.7
30,8
1.?l
1.?l
60
0.750
15.500
213.8
{0.6
1.71
80
0.937
16.126
204.2
50.2
100
l.ls6
15.688
193.3
61.2
4.71
4.tI
207.96
120
1.37S
15.250
71.8
4.7
3.99
244.t4
140
1.562
14.876
182.6
173.8
80.7
4.71
3.89
214.23
150
1,781
r4.438
t53.7
90.7
4.7
3.78
308.51
0.r88
1s.634
302.40
5.14
I9.564
5.24
0.250
19.500
15.5r
5.24
1s.250
300.60
298.6
291.0
11.70
13.55
s.24
0.218
23.r2
5.24
0.500
r9.000
283.S
30.6
5.24
0.593
0.812
r8.8I4
278.0
r8.376
265.2
0.875
18.250
80
1.03r
17.s38
252-7
100
1.281
17.438
238.8
36.2
48.9
52,8
61.4
75.3
5.12
5.I I
5.04
4,97
4.93
20
20.000
30
40
60
;;
xs
5.24
4.8r
5.24
s.24
5.24
1.78
4.70
4.57
292
73.4
69.7
t7.624
20
32.2
732
0.188
0.2s0
i;
4,48
5S.2
129.0
10s
159.6
562
245.20
243.90
4.55
4.52
4.48
4.45
4.42
4.32
4.22
l{6.8
48,0
t7,670
i;
I32.8
473
12.814
l0s
930
384
58.5
4;13
tt27
l0l7
117.8
80.5
79.1
6458
4.88
1.57
4.57
4.86
4.85
4.91
4.83
4.82
4.80
1.79
4-74
4.74
4.69
4.63
4.58
4,53
825
81.8
0.165
9.24
98.2
52.36
223.64
144.5
13.126
80.3
84.1
42.05
192,29
13.564
1.437
589
687
69.1
257
3.44
r.218
140
156.8
484
83.5
83.0
3.55
120
4.I9
s3.3
32
4.19
152.5
55.3
t70.22
4,19
160.9
r3.938
s8.7
s8.0
57.5
3.09
135.3
r4,3t4
1.031
314
59.7
3.01
4.19
0.843
60.9
50.3
50.0
47.5
45.0
48.5
s6.6
65.7
80
62.1
130.73
150.67
3.85
3.75
3.65
r00
160
36.71
50.2
54.57
63.37
67.8
0.188
0.312
{.90
62.8
0.375
0.750
ia.
30.9
0.344
80
Uon
inJ
3.55
3.67
12.750
lu&
in.
3.67
t3.42
0.625
inerlid,
lb
tbt
2't.8
30.9
140.5
24,98
pe! ll,
perlt
194.6
l2.ll
0.593
auddc6, !'er IL
63.1
141.80
2t.21
aeclion !adiu!
modu- qryr6-
27.7
13.438
134.00
ol
weisht
23.O
10.80
t32,7
r29.0
t27.1
t22.7
lreight
3.57
143.1
13,062
rq It
iagide
3.S8
13.S00
13.000
12,814
40
lurlcc,
144.80
111.50
0.469
30
outgide
3.67
0.s00
io
tt
sq
8.16
9.10
9.48
0.312
;;
l6
in
0.r88
0.250
0.281
20
aq,
0,156
0.219
l0
i!-
idside
933
l5s6
194.5
I760
220.0
5.18
s.13
s.37
5.30
5.24
5.12
1894
236,1
I06.2
368
40.8
6.31
105.7
4t7
47.39
59.03
104.3
6.30
6.28
102.8
549
678
46.4
61.0
70.59
101.2
807
89.6
6.23
82.06
93.45
99.9
93I
I03.4
6.2r
s8,4
1053
117.0
104.?5
97.0
92.7
88.5
83.7
79.2
75.3
71.0
tt72
130.2
168.3
1834
203.8
2180
242.2
2499
217.6
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.90
27sO
306
5.84
3020
336
5,77
40
13t,0
574
46
130.2
52.73
t29.5
78.50
126,0
t04.I3
31
138.r7
170.75
r22.91
r66.40
6.2S
s't.4
7.00
56,3
6.99
757
75.7
6.98
lll4
n t.4
6.94
t22.8
t20.4
1457
I45.7
6.90
1704
170.4
lls.0
225.?
178.73
1t3.4
22s?
2405
208,87
109.{
2772
t03,4
3320
240.9
277.2
332
6.79
276

notlrindl
pip6 .iz
schedule
woll
idrids
thick-
di(rm-
i!L
rn.
20
20.000
22.000
weight
po!It,
sutldce, 6urlcce,
tbf
per lt
perlt
16.500
227.0
213.8
100.3
5.24
s-24
4.45
1-32
296.37
341.10
160
1.968
I6.064
202-',l
Iu.5
5,24
4.21
37S.01
0.188
0.218
2L.824
367.3
12.88
5.76
2I.564
365.2
5.76
0.250
21.500
363.1
t4.92
17.t8
5.?6
0.375
2r.250
354.7
25.48
0.500
346.4
338.2
330.1
50.07
0.875
21.000
20.?s0
20.500
20.250
322.1
58.07
80
1.125
19.750
100
I.375
I.625
19.2s0
306.4
231.0
73.78
89.09
18.750
276.1
104.02
1.87s
I8.250
261.6
1t8.55
I32.68
5.76
5.75
4.65
t0s
20
io
30
xs
0.625
0.7s0
;;
47.2
44
170
l{3.1
197
r39.6
25r
132.8
303
t26.2
4.91
354
u9.6
4.78
403
451
113.3
4ll
41.4
406
6.28
5.28
s0.3
54.8
16.29
22.250
22.064
388.6
I.218
21.564
365
100
1.531
r08.I
l.8I?
20.938
20.316
344
t20
t40
328
126.3
6.28
6.28
19.876
3t0
r42.1
8.28
159.4
6.28
160
10
srd
20
xs
26.000
0.2s0
25.500
0.3I2
25.376
0.37s
0.500
40.06
6.81
6.81
6.81
5.48
5.33
5.20
5.06
7.56
zs1 -2
?.52
295.0
7.17
4029
366.3
475S
432.6
7,33
7.31
6054
550.3
602,1
7.23
7.15
1.07
493.S
t07.2
109.6
8.40
161.9
8.35
125.49
180.1
178.1
1943
2550
2r2.5
8.31
2840
237.0
t78.2
t74.3
t72.4
3140
281.4
8.29
4.21
3420
245.2
8.2S
37I0
309
8-22
r88.9
lt52
96.0
3s4.7
8.41
140.80
t56.03
vt.r?
186.2{
s5
216
42S6
8.18
388
Lt5
158.3
4650
5670
473
8.07
1{9,3
6850
57I
7.96
141.4
7830
8630
9460
719
788
7.r9
221.1
I646
126.6
9.10
2t9.2
20?6
r59.7
9,08
9.06
9.02
238.11
165.8
296.36
367.40
429.39
483.13
5{1.94
134.5
t27.O
7.87
I03
r36
217.1
2418
I90.6
2t2.8
3259
7.70
0.625
24.750
481.1
49.S2
l6s
208.6
40I3
471.4
59.49
6.8I
6.8t
6.48
24.500
6.4I
202
204.4
4744
0.875
461.9
69.07
6.81
6.35
235
54S8
4I9.9
452.4
78.54
6.81
6.28
6149
4?3.0
443.0
8?.91
6.81
6.22
267
299
200.2
I96.1
l25
24.250
24.000
23.750
192,1
6813
524,1
8.80
0.250
27.500
21.80
1,20
74
257.3
255,0
252.6
244.0
243.4
238.9
234.4
230.0
225.6
2098
t49.8
9.8r
296.3
293.7
2',1.376
0.375
0.500
583.2
572.6
32.54
13.20
7.33
xs
27.250
27.400
26.7S0
562.0
s3.75
7.33
7.07
7.00
183
26.500
26.250
64.21
7.33
6.94
2ta
54I.2
0.625
0.750
7.t7
27.t4
530.S
Ll25
26.000
25.750
520.8
94.98
0.250
29.500
683.4
23.37
7.85
0.3I2
25.316
29.250
29.000
617.8
29.19
srd
0.375
xs
0.500
0.625
z8.'ts0
92
lll
253
74.56
84.82
0.875
1.000
l0s
7.63
l3l6
0.3I2
l0
6,48
183.8
6.68
6.64
6.61
6.54
6.41
188.0
srd
30
30
490.9
6.28
459
63.41
94.62
594.0
588.6
l0
20
25.000
30.I9
6.28
5.83
5.78
6.S6
0.750
L000
30.000
I9.S5
25.18
25.250
s10.7
505.8
500.7
6.28
376
422
250.7
308.7
364.9
20
19.314
63.54
70.0
47.2
6.28
6.28
6.28
0.875
0.968
2.062
2.343
t77.5
2t4.2
1953
6.02
5.99
5.96
5.92
5.89
382
135.4
2400
2429
3245
6.28
60
80
1490
146.6
6.09
24.000
l0l0
150.2
6.28
23.564
7.10
157.4
143
27.83
::
1,71
80.4
91.8
l15
6.28
402
69.7
88S
s.43
5.37
5.30
5.17
5.04
18.65
398
436.1
766
158.2
5_50
434
425
415
0.750
0.218
t59.1
5.76
247.4
tior
3760
4220
4590
5.76
5.76
5.76
5.76
5.76
gytq-
92.6
87.S
98.3
4t.97
17,750
0.687
in.
33.77
23.500
23.250
23.000
22.876
22.750
22.628
22.500
io
ia..
I53.7
0.250
0.500
0.562
lb
87
l0
0.375
tcdiut
pe! ll,
Ino|'lent aection
ol
noduinrti(r, lus,
5.76
2.t25
srd
rroight
5.65
5.63
5.56
I40
r60
0.62s
30
in
sq lt
ir16ide
17.000
30
28.000
aq
It
outside
1.750
20
2A
sq in.
6q
1.500
120
28
met(ll
r20
I40
i;
22
idaide
672.0
34.90
7.85
7.85
650.5
649.2
46.34
7.85
57.68
7.8s
6.8t
6.7r
288
323
7.72
7.69
79
9
251.2
7.59
7.53
r58
286.2
281.3
99
8.98
8.93
8.89
8.85
260r
185.8
9.79
3105
221.e
291.8
359.8
426.0
9,7',1
{90.3
9.60
552.8
613.6
9.55
9.51
258S
172.3
3201
213.4
10.52
10.50
3823
2S4.8
t0.48
335.5
10.43
4t4.2
10.39
408S
5038
5964
7740
s590
62I3
9,72
9.68
9.61
277

nomincl
schedule
pipe si:e
outside
diamelet,
b
40
woll
inside
lhick-
didtn-
neat,
ilr.
sq. in,
rrlelal
Bq.
in.
sq It
sq It
oulside
sultcce.
inside
per ft
per
637.9
68.92
620.?
80.06
1.000
28.s00
28.2s0
28.000
6I5.7
9t.l
1.t25
27
50
604.7
t02.05
7.85
0.250
31.500
779.2
24.9s
8.38
o.312
3r.376
7'13,2
31.02
8.38
rio
0.375
3t.250
766.9
31,2s
XS
31.000
30.750
754;1
49.48
742.5
61.59
736.6
0.875
30.624
30.s00
30.2s0
1.000
30
0.750
0.875
30.000
l0
32
30
0.s00
0.62s
32.000
10
0.688
20
inside
.',t
7.85
7.85
It
weight
per Il,
lbf
weight
modu-
gYra-
per ft
inertid,
Iug,
tb
in.'
in.3
tion,
in.
7.44
234
49t.4
10.34
272
276.6
27 t.B
137
7.3S
8494
566.2
10.30
7.33
3t0
267.O
63S.4
10.25
347
262.2
9591
10653
t0.2
r0.22
8.25
85
337.8
3l4
196.3
8.21
106
335.2
3891
243.2
tt.22
u.20
8.38
8.18
Lll
t2'l
332.5
4656
168
327.2
6l{0
291.0
383.8
8.38
8.38
8.0s
209
321.9
7578
473.6
8.38
230
319.0
518.6
I LoS
I1.07
250
8298
8990
561.9
11.05
73.63
8.38
85.52
8.38
7.92
291
3t6.7
3l1.6
t8372
648.2
30.000
706.8
97.38
8.38
7.85
331
306.4
n680
730.0
10.95
LI25
29.750
694.7
8.38
7.ts
371
301.3
1302s
814.0
10.92
0.2s0
33.500
33.376
881.2
26.50
8.S0
4.77
90
382.0
371s
22t.9
11.93
0.312
s74.9
32.99
8.90
8.74
tt2
379.3
4680
275.3
srd
0.375
33.2s0
867.8
39.61
8.S0
8.70
135
3',18,2
s597
329.2
II.89
XS
8.64
l?s
370.8
7385
434.4
I1.85
223
245
365.0
9124
I1.80
I1.78
359.5
10829
s36.7
587.8
637.0
354.1
l2s0l
735.4
tt.12
348.6
141t4
830.2
343.2
15719
924.1
4491
109.0
0.500
33.000
855.3
52.62
LS0
30
0.625
32.750
65.53
8.90
34.000
40
0.688
32.624
841.9
835.9
72.O0
8.90
8.54
0.7s0
32.500
82S.3
78.34
8.51
0.875
32.2s0
8r6.4
91.0t
8.90
8.S0
8.44
1.000
32.000
804.2
103.67
8.S0
8.38
310
353
I.I25
31.7s0
79r.3
116.13
8.90
8.31
395
0.250
35.500
98S.7
28.1r
9.42
9.29
96
429.1
0.312
35.376
9-42
9-42
ll9
426.1
35.250
35.000
34.S5
42.01
s.26
0.37S
0.500
s82.9
975.8
9.23
143
423.1
9.42
9.16
I90
30
0.625
34.750
9-42
s.l0
236
4I
40
0.750
34.500
934.7
83.01
9.42
9.03
0.875
34.250
96.50
1.000
109.96
9.42
9.42
8.97
8.90
Ll25
34.000
33.750
920.5
907.9
894.2
123.I9
9.42
36.000
20
l.l8
l.l4
718.3
34
2D
730.5
10
l0
't
8.02
7.98
0.750
20
rddius
ol
;,;
xs
962.1
948,3
69.50
9992
l.0I
l.9l
r 1.76
I.63
249.S
12.64
309.1
t2.62
6684
370.2
12.59
4t1.1
8785
l.l
t0a72
48S.I
604.0
t2.51
282
324
405.3
I2898
I4903
716.5
12.16
399.4
82',1.9
12.42
374
393.6
I685I
s36.2
12.38
8.89
419
387.9
r8763
1042.4
t2.34
586.4
s79.3
s72.3
7t26
339.3
I4.73
to627
506.1
14.71
14037
565.{
17373
14.67
14.62
14.s0
12.55
0.250
41.500
1352.6
32.82
l12
0.375
41.250
r336.3
49.08
10.99
10.s9
I0.86
srd
10.80
xs
0.500
41.000
1320.2
65.I8
10.99
I0.73
167
222
40.7s0
40.500
40.000
33.500
1304.1
81.28
t0.99
10.67
1288.2
97.23
r0.99
20589
10.99
544.8
27080
1289.5
53t.2
5I7.S
33233
1582.5
t4.41
1194.5
10.3{
t0.21
544
39.000
r28.81
I60.03
I90.S5
330
438
558.4
I256.6
r22S-3
10.60
10.47
668.4
827.3
985.2
3918I
1865.7
t4.33
42
30
0.6?5
42.000
40
0.750
I.000
1.250
1.500
10.s9
10.99
649
14.59
278
Mechanical Desien of Process Svstems
INSI'LATION WEIGI{T FACTORS
To determine the seight per foot of any piping

insulation, use the pipe size and nominal insulation
thickness to find the insulation l'eight factor F in the
chart shorvn belorv. Then multiply F by the density
of the insulation in pounds per cubic foot.
Nominal Insulation Thickness
Nominal
Pipe Size
Erample. For 4" pipe rvith 4" nominal thickness

insulation, F : .77. It the insulation density is
12 pounds per cubic foot, then the insulation rveight
b .77 x 12 : 9.24lb/tt.
1%"
2rA"
3%"
lt/i
.057
.051
.066
.10
r%
2
.080
.r4
2%
.091
.19
.58
.r0
.36
.34
.46
.23
.41
.54
.30
.39
.cr
.66
.63
.34
.38
.45
.58
.64
.80
.93
3%
.16
.24
6
8
.34
10
.43
.59
t2
.50
.68
.70
.66
.88
1.07
l.l I
.74
.90
1.01
.87
\.\2
.96
1.13
1.23
1.50
l4
18
20
24
.30
.38
.29
,29
.21
.70
.83
.40
.39
.48
.47
.31
.11
4"
4%"
5%"
.59
.70
.68
.83
.81
.97
1.10
.96
.88
t.04
.97
r.13
1.17
1.32
1.36
1.20
1.34
1.56
1.24
1.7
|.37
1.64
1.92
1.79
2.09
2.44
2.10
1.75
1.99
1.52
1.3.{
1.49
t.44
6"
2.51
2.24
2.34
2.58
2.82
2.50
2.62
2.88
3.14
2.73
3.16
3.06
3.54
3.40
3.92
1.99
1.81
2.01
2.O7
2.29
2.40
2.80
LOAD CARRYING CAPACITIES OF THREADED HOT ROLLED STEEL ROD

CONFORMING TO ASTM A.36
Nominal Rod
Diameter, in.
Root Area of
Thread, sq, in.
Max. Safe Load,
lbs. at Rod
Temp. of 650"F
lz
.068
,126 .202
v4
.302 .419
1r/e
.693
.889
r%
1.293
1.7
2y4
44 2.300 3.023
21/2
2y4
3.?19
4.619
3r/q
5.621 6.724
3'h
7.918
610 1130 1810 21L0 3??0 4960 6230 8000 11630 15700 20700 21200 33500 41580 50580 60480 ?1280
Appendix C: Properties of
l"
WEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS
Pipe
279
prpe r.sr3' o.D.
A
/\
w
{l\
u-r'
z
i.
E-I
4/ a^
t_J-----,
\]J
Temperature Range
'F
tr{agnesia
Calcium
F
Combina-
tion
FiberSodium
ffi
z
,t
&
Njs
{|s.:ssr
7
F
z.(
T}
'-11
4l
N
/9N
type is ueight in
weight is veight factor for
Boldface
pounds. Lightface t]'pe benerth

insulation.
Instrlation thicknesses and

weights are based on average
conditions and do not constitute
recommendation
for
specific
thicknesses oI materials. Insulation Neights are based on 85/6

magnesia and hvdrous calcium
silic&te et 1l lbs,i cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and Neights of
combination covering are the
sums of ihe inner layer of diatomacecus earth at 2l lbs/cubic
foot and the outer layer at

11 lbs,/cubic
foot.
Insulotion rveights include allorvcnces for wire, cemerrt, canvas, bands and paint, but not
special
surface finishes.
-
To find the weight of covering
on flanges, valves or fittings,
multiply the \veight frctor by the
@
tr\
qJ
+
Fsc
* 16 lb cu. ft. density.
uoight.pcr foot of covering nsed

on slrarght prpe.
Vf,tve \veights 3re rpproximate. When possible, obtain
Neights from the nranufacturer.

Cast iron valve $eights are for
flangcd end valves; steel $eighLs
for welding end velves.
AII
flanged
fitting,
fl&nged
valve and fllnge $'eights include

the DroDorlion.l \leieht of bolts
or siudi to make up all joiots,
280
Mechanical De:ign
l/a"
of
Process Systems
wen r.660, o.D.
f'^
t+,!
HJ
3
F
-4L.
E:::t
ttl
n_Lt
{- i--r
\LJ
Tenrpcraturc Range "F
!
!
o
z
Ma,gnesia
Nom. Thick.,In.
Calcium
Silicate
uon
FiberSodium
Boldface type
ffi
is s'eight in
pounds. Lightface type benerth
weight
is weight factor
Jor
insulation.
I effi
Insulation thicknesses and

fs-is$
of ma,terials- Insulation weights are based on 85%

magnesia and hydrous calcium
! T:lii--qF
.-al
/A
4
,N
/>
recommendation
for
specinc
thicknesses
silicate &t 11 lbs/cubic foot. The

listed ihicknesses and i{eights of
6ums of the inner layer ol diatomaceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and ihe outer laycr at

11
lbs/cubic foot.
Insulstion weights include alIowances for wire, cement, csnvas, bands end peint, but not
speeial
surface finishes,
-
1.<3
@
l['
+
rc
multiply the weightfactor by the

werghl per loot ol coverrng used
on strargnt prpe.
Valve weights are approximate. lVhen possible, obtain
$'eights from the manufacturer.

Cast iron velve weiqhts arc for
flanged end valves; sGel weights
for weldins end valves.
.All flanged fitting,
flanged
valve and flange weights include

the Drooortionrl weiqht of bolts
or si,udi: to make up all joinl,s.

Schedule No.
Wall Designation
L Lic
kness-In.
Pipe-Lbs/Ft
lVater-Lbs/Ft
fl.2
IJJ
n
z^"{"u
E
E
L.R. 90' Elbow
40
80
srd.
XS
.145
.200
.28r
.400
3.63
4.86
6.41
.88
,77
.61
.41
.E
1.1
1.{
1.8
.8
.2
3.1
3.7
.6
.6
r-i\
(, F!-+
Tee
.6
Lateral
1.3
.7
Lt_!
Reducer
\IJ
c"p
.3
Sodium
.84
1.35
2-52
3.47
3.47
3.47
4.52
4.52
4.SZ
Nom. Thick.,In.
2)i
214
2%
Lbs/Ft
4.20
4.20
4.20
5.6t
5-62
5.62
\om. Thick., In.

Lbs/Ft
Raiing
Screwed or
1.07
1.07
d}.'.=N!
Blind
.'11
,tJ
t44\
lF -ll
1.07
r%
lr/4
2rz
2%
1.E5
1.85
3.50
3.50
4.76
4,16
6.16
6.16
Boldface
tlpe is rfeight
Cast Iron
125
250
3.5
Steel
150
3C0
400
600
9
E
7
1.5
t7
* k33
Flanged Bonneb
Clobe or Angle
Gxte
Irlanged Bonnet
Check
J<[J
Itressure SeaI
FSO
Pressurc Seal
Rorrret-Crie
Bonnet-Globe
16 lb cu. ft. density.
2500
l9
19
3l
t2
9
t2
9
1.5
10
19
l9
34
1.5
1.5
1.5
l9
l9
3l
t0
l9
1.5
1.5
23
26
3.8
3.9
l1
19
3.5
20
30
5.6
6.8
30
is
rveight' iactor lor
3l
Insub.tion ihickncsses
*eights arc based on
and
average
conditioris and do not constitute
D recommendation for specific

of m$terials. lnsulation Neights are bcsed oD 8570
thicknesses
rd sscights
cights of
listed thiclinesscs cn(l
ing are the
combin.tion covering
sums of t,he inner lrver of dirlbsr'cubic
cubic
tomaceous earth at 2l lbs:
lD,J'er 5n
5t
:cr lD,l'er
fooi and the outcr
39
70
5.8
70
t25
.1.5
40
ivcight
3,?il*'11 ll'9"lxli:l:","'.*'"is,3
46
23
3.4
in
oounds. Lichttace
hDc bencath
-
insul:rtion.
13
L.R. 90' Elbow
Tee
1500
1.5
S.R. 90" nlbow
45" Elborv
900
1.5
10
1=<l
3uu
Slip-On
flanged l3onnet
'
.84
\Yelding Neck
e,\
z
tc
r%
Lap Joini
ss]s
,a
I
2%
psr
:ffi
t00-1c9 200-299 300-309 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-799 300-s99 c00-3c9 1000-1009 1100-1200
2%
Prc-rsure
sffi$
.7
.3
2r/6
Lbs/Ft
Fiber-
\om. Thick., In.
1.2
.5
Temperature Range 'tr'
Combina-
xxs
5.4
(----1--l
160
.6
1.3
.6
.2
Ywn
.3
.2
/.,e^
l/2"
281
.6
S.R. 90' Elbow
L.R. 45' Elbow
{_O
r.eoo" o.D.
Pipe
45
170
5
ll0
4D
42
1.9
42
11 lbs/cul)ic foot.
bs includc alInsulltion weights
ccment. ctnlo$lnccs for 'iviro, ccmenl.

rint, but not
vcs, bllncls {Lnd plint,
hcs.
sulf.rce linishcs.
strccial
-
lt of covcring
To find the rvcight
fittitrgs,
on tlonlles, vxlvcs or fittiogs,
fr, tor bv the

multipll; tlic wciFht frctor
uscd
\\cighi t)cr foot of covcring
:ovcring'uscd
on stftLisht lliDc.
Vxlvc-
:rlrptori\\(iihts rrc
arc apptori-obtlin
siblc, obtoin
matc, Whcn Dossiblc,
irnufarcturcr.
rvoights from thi mtnufacturcr.
'eights rre for

Cast iron vtlve weights
lllnged cnd vrlves; stccl \eights
for rveldine cnd valvcs.
flanged
;ing, flanged
.\ll flriised fitting,
.ights include
includc
valve rnd 1|rngc ivcights
l)olts
cight of
ol l)olts
the l,rorntlion l N(iglrt
:rll ioints.
up:rll
or sluds to m.tku up
ioints,
242
2"
ptpn
zs. B, o.D.
IVEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS
!r
u'N
u,r'
Ih
d-J.-t
-r--r-\
z
/>
fin
{_L_!
Temperature Range oF
Magnesia
Calcium
5 Combinatron
FiberSodium
Boldface tyDe
Nr$
z
+fi$
N*s
cr.i-s
/A,
/a)
,-61
is
weisht in
pounds, Lighifbce type bdneath
weigit.
b weight factor
lnsutailon.
for

conclrtrons and do not constitute
& recommendation for
soecific
thicknesses of materials. I_nsulaiioo veights are based on 85/o

silicate at 11 lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and weishts of
combination coverinc are the
sums of the inner laler of diatomsceous earth at 2l lbs/cubic
,N
/D
IN' '{I
1.<l
't
@
rfl
[],._/
+<t
FsO
1l lbs/cubic foot.
, Insulaiion weights include allowances Iol wlre, cemen!, can-
vas, bands and oaint. but not

special surface finishes.
To 6nd the weieht of coverinc
on flanses. valvds or fittinssi

multiply tlie weight factor by tIe
weight.per foot of covering used
on-slr&lghl prpe.
valve wergnF are approxlmate. When possible, obtain
weights from th; msnuiacturer.

Cast i.on valve weights are for
flanged end valves: sGel weiehts
for ielding end vaives.
All
nsnsed fittios.
flanced
valve and flange weigF* inclide

the prcportional weight of bolts
or 6tuds to make up all joints,
' 16 lb cu. It. density.
fr
2.87s"
o.D.
Pipe
2/2"
283
Ywn
A
w
{T\
u-r'
7
F
E'
-l
F--1
-/.>\
'
/-A
q-!_,
\]J
Temperature Range "F
Magnesia
Calcium
Combinatron
FiberSodium
ffi
z
weight
insulation.
Insulation Lhicknesses
$q1$
recommendation
for
specific
thicknesses oI materiels- Insulation weights ere based on 85/6

magnesio and hvdrous calcium
silicate at ll lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses end rveights of
sums of the inner laver of diatomaceous eerth at 21 lbs/cubic
N
.-al
T.A
foot and the outer b,yer at
a-4
1l lbs/cubic foot.
,N
Insulation weiqhts include al-
L4
and
Nl-s$
type is s'eight in
is weight factor for
Boldface
pounds. Lightface type beneath
for rvird, cement, canvas, bonds and peint, but not

lowances
special
surf&ce linishes,
-
To find the weighi of covering
.|-{
'l
multiply the ileight factor by the

weight per foot of covering used
on straight pipe.
Valve 1Aeights are approxi-
@
flr)
mate. Whe[ possible, obtain
weights fron the manufscturer.

Cast iron velve weiqhts sre for
flanged end valves; sGeI *eights
for welding end valves.
All flanged fitting, flanged
valve ond fiange iveights include
the proportional \ieight of bolts
+<i
t4
+ 16
lb cu.
lt.
o! studs to make up &ll joints,
density.
284
Mechanical Design
3"
of
Procesr Systems
WEIGHTS OF I'IPING N{ATERIALS
B.boo' o.D.
"t"" Schedule No.
40
EO
Wall Dcsignation
Tlrick ness-In .
std.
xs
.216
.300
.438
.600
Pipe-Lbs/Ft
7.54
10.25
14.32
\1'xter-Lbs/Ft
3.20
2.86
2.35
t8.56
l.E0
4.6
6.1
.8
8.4
lo.7
.8
.8
.8
4.4
5.4
L.R. 90' Elbow
|4 {I/
S.R.90'Elbow
.5
.5
L.R. 45' Elbow
.3
.3
zr\{it
E
: {1\
r.'.'g
.8
Lsteral
1.8
(-r__)
Rcducer
.3
\JJ
cup
.5
rl F4q
Calcir.rm
Y Silicete
z
FiberSodium
qF{i.llqn
2
E
lâ
/'11
B,N
u
/9N
.:
<
E BJ
ti]
ll---J
{-<t
,k
j
r\J
+<t
rc
.z
3.7
.5
.5
.5
100,14r 200-:0c 300-3c9 100-lm 500-599 600-699 700-7s9 800-80s 900-g?9 1000-1099 1100-r200
2
2%
t-25
2.08
3.01
3.01
4.07
5.24
s.24
5.24
\ont.'.t'hick., IIL
2\
3%
3%
II-1i Ft
5.07
6.94
6.94
6.94
9.17
9.17
LLs Ft
\om. TLick., In.

Ll's, Ft
ot
1rz
1.61
1.61
1.61
2.74
250
17
300
t7
tl
1.5
19
1.5
l,ap Joint
l0
l9
l0
20
26
46
32
S.R- 90' Elbow
3.9
3.9
30
50
40
63
L.R. 90' Elbow
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
41
2E
46
45" Elbow
67
Tee
5.9
Flanged Bonnet
66
7
Gate
53
Globe or Angle
7.2
Flanged Bonnet
Check
7.2
3%
3%
3.9E
3.9E
6.99
6.99
8.99
8.99
600
20
20
900
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
38
1.5
19
l9
36
1.5
1.5
24
1.5
24
1500
2500
6l
102
6l
ll3
1.5
1.5
60
1.5
99
1.5
r05
38
6l
1.5
1.5
67
98
4.1
4.3
r50
4.6
3.8
3.9
E1
102
l5l
23E
5.9
6.2
70
125
t55
260
1.8
95
t55
495
440
4.9
5.n
Pressure Seal
208
235
Bonnet- Cate
Pressure Seal
r35
Bonnet-Globc
70
+.4
.onditions and do not constitute

nstttule
sPecific
a recommendetion for specific
Insulethicknesses of materials. Insula>n 85%
857a
tjon Neights are based on
macnesia and hvdrous calcium
rot. The
"ili;r.
't l1 lhs/crrhin foot
ights of
o
listed thicknesses and $eights
the
rre th
cornbination covering are
diasums of the inncr layer of dit
)s/cubic
tomrceous earth at 21 lbs/cubi
11 lbs,lcubic foot.
al
Insulation rveights includel rL-
for \rire, cenrent, crn

no
ves,.blnds and Irrrirrtr buL not
lorvences
fittings,
on flanges, valves or fitting:
)r bv
b\ the
th
multiply the Neight factor
t50
60

average
weighis are based on ave.age
410
5.5
4.8
100
$eieht is weight fachor for
strccrcl
surlace nnlsnes.
-
r20
46
u'eight in
6.9
1.8
4.3
is
tvcr at
a
Ioot and the outer laJcr
135
4
60
Boldface iype
pounds. Lightface type bene3th
insul&tion.
93
t2l
tr'langed Bonnet
400
3%
60
3.6
39
3%
Steel
150
1.5
Welding Neck
Blind
1tz
t-cst lron
125
Slip-On
N-i.s
4.7
.3
.3
1k
Screwed
ils
3.7
.8
r-Fn
s{
.8
14.8
.8
\orn. Thllk., In.
psr
.3
12.2
.1.8
Pressurc Rating
rffi
.3
l9
'li nrpcrrlur. ncngc'F

Magnesia
xxs
7.4
Tce
1C0
coverinl
To hnd the Neight of covefnlg
rng usei
usect
welghl per loot ol coverlng
on straight pipe.
spproxi
Valve weights are approxrobtair
mate. When possible, obtain
acturef.
weights from the ma,nufacturer.
fo
Ls are for
Cist ilon valve weiehts
weight
flansed end valves; steet. weights
for weldine end valves.
All flrnged 6tting,
180
flange.
flanged
includ
valve and llanse rleiqhtss include
bolt
of bolts
the proportionlel \r eight.of
Il joints.
or studs to mirl(e uP all
Jorntt
* 16 tb cu, ft. densitY,
pipe

Schedule No.
Wall Dasignation
Thickness-In.
Pip-Lbs //Ft
Water-Lbs / Ft
fr?
ut {J-/
z^,
F [/)
El#
: {l\
3 /)\
/.-N
Irt
srlLcate
)mbina-
tit
6
z
.636
t2.51
22.8s
4.28
3.85
2,53
6.4
8.7
.9
l5.4
.9
.9
.6
4.4
9.9
Tee
t2.6
20
.9
.9
.9
Lateral
1.8
1.4
26
3.1
Reduce!
"
'F
Efsfs$
O
,'4
2td
E-q
BN
O /. 3\
<.:
E Ptn
1"<3
HKP
fqJ
+<t
.3
2.t
2.a
.6
.6
.3
.6
1100-1200
2%
2ti
3%
314
3%
3.71
4.EE
4.88
6.39
6.39
7.80
7.80
7.80
Nom. Thick., In.
2%
316
3%
3%
Lbs/Ft
6.49
E.7l
r0.6
r0.6
10-6
3%
3%
5.07
5.07
E.66
8.66
r0.62
10.62
Lbsi/Ft
Pressure Rating
psr
Screwed
Slip-On
or
1%
r.E3
Lbs/Ft
NIM
6.9
.a
r00-199 200-209 300-399 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-799

800-899 900-999 1000-1099
Nom. Thick., In.
Sodium
itS
.6
L.R. 45' Elbov
Fiber-
3S4
ewr.
4.3
S.R. 90' Elbow
Nom. Thick., In.
,ffi
3/2"
xxs
9.tr
L.R. 90' Elbow
Temperature Range
EO
XS
.318
cuP
agnesta
40
srd.
4.ooo'o.D.
1.83
r%
z.4l
2-41
3.65
250
150
300
13
2l
13
21
13
Elbor
Tee
Flanged Bonnct
Gste
Flanged Bonnet
Globe or Angle
Pressure Serl
Bonnet-Globe
900
r600
15
2l
25
40
26
1.5
54
4.4
3l
5l
39
86
70
8.2
a2
t43
90
7.1
74
137
7.7
125
7.7
\aeight fcctor for
recommendation
for
specific
thicknesses of rnetcriu,ls. I_nsrrhtion lveights are b:rscd on 8b7,
35
m:rgnesir and hvdrous lrlcium

silicsle rt I I Ibs'cul,ic foot. The
listcd thickncsses :rnrl \.eiqhts of
combination coveriDg ar:e the
sums of the inner hier of diatomil(eous e.Lrth at,21 lbs/cubic
Ioot and thc outer lll,!.er at

11 lbs:cubic foot.
75
Insulltion $eights inclutle al,Iowances

ioa wlre, cement, can-
3.9
54
is
is *eighi in
t)pe benecth
condlt)ons xn.l Jo noI constiiute
26
1.5
4.3
62
4.4
Boldface _tvpe
Pounds. Llghtf:rce

\eights are lssFd on averagc
82
4.L
4.4
2500
lvelglrt.
32
49
7.3
Bonnet-Gate
600
1.5
Fhnged Bonnet
Pressure Seal
23
msul& on.
l4
8.R.90'Elbow
L.R. 90" Elbow
400
1.5
14
8.7
Ste"l-_-
t25
Lap Joint
Blind
1X
Cast Iron
Welding Neck
45"
28.tt
vas, blncls &nd Dcint, but, not
t33
spcciu.l surface fi nishes.
6.4
155
180
360
4.8
5t0
160
ma,te. When possible. obtlin
t2s
t40 | 295
2.5 | :.8
To firrd ihe $eigl,t of covering

fiftincs.
multit,lj thc $eight f"(bor l,v thc
wuight per foot ol cov|jrinlj'usc(l
on straiqht DiDe.
Vxlvc \,eigl,ts rrc epprori-
on llrnges, vxlves or
rveights from
3E0
th_e mtnuiacturer.
( ust iron v{Llvc Neiq}rts arc lor
flangtd entl velvesistaci leishts
Ior rveldirrg end vdves.
,\ll fluhged fit tins, fllrnsc,l

vxlve xnd flxnge rrcigl'rs inclu,le
thc proporlional weight of bolts
or studs to mcke up:rll joints.
286
4" prcn 4.500' o.D.
1YEIGHTS OF PIPING MATERIALS
\\ attr-l-bs/I t
f'2
!x
tr2
o
z
F
{,\
t-i .t
{i\
HI
e-
\IJ
'l'cmtx,miurr lLrngc'Ir
o
F
I
z
Ilagnesia
Celcium
Coml)inl- Nom.'l'hick., In.
iion
FiberSodium
Boldface type is rveight in

pounds. Lightf:lce tl'pe benextlr
$'eight
is weight lactor lor
insulation.
l Stits
Insulation thicknesses end

conditions and do not constitutc
recommendation
fol
thicknesses of materials.
spccific
Insull-
tion weights are based on 85t;
z
F
/''ll
/A
,N
/>

silicate &t 11 ibs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and \\'eights of
sums of ihe inner layer of dia-
et 2l lbs,/cubic
foot and the oute! la\.cr at
tomaceous earth
11
lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation weighL includc al-
lowances Ior uire, cement, can-
vas, bands and paint, but not

special
surface finishes.
-
F{3
@
+
,lr1
rc

multiply the we;ght frctor by thc
Neight per foot of covering uscd
on straight, pipe.
Valve wcights arc approrii-
mcte. When possiblc, obtrin
lveights from thc manuf&cturer.

Cast iron valve lvcights &rc for
flanged end valves; stecl \cights
for lelding cnd valves.
All fleriged fittins, flanged
valve rnd flange rvcights inciude
the proportional rveight ol bolts
or studs to make up all joiDts.
" 16 lb cu. ft. densitv.
C
5.563"
O.D.
Pipe
5"
287
PtPe
(-!j
z
F
w
fl-\
15.6
r7 .7
4'e.
,-'1-l
c_i_)
a-1--r
Tcmperature Range
'F
FiberSodium
F
Combina-
tion
Magnesia
Calcium
BolJfrce type is rreight in

pounds. l,ighbf.lce tYpe beneeth
ffir$
$'eight
s{lrs
lreights
lnsulation thicknesses
/r4
listcd thicknesses and \'eights of

sums of the inner layer of diatomoceous earth at 2l lbs/cubic
,N
1l lbs/cubic {oot.
/11
Ioot and thc outcr l&r-er at
/>
Insulotion l eights include al-
lorvances
special surfrrcc {inishes.
t{
To find the rveight of covering
on llanges, volvcs or fittings,
multitt]'thc wcight f$ctor by thc

\reight pcr foot of covoring used
on straight pipe.
@
0
Vdve rveights arc
Flanged Bonnet
Check
++3
rc
lt
cu.
for {ire, cement, can-
vas, bands and p&int, but not
ll'
IH 'll
* 16
and
of m&teri3ls. Insuhtion weights :rre based on 85%

rre
thicknesses
Els:i-:5$
z
ti
for
besed on everage
recommendotion
a
for specific
$sj-N$
is weight lactor
insul.rtion.
ft.
opproxi-
weights from the manuflcturer.

Cast iton valve rveights are for
flonged end valves; steel rleights
for welding end valvesAll flangetl Iitting, flrnged
vslvc and flange weights include
the proportional weight of bolts
or studs to rnake up all joints.

density.
288
6" ,t n
6.625. o.D.
WEIGHTS OF PIPING X{ATERIALS
gJ-f
z
{n
{1\
E:cl
a-1J
E_=_=r
'
!._!____,
\t/
Tcmpcraturc llange 'F

Ma,gnesia
liom. Thick., In.
2 Calcium
o
F
D
Combinltion
tr'iberSodium
Boldface
4q-x$
z
sfil$
dN-s
{Jss;s
#4l
,41
,N
/9s
weight in

recommendation
for

11 lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation $eights include al-
for rriie, cement,
lowances
lt'
sDecial
surface finishes.
-
'{t
ir)
+<i
ffi
specific
thicknesses of matedals. Insulation weights &re based on 85%

s;liAte at 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and weights of
combina,tion covering are the
sums of the inner layer of diatomaceous ea,rth at 21 lbs/cubic
Eq-A
t{3
3
iype is
beneath
tr.pe
oounds. Liehtface
'
q eight is - weight iactor for
insulation.
can-
vas, bands snd paint, but not

To find the $eight of covering
on ffanges, valves or
6ttings,
eight frctor b-\' the
!\eight per foot of covering used
on straight pipe.
Valve $eights are {rppror mate. When possible, obtain
weights from the manufecturer.
Cast iron valve weights are for
flenged end valves; steel weights
multipit
the
for selding end valves.
All
ffanged titting, flanged
vclve and flenge Neights in.lude

thc DroDortronal wcight of bolts
or studi to mrke
ut rll
joints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. densitJ'.
il
8.625. O.D.
PiP.
8"
249
"r",
e,
T,Jr'
z
F
F
uJ
{T\
r';J
lA
/t\
rFr
\iJ
Temperature Range
'F
1r00-1200
Magnesia
Calcium
F
Combina-
2 tron
FiberSodium
ffi
ireiglrt.
s{tlts

rlcights cre brsed on rveruge
$s
is
!N
z
F
Roldfrce tlpe is $eight in

tvoe
beneath
trounds. L;qhtfcce
'
A
rA
A
/>
ela
;s
\rcight
iacLor lor
conditions cn.I do not corstitute
recommendation
for
specific
of materills- Insulation \reights cre based on 85lo

magnesia and hydrous cslcium
siiicate at 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and leights of
sums of the inner loyer of diatomaceous eadh at 21 lbs/cubic
loot snd the outer lol er at
thicknesses
1l lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation rveights include allowances for uire, cement, canvas,.b!.nds ond paint, but not
sDectal
surlace nnrshs.
-
To find the weisht of coverins
1-{3
t4s^
+<t
FsO
* 16 lb cu. ft, density,
on flanges, vrlvis or fittings,
multiply the \aeightf&ctor by the

\Yeight.per foot of covering used
on strarqn! prDe,
Yalve rvciIhts cre appro\imcte. l\rhcn possible, obtxin
\leights from th6 manuflcturer.

Cast ilon valve iveights ore for
flanged end
vrlves;stecl \\'eights
for \\elding enLl valves.
All
flanged
fittine,
flanged
vslve and flongc Neights jnclude

the proportionlrl lveight of bolts
or studs to make up all joints.
290
Mechanical Design of Process Systcms
10t'prpe
\VIJIGIITS OT PIPING I{ATDRI,\i,S
,o.zso"
\\-rtcr-Lbs
'
l'
IA
(,
z
k
//\
w
{i\
.l
4'd',
E.-I
!-l_,
t,t!
Trmprrx6url 11''ra. "P
N'Iagnesia
z Calcium
Combina-
\om. Thick., In.
uon
Fiber-
\om.
TlLn k., I rr.
Sodium
ffi
A,/TmA
z qIS
I l\S
N-ls
ry--rp
z
F
,--ll
Boldfcce
type is neight in
is
$eight, Jsctor for
pounds. Lightfece t) pc benertll
$cight.
lnsut& on.
We)ding Neck
Insulrt,ion thicknesscs and

iveights arc based on avenge
rccommendrtion
for
specific
thicknesses of matcdcls. Insul:rtion \ieiqhts are bascd oir E59.

magnesii and hldrous calciuni
silicate at 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and $eights of
sums of the inner laler of diatomeceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer laver

z
/>
tP ql
s,t
11 lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation \Yeishts include alfor rdr;, cement, cenvas, bands and paint, but not
lowonces
special surlace frnishes,
To find the wejsht of coverine
J-<3
'l
ll.J
++l
rc
on flonges, valvds or
6ttings]
bt the
Neight per foot of covering used
on strsight pipc.
multipll
the neight f:rctor
|alve \rcishts ore luorori-;l)trirr
matc. \\'hcn- possil)le,
\r0iqhls from thc n)rnufscturcr.

Crrst iron rrlvc $cights rfe for
13rngcd t'nrl \.l|lvcsi stccl Neights
fot l-clding end vrlves.
-\11 flrngcd fitting, fllnged
vslve and flcngc $eig)r1s inrlude
thc propottionul \eight of bolts
or studs to rn.rke up all joints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. densitl..

Schedule No.
20
30
40
Wall Designation
{?
nuj
7fh
F:-
60
std.
rz.75o"
r00
80
o.D.
12"
I20
140
160
Thickness-In.
.250
.330
.406
.500
.562
.687
.843
1.000
Pipe-Lbs/Ft
1.125
1.312
33.36
43.E
49.6
53.5
65.4
73.2
Wster-Lbs/Ft
r25.5
r39.7
5l.t0
8E.5 1t07.2
160.3
49.7
49.0
48.5
47 .0
46.0
4,r.0
39.3
37 .5
34.9
lr9
L.R. 90' Elbow
4r.6
t57
80
104
2
60
L.R. 45" Elbow
7a
IEl
1.3
Lateral
Reducer
Crp
Temperature Range 'tr'
{-iryTiu
1.3
r32
167
180
273
5.4
5.4
33
44
.7
94
30
38
t9
360
1%
1%
2tz
Lbs/Ft
6.04
6.04
E.13
10,5
Silicate
{
7
uomotna- Nom. Thick., In.
tion
Sodiuo
Nom. Thick.,In.
Bs$
!stu
Nls
Screwed or
Slip-On
EA
z&4
dflq
1.{3
*@
rqJ
{={t
ts0
'
16 lb cu.
ft.
5.22
3%
12,7
15.1
t7.9
250
7L
t.5
150
137
S.R. 90' Elbow
L.R. 90' Elbow

45" Elbow
Flaneed Bonnet
Flanged BoDnet
Check
Pressure Seal
Bonnet-Gate
Pressure Seal
Bonnet-GIobe
den6rty,
164
163
2t2
1.5
1.5
164
t87
1.5
4%
4%
26.7
26-7
3r.l
31.1
2%
2%
14.20
14.20
1500
2500
E20
l6u
434
843
1.5
433
341
265
453
5.2
345
5
509
669
E15
485
624
6.2
375
6.2
6.2
235
3E3
4.3
4.3
403
684
687
6.2
4.3
4.5
513
754
7.8
943
1015
5
1420
1410
r200
9.5.
7r0
674
9.4
I160
9.5
560
8.3
a.g
32.&
BoJdface t1'pe
pounds. Lightfaco
Insulrtion thickncsses and

base<l on aver:rte
902
1573
& Iccommendatio4 fot
928
1474
1775
conditions and do not constitule
11 lbsTcubic foot.
I rr24
4.7 | 4.8
136 t
Insuhtion rvcights includc al,to\l'anccs

lor $lrc, ccncnt, canv:rs, hanrls lrnd Drint, but not
8.7
9.3
2155
7
2770
4650
8
1410
2600
8
3370
8
2560
45t5
spccial surface firishes.

To lin,l bhc ur'rglrt of coveling
on flxrgcs, vrlvcs or fittirrae.
mult;l'h tl,c \reiglrt i,, tul l,\.the
\\(iAht l)cr foot ol coverirrg uscd
on strrlalrt DrDc.
Vrtr
1975
5.5
suecific
tliicknesses of materirls. Iirsul:rtion Neighis are l,rsrd on E5%

mrgncsiu and hrdrous calcium
silicxte at lL lbs/'cubic loot. The
listed thickncsscs and Ncishts of
combinrtion covering aie the
sums of thc inner loier of dirrtomlceous ctrth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and thc outer la\'er at
?0s
7.2
is rvciqht in
tlpe bencxth
\reigl,f. js reight frctor for
neights are
720
32,&
r.5
6.2
4.3
9.4
80E
475
1.5
ldsulallon.
6.2
469
l29a
1.5 |
1919
1.5
l59E
414
24.@
900
261
20.4
388
1.5
209
20.4
3%
|
|
|
272 |
1.5 I
286 |
11E
17.9
2t.9
600
177
4%
26r
1.5
96
7.a
Globi or Angle
400
l1()
1.5
88
Tee
Flanqed BonDet
300
4%
17.7
r%
1%
Cast lron
Lap Joint
lA
lrl
1%
Welding Neck
s\"ssF
,-{t
2Ld
,.
Al
1%
Lbs/Ft
Prcssure Rating
psr
Lbs/Ft
Fiber-
"
r00-199 200-299 300-399 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-7s9 800-899 900-999 1000-1099
1100-1200
Nom. Tbick.,In.
prpx
375
S.R. 90" Elbow
291
XS
- J,l
'
Pipe
rrcights
rtc
errnloriobt:rin
m:*c. \1'herr possil'le,
r'cights from the m:rnuilrcturcr.
Crlst iron vtlye wciqlrts &rc lor

flangctl end v0lves: stccl \eichts
Jor rrcltiine cnd vclves. -
.\lt
flerrgcd fitting, fl:rnged
vnlvc rn4 lixfigc \rcigirts include

thc proportionrl Ncight
lcight of bolts
or studs to make
mrkc up
rrn all
rll joints.
ininlq
292
ptnE
14"
14" o.D.
1VEIGHTS 0F PIPING IIATERIALS
{?
z
|.
fh
{t}
EJJ
t -=;t
/-\
\t/
Temnr.r:1turc Rrngc
'F
Nlaguesia
2 Calcium
F
Conlbina-
Nom.
Thick.,In.
tlon
Fibe!Sodium
ffi
z
6{rls
ds]s
Elsisp
z
|.
/A
,-11
//
,\
t&
tlpe is rrcight in
$eight is \eight f.rctor tor
Boldlacc
pouncls. Lightface tl'pe bencalh
insulation.
Insulation lhicknesscs
$eights arc besed on
and
average

recommendalion for spccilic
thicknesses of materials. Insulation tieights al.e based on E5fi

magnesia and hvdrous ralcium
listed thicknesses and rveights of

combination covering are thc
sums of the inner laver of dia-
tomaceous e:rrth xt 2l lbs/cubic

foot and the outer lal er et
11 lbs,/cubic foot.
lnsulaiion weights include al-
lorvances
Ior uire, cement,
can-
D' .{
vas, bands and paini,, bui not
+.{
@
r)
+<t
rc
special surfece finishcs.
To find the $eight of covering
multipl]
the \\'ejght facior by the

lYeight pcr foot oI covering used
on straight, pipe.
Valve rveights are approri-
mete. When possible, obtain
scigbts from tha manufrcturer.

CasL ilon valve Neights are for
flanged end vrlvcs; steel *eights
tor rYelding end valvcs.
All
flanged frttiDg,
flanged
vrlve end frcnge $rights include

the proportionri \rcighi of holts
or studs to meke up all joints.
16 lb cu.
ft.
density
I
Appendix C: Properries oi
ro'o.o.
Pipe
16t'
2gl
prpt
L!_r'
t4
f>\
L4J
{l\
e4'4
B
r't\
!+i
f--.+--l
Temperature liange
'F
1100-1200
Xlagnesia
Calcium
Silicate
!
i
6
z
Cornbina-
tion
Sodium
Se
Bo i.lce t\.pe is rveielrt in

ttpe benesth
rferqht is \\eislrt frctor fof
s{-N

ireights .Ire bascd on avcrrge
conditions and clo not consiir.u[e
Nis
s\sf
z
|.
A
,N
pounJs. Lightfi, e
lnsul&lton.
recommendrtion
for
succitic
thicknesses of materiais. Iirsul:r-
tion \\'eights are brsed on 859%

magnesil and hydrous cllciui
silicate rt ll lbs/cuLic [oot. 'Ihe
Iisted thicknesses and seights of
combrlctlon covering ace the

sums of the inner laier qI dia-
tomsceous eorth at 2l lbs/cubic

11 lbs/cubic foot.
_ Insuiation
weights include allovances Ior wirc, cemnt, can-
!!!q
vas,.bands and-' pxint, but not
specrat surlace hnlshes.

To_
1"<3
E
@
fi1
+<t
l4
'
16 lb cu.
ft. density.
find Lhe weight of covering

fittines.
on llxngcs, vnlves or
multipl] t|e
weight flctor bl the

werght.pcr foot uf covcriDg uscd
on strxrqht DlDe,
Valve rri-iel,ts
al,rrroxi-
^re 0l,tcin
m.Ltc. \\'hcn I'ossil)le,
weights from
th_e
manui:rciuror-
vrlve $cishts cre for

flangcd cud valvesi stiel $eiehts
for rvelding end v:rlves.
Cast iroD
AII flrngcd fitting,
frxnged
vclve and flxngc ncights i clude

the proportionrl weight of bolts
294
18"
prpo
18" o.D.
WEIGI{TS OT' PIPING MATDRIALS
{.!-r'
z
F
F
z
B
f>\
a-+-!
{T\
-t\"
I-5:I
&\
\JJ
'fonrl)erllturc
lhrlac'Ir
Magnesia
2 Calcium
o
F
f
Combin.r- .\oro. Thi, k.,ln.

tron
FiberSodium
Soldface i,r'pc
ffi
stfN$
Insul&tion thicknesses and

Fcights arc bascd on average
Nls
r7
,N
4!44
D',
benecth
for
insulation.
tlpc
tcigl,t is scight factor
qN
F
is rrcight in
pounds. Ligbtl.rce
.S
B--rl
lecommcnd:ltion
IU
+<t
rc
specific
foot and the outer laycr at

11 ibs/cubic foot,
Insulqtion $'cights include al,]O$an(:os

1or \\-rre, cemcni, canves,.1'ends and- pflint, but not
Slrcr-li1l sUl I3CC IlnlSnCS.
To find the rvcight of covering
on flrngr-s, valvcs or fittings,

multitilj
for
thickncsscs of mstcriols- Insulstion $eights &re b:rsed on 85%

rnagnesia and h)'drous calcium
listed thickncsses and rveights of
combinction covcling arc the
sums oI the inner layer of diatom&ceous clLrth at 21 lbs/cubic
the $ c;glrt fxctor by the
Neight t)cr foot of covering used

on.sirlrigLt pipe,
v srvc \{crgn[s crc apl)roxlmate. \Vhen possiblc, obtain
\\cights from the manuf&cturer.

Cast ilon velve \Yeights &re for
flanged end valves; stecl weights
u clding end valvbs.
fl:rnged fitting, flanged
for
All
valve and fiange \\riHhts include

the proportion:rl \cight of bolts
* 16 lb cu. ft. deDsity.
WEIGTITS OF PIPING ]TATURI,\LS
zo"
Pipe
20"
o.D.
295
ptpp.
Pipe-Lbs/ I t
$ atcr-l,bs,,lft
to
f\
w
{l\
L=I
F4'1
f-l
LJ-!
Tempcrriurc llrnge "F
1100-r200
Magnesis,
Calcium
Combina-
!ton
FiberSodium
Roldfrce tvpe is \\'cight in
pounrls. Liglrtfrce t) po bcnerth
4dJ$
\\ciglrt. is Neiglrt flctor for
$fu
$cights rrc b.rscd on avcrrqe
Insulrtion
curditions rLnd do not roD-qtituie

l reconrmt'ntlrtiori for. spccific
thickncssrs ol nlrtolirls. Iirsula-
Njis
tion rveights ruc brscrL on 55.,1

rn:rgncsio :rnd hldrous rllrium
qlss,rs
silicllte rrt 1l lbs ruhit foot. The

listc(l tl\i(,lincsscs r!n(l rvcislrts of
,-8.
/Ai
comlrinotidl covoring rio the

sums of the irrner l:uer of rlirtornsceous crrth rlt 21 lbs (ul)ic
Ioot .rnd thc outcr la|er rt

11
,N
thit knesses rnd
ll)s'(ul)i0 foot.
hsu|rtion Noights irv.ludc r1lorvlrnccs for ivir{], (cmont. (1!n-
le-{
vrs, brnds url
prLint, but, not

su frlco {inishos.
To liud tho \\ c;ght of covcring
,rrr l1lLrrg' s, vrl!(s or fittirrgs,
sp(,(
ill
rnLrltitlt tlrt $eielrt hrrtor l,r thc
@
flr\
Flanged Bonnet
Globe or Angle
n1'ights from thc nlxnulllcturcr.

OlL\t, irorr vxlvc NoigLts urc for
fllugctl cnrl v:rlvcs; stccl Neights

for lel<lins end vulvrs.
+<{
'
rc
16 Ib cu.
ft.
leig[i lrcl foot JI coverirrA uscd

orr stlLlight l)il)c.
|itlvu $1 i{lrts rlc rr)r,ro\i-ol,trin
nrxto. \\'lrrn possil,lc,
-\ll fitngcrl Iitting,
ilrrngcd
vlllve &n(l llllngc ryci'alrts il)(ludc

thc prol)ortionrl \ycight of l)olts
or studs to mrke up ull joir)ts.
deDsity.
296
24" ptpB
\\'rll
24, o.D.
\YItIGIII'S OF PIPING IIATEITL\LS
Dcsigrr,rtiou
f,.d
1,!J
t-
{G
t\
{i}
1_'*,.1
14'1
/i\
-t
Lr----t
i--t
\*t"J
'I-cnDer:lturc llcngc "F
Magnesia,
Norn. TLick., In.
Calcium
Conrbine-
tiolr
FiberSodium
ffi
z
j
+r[1$
N+S
l:N
/14
,N
/>
.{
l,,
D---S
ffi
3
@
fi1
J-<t
rc
Boldfrre
is weight in
,t\pe tJpe benexth

pounos, Lrgnlttce
lleight.
is $eight factor
Insulation thicknesses
for
and
\reights are based on average
conditions &nd do not constituie
recommendction for specific

of msterials. Insuletion $cights are b.rsed on 857,
magncsia and hydrous calcium
silicste rt 1l lbs/cubic foot. The
listed thicknesses and \eiqhts of
sums of the inner laver of diatomaceous certh at 2l lbs/cubic
thicknesscs
foot and the outer laver at
ll lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation *eights include al,loNMces
1ot wlre, cement, canvas, bands and paint, but not
speciel surface finishes.

To find the geieht of coverins
on Banges, vrlvis or 6ttinss]
muJtipll the rreight factor by the
\aeiglrt.lrrr foot ol covering used
on sLrsrght DlDe.
\'Rlvt $ciehts rre annroxi-obtain
mxtc. \\'hen- possiblc,
\'eights from thi manuflcturer.

Cast iron valve \icights :rre for
frengcd end v:rlvcs, steeJ *eights
lor \reldrng end vslves.

A)l flerrged tittins, 63nsed
vxlve ar)d {lrngc seights include

thc proporiiunxl \reight of bolts
or sLuds to mekc up all ioints.
* 16 lb cu. ft. deDity.
I
W!]I(;I]TS OF PIPING MATERIALS
za"
o.o
pipe E7
26tt
prpt
fif
u-r'
7
F
IL4J
{l}
E=:l
F
-4\"
,TI
ri\
r-r--r
u/
Temperature Range
'F
llagnesi.r
Celcirrm
= irrltcate
o
F
A
tion
;r:r:::::
FiberSodium
Boldface tvDe is weisht in

pounds. Lighiface typ"e beneath weight is weight factor
ffi$
ror lnsulalron.

conditions and do not consaitute a recommendation for
specific thicknesses of materials. Insulation weights ale
based on 85% masnesia and
hydrous calcium siiicate at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thicknesses and weights of combination covering are the sums
of the inner later of diatomaceous ealth it 21 lbs/cubic
S{''l$
N-l-s
d\slN|]
/'41
z
3
t4

i1 lbs/cubic foot.
Insulation weiphts include
allowances for w_ire, cement,
,N
/>
aglg
B,s
Ht
canvas, bands and paint. but

not special surface finishes.
To find the weiqht of cover-
F<]
tings, multiply the weight fac-
ing on flanges, valves or fittor by the weight per foot of
@
lll')
covering used on straiqht Dipe.

Valve weishts are aoorbiimate. When- possible. bbtain
weights from manufacturerCast iron valve weights are

for flanged end valves: steel
+<f
weights forweldinqendvalyes.
All flanged fittlng, flanged
valve and flange welghts include.the prolo.rtiohal weight

oI oorls or studs to make uD
FqJ
*
16 lb cu.
ft.
densit\-.
all joints.
298
28"
prpn
28" o.D.
ff
&?
f^
w
{i\
E::I
-4\.
t-t-!
f---Fr
\iJ

trIxgnesia
Cclcium
Combina!ron
Fiber
Sodium
ffi
&
Nis
EN
z
F
F
,N
/9N
D',
F-Jl'il
l"<3
@
m
ll
+<i
l
rc
16
li
cu. ft. density.
Boldface type is weight in

pounds. Lishtface tvDe beneath weigii is weighi'factor
rot lnsulatron.
and

conolllons and do not constltute a recommendation for
specific thicknesses of mate-
rials. Insulation weiphts are
based on 8570 masnesia and

hydrous calcium silicat4 at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thicknesses and weishts of combination coverind are the sums
of the inner lafer of diatomaceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic

11 lbs/cubic foot,
Insulation weiehts include
allowances for wlre, cement,
canvas, bands and paint.
-6nishes.but
hot special surface
To find the weisht of covei-
ing on flanges, v-alves or fittings, multiply the weight factor by the weight per foot of
covering used.on straight pipe.

v arve welghts are approxtmat. When possible, obtain
weights from manufacturer,

Cast iron valve weishts are
for flanged ehd valves; steel
weightsforweldingend valves.
All flansed fittins. flansed
valve and-flanse wiiehts "include.the propo-!tional- wei ght
ol Dolts or studs to make ur)
all joints,
if,
\ 'EIC I ITS ()F'PIPIN'; IIIATFIRTALS
Bo'o.D.
Pipre Ag
30"
"rpe
45
u-r'
ii
lj:I
{i\
i .4\"
\tJ
-!----l
Temperature Range
'F
\Iagnesia
Calcium
FiberSodirrm
ffi
z
sf,J$
Nl$
{f.,-::r:q}
4l
,\
7
B,s
i;>t
u>
/
\
ltl
.ll,
@t
e$-+
Boldface ti,pe is weight in

pounds. Lightface type beneath wight is weight factor
IOr lnsulailon.

conditions and do not constitute a recommendation for
specific thicknesses of matelials. Insulation vreights are
based on 85i. maqn-sia and

hydrous calcium siticate at 11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thicknesses and weights of combi-
nation covering are the sums

of the inner layer of diatomaceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the outer layer. at
1l lbs/cubic foot-
Insulation weights include

allorvances for w-ire, cement,
canvas, bands and paint, but
not special surface ffnishes.
To find the weight of covering on flanges, valves or fittings, multiply the weight factor by the weight per foot of
covering used.on straight pipe.

v alve werEhts are approxr-
mate. When possible,;btain

weights from manufacturer.
Cast iron valve weights are
for flanged end valves; steel
weights for weldingend valves.
All flanged 6tting, flanged
valve anO nanqe werghts rn-
clude,the proportionai- wei ght

oI, oolEs or studs !o make up
alI Joln!s.
300
32"
prcn
82, o.D.
{!-r'
I i)
z
F
{l\
L-Li
E:-:t
f,t\
ri\
\tJ
Temperature Range
.F
Magnesia
Calcium
Z Siliccte
UOmOrna-
5 tion
FibrSodium

pounds, Lightface type beneath weight is weight factof
ffi
for insulation.
$fu
fs],m
rials. Insulation weights are

based on 85% magnesia and
qJt.rrr.:qs
hydrous calcium silicat at
/.4
nation covering are the sums

of the inner layr of diatoma-
F
tr
at 21 lbs/cubic
foot and the oute! layer at
ceous earth
11 lbs/cubic foot.
Fdl
allowances for wire, cement,

not special surface finishes,
To find the weight of covering on flanges, valves or fittings, multiply the weight factor by the weighi per foot of

for flanEed end valves; steel
9.4
D' .f
B_{i
covering used on straight pipe.

Valve weiEhts are approxi-
+<i
weights forweldingendvalves,
All flanged -fi tting, flanged
varve ano nange werEhts lnclude the proDortional weisht
of bolts o; stjuds to make-up
rc
'
11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thicknesses and weights of combi-
AI
and

conditions and do not constitute a recommendation fo!
specifrc thicknesses of hate-
16
lt
cu.
ft.
density.
all joints.
!r
84'o.D.
Pipe
34"
3Ol
prpt
TJ-/
z
F
tr
z
F
b
{T\
//\"
E_=_=iI
"t\
\IJ
Magnesia
Calcium
FiberSodium

pounds. Lightface type beneath weight is weight factor
ffi
2
3
for insulation.
stits

based on 85% magnesia and
Sql-s$
hydrous calcium silicat at
N
t
nation coverine_ are the sums
/AJ
of the inner laier of diatomaceous earth ai 21 lbs/cubic

11 lbs/cubic foot.
AI
/14
allowances
+.{
covering used on straight pipe.

Valve weights are approxi-
mata. When possible, obtain

for flanged end valves; steel
weights lor weldingend valves.

+<i
rc
ft.
cement,
tor by the weight per foot of
@
a
16 lb cu.
for u'ire,

To find the weight of covering on flanges, valves or frttings, multiply the weight fac-
|i'a
11
lbs/cubic foot. The listed thicknesses and weiehts of combi-
.-al
and

conditions and do not constitute a recommendation for
valve and flange weights include,the proportional weight

oI Dolrs or stucts to make uD
all joints.
deDsity.
302
36tt
prpo
s6, o.D.
Water-Lbs/Ft
f.;
tr
L.R.90' Elbow
{t/
/\
I tt
{}
dJ
; 44"
L_r-!
\tJ
Ilrgnesir
z
Crlcilrm.
J Com
!ton
z
FiberSodirm
ffi
IOr lnsulatron_
6{-,l$
tute a
N*S
$:T,\1I
.4
/.4
F

pounds. Lightface type beneath weight is weight factor
/.--tl
,\
z
ll'
'rl
F--+l
.,r,eights are based on average
conditions and do not constirecommendation for


based on 85% rnagnisia and
hyd.ous calcium silicate at 11

ibs/cubic foot.The listed thicknesses and weights of combination covering are the sums
of the inner layer of diatomaceous earth at 21 lbs/cubic
11 lbslcubic foot,

for wire, cement,
allowances

To find the weight of covet-
Fd3
ing on flanges, valves or fittings, multiply the weight factor by the weight per foot of
fi^l

Cast iron valve weiqhts are
F{]
+<l
FsO
coveri ng used.on straight pipe.

v arve wergnrs are approxl-
for flanged end valveis;
steel
weights forweldingend valves.

valve ano nange werghts rnclude the proportional weieht
of. bolts oi siuds to make'up
all lolnls.
304
Alphabetical Conversion Factors

TO CONVERT
NTO
MULTIPLY 8Y
Abcoulomb
Statcoulombs
Sq. chajn (Gunters)
2.998 x l0'o
t0
Rods
Acre
Square links (Gunters)

Hectaae or
sq. hectometer
sq feet
sq meters
sq mrles
sq yards
cu feet
ga ons
acres
acres
acres
acre-feet
acre'feet
amperes/sq
amperes/5q
amperes/sq
ampetes/sq
amperes/sq
amperes/sq
cm
cm
In.
rn.
meter
mete.
ampere,hours
arnpere-hours
ampere-turns
ampere-turns/cm
ampere-turns/cm
ampere-turns/cm
ampere.turns/in.
ampere-turns/ In,
ampere-lurns/tn,
ampere-turns/metet
ampere-turns/meter
ampete-tufns/metel
Angstrom unit
Angstrom unit
Angstrom unit
amps/sq
amps/sq
amps/sq
amps/sq
amps/sq
In.
meter
cfi
meter
cm
anps/sq in.
coutonbs
faradays
grlberts
amp-turns/ In.
amp{urns/meter
Salberts/cm
amp-turns/cm
amp-turns/meter
grlberts/cm
amp/Iurns/cm
amp{urns/in.
gilberts/cm
tncn
Meter
Micron or {Mu)
160
ates
ares
Astronomical Unit
Atmospheres
atmospneres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
almospheres
almospheres
atmospheres
acreS
Btu/min
.4047
43,560.0
Btu/man
Btu/sq ft/min
4,O47.
1.562 x
l0 '
4,840,
43,560.0
3.259 x
6.452
105
l0l
0.1550
Ton/sq. inch
cms of mercury
ft of water (at 4"C)
in. of mercury (at 0.C)
xgs/ sq cm
kgs/sq meter
Pounds/sq in.
tons/sq ft
10.
6.452 x 10
3,500.0
0.03731
1.257
barrels (ojl)
oars
bars
Dars
bars
bars
Batyl
Eolt {US Cloth)

BTU
cu, Inches
quarts (dry)
ga
Centigrade
centigrams
t.257
0.3937
Centiliter
Centiliter
Centiliter
39.37
0.4950
0.01
centiliters
o.0244
0.o1257
3937 x 10-'
I x l0-r'
1x 10-.
.0247
100.0
1.495 x
10
.007348
76.O
33.90
Liter-Atmosphere
8tu
8tu
ergs
Btu
gram-caiones
hofsepower-hrs
loot-lbs
btu
Btu
joules
8tu
krlogram,calories
xrogram-rheters
krlowatt-hrs
foot-pounds/sec
Btu
Btu
Btu
/hr
105.0
ons
Meters
0.9869
1.020 x 10.
2,089,
14.50
1.000
10.409
1.0550 x 10'o
77a.3
3.931 x
1,054.8
10 |
o.2162
centimeters
centimetels
centimeteFdynes
centimeteFdynes
centimeter-dynes
centimeter-grams
centimeterc/sec
centimeters/sec
centimeters/sec
centimeterc/sec
centimeters/sec
centimeters/sec
centimeterc/sec/sec
centimeters/sec/sec
centimeters/sec/sec
centimeters/sec/sec
Chain
Chain
Chains (surveyors'
or Gunter's)
circular mils
circular mils
Circumference
circular mils
o.2520
r07.5
2,928 x
centimeters
centimeters
centrmeter-gfams
centjmeters of mercury
centrmeters of mercury
centimeters of mercury
centimeters of rnercury
centimeters of mercury
centameters/s?c
7056.
106
centrmeters
centimetergrams
29.92
1.0333
10,332.
14.70
1.058
atmospheres
oynes/sq cm
kgs/sq meter
centimeters
centimetels
centameters
119,60
42.O
Calories, gram (mean)

Candle/sq. cm
Candle/sq. inch
centares (centiares)
2.540
gallons (oil)
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq in.
Dyne/sq. cm.
bushels
bushels
bushels
bushels
bushels
bushels
bushels
Sran-cal/sec
horsepoweahrs
watts
toot-lbs/sec
hoasepower
kilowatts
watts
watts/sq in.
Cubic Cm.
cu
ft
cu in.
cu meters
liters
pecks
pints (dry)
quarts (dry)
Cords
lO-.
MULTIPLY BY
0.0700
3.929 x 10-.
0.2931
12.96
0.02356
0.01757
17.57
o.t22l
1.818 x 10
1.2445
2,t50.4
0.03524
35.24
4.0
64.0
32.0
100.0
Barrels (U.S., dry)

Earrels (U,S., dry)
Barrels (U.S., liquid)
Bucket (Br. dry)
ll{T0
1,550.0
o.02471
sq meters
Kilometers
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
Btu/hr
Btu/min
8tu/min
lx1O5
Acre (US)
sq. yards
TO COI{VERT
Cord feet
Coulomb
coulombs
8.T.U. (mean)
Lambeds
Lamberts
sq meters
Fahrenheit
grams
ounce ftuid (US)

Cubic inch
drams
liters
feet
inches
kilometers
meters
miles
millimeters
m ils
yards
cm-8rans
meter-kgs
Pound-feet
cfi-dynes
meter-kgs
pound{eet
atmospneres
feet of water
kgs/sq meter
pounds/sq ft
Pounds/sq in.
teet/min
leet/sec
kilometels/hr
knots
meters/min
m
iles/hr
fiiles/min
feet/sec/sec
kms/hrlsec
meters/sec/sec
miles/hrlsec
Inches
meters
3.9685 x
1.0
(C'x9/5)+32
0.01
.3382
.6103
2.705
0.0r
10-'
3.281 x
0.3937
10-
0.01
6,214 x LO-r
10.0
l-094 x 10-I
1.020 x l0-'
1.020 x 10-.
7.376 x 10 |
980.7
10 -5
l0-5
7.233 x
0.01316
0.4461
136.0
0.1934
1.1969
0.03281
0.036
0.1943
o.02237
3.728 x 10-.
0.03281
0.036
0.01
o.02237
792.0O
20.12
yards
sq cms
sq mils
Radians
sq inches
22.OO
cord feet
cu. feet
Statcoulombs
laradays
10-:
3.142
.4470
5.057 x
0.7854
l0-.
7.854 x
10-'
2.998 x 10
1.036 x 10-!
L
Appendix D: Conversion Factors
305
(Continued). Alphabetical Conversion Factors
INTO
TO CONVERT
coulomb9/sq cm
coulombs/sq cm
coulombs/sq in.
coulombs/sq in.
coulombs/sq meter
coulombs/sq meter
cubic centimeters
cubic centimete6
cubac centimeters
cubic centimeteas
cubic centimeters
cubic centimeters
cubic centimeters
cubic cent;meters
cubic leet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic leet
cubic
cubic
cubic
cubic
cubic
teet
feet
feet
feet
feet
cubic feet/min
cubic teet/min
cubic teet/min
cubic feet/min
cubic feet/sec
cubic feet/sec
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cublc inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic meters
cuDrc meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic rneterc
cubac meters
cubac meters
cuorc meters
cubic yards
cuFic yards
cuorc yatos
cubic yards
cuDrc yards
cubic yards/min
cubic yards/min
cubic yards/min
coulombs/sq
coulombs/sq
coulombs/sq
coulombs/sq
coulofibs/sq
coulombs/sq
in.
meter
cm
meter
crh
in.
cu feet
cu Incnes
cu mete6
cu yards
gallons (U. S. liq.)
liters
pints (U.S. tiq.)
quats (U.S. liq.)
bushels (dry)
cu cms
cu inches
cu meters
cu yards
gallons (u.S. liq.)
liters
pints (U.S. liq.)
quarts (U.S. liq.)
cu cns/sec
gallons/sec
liters/sec
pounds of water/min
million gals/day
Sallons/min
cu cms
cu feet
cu metets
cu yards
gallons
lite.s
mal-feet
pints {U.S. tiq.)
quarts tU.S. liq.)
bushels (dry)
cu cms
cu feet
cu inches
cu yards
eallons (U.S. liq.)
laters
pints (U.S. liq.)

quarts (U.S. liq.)
cu cms
cu feet
cu inches
cu meters
Sallons (U.S. ljq.)
liters
pints (U.S. liq.)
quarts (U.S. ljq.)
cubic ftlsec
gallon5/sec
lrters/sec
MUI.TIPLY BY
101
0.1550
10-.
6.452 x 10-'
3.531 x 10 5
0.06102
10-6
1.308 x 10-.
2.642 x 10-.
0.001
2.113 x 10-l
1.057 x 10-'
0.8036
-24320.O
|,728.O
0.02832
0.03704
7.44052
2432
59.84
29.92
472.0
olams
drams
drams
Dyne/cm
radians/sec
revolutions/min
revolutions/sec
Dyne/sq. cm.
dynes
0.01745
0.1667
2.778 x LO .
10.0
liters
10.0
metets
10.0
ounces {avoidupois}
0.r371429
ounces (troy)
0.125
cubic cfi.
grafis
Inch of lVercury at 0'C

Inch of Water at 4'C
grams
oynes
dynes
joules/cm
joules/meter (newtons)
dynes
dynes
kilograms
poun0a t5
pounds
cfi
MULTIPLY BY
gGms
Erglsq. millimete.
oyne/sq. cm.
Dyne/sq. cm.
oynes/sq
0.4720
INTO
grains
ounces
dynes
o.1247
oars
1.7718
27.3437
0.0625
.01
9.869 x 10-'
5
2.953 x
.
4.015 x
1.020 x 10-r
l0
l0
l0-'
l0-
1.020 x 10-.
7.233 x 10-,
2.248 x lO 6
10_6
62.43
0.646317
448.831
5.787 x l0-.
1.639 x 10-s
2.I43 x 10-5
4.329 x t0-3
0.01639
1,061 x 105
0.03463
o.ot132
28.38
106
35.31
61,023.0
1.308
264.2
Etl
Erl
Em, Pica
erg5
erg5
ergs
ergs
ergs
ergs
r,000.0
2,113.0
105
days
decrgrams
seconds
grams
deciliters
Irers
oecrmeters
degrees (angte)
degrees (angte)
degrees (angle)
meterS
0.1
0.1
0.1
qua0ranr5
0.01r1t
1.650 x 1.0-r.
86,400.0
0.01745
3,600.0
Btu
dyne-centrmeters
foofpounds
gram.cmS
horsepower-hrs
loules
kg-calories
kg-meters
kilowatlhrs
watt'houts
kg-calories/min
kilowatts
o.7646
202.O
Gram
.4233
cm/sec
horsepo\der
46,656.0
Dalton
45
ft-lbs/sec
27.O
764.6
1,615.9
807.9
0.45
3.367
12.7 4
114,30
Btu/min
ft-lbs/min
r,057.
7.646 x
um.
tncnes
tncn
um,
Dyne
ergs
raclrans
Seconos
CONVERT
degrees/sec
degrees/sec
degrees/sec
dekagrafis
dekaliters
dekameters
Drams (apothecaries'
or troy)
Drams (apothecaries'
or troy)
Drams (U.S.,
fluid or apoth.)
TO
farads
Faraday/sec
faradays
faradays
Fathom
fathoms
mrcrofarads
Ampere (absolute)
ampere-hours
leet
centimeters
{eet
feet
feet
feet
feet
krlometers
meters
mrles (naut,)
miles (stat.)
teet
feet of water
feet of water
feet of water
armospneres
rn, of mercury
coulombS
Nleter
feet
millimeters
m ils
kgs/sq cm
1.000
9.480 x 10-r'
1.0
7.367 x 10-i
0.2389 x 10-'
1.020 x 10-:
3.7250 x 10-la
10 r
2.389 x l0 -rr
1.020 x 10 |
O.2J78x IO tt
0.2778 x 10 -'o
5,688 x 10 '
4.427 x lO-6
7.3756 x l0-l
1.341 x l0-ro
1.433 x 10 -,
10- r0
106
9.6500 x lcr.
26.80
9.649 x lcr.
1.828804
6.0
30.48
3.048 x l0-r
0.3048
1.645 x 10-.
1.894 x 10 .
304.8
1.2 x I Cl.
0.02950
0.8826
0.03048
306

TO CONVERT
feet of water
feet of water
feet of water
leet/nin
r'lT0
kgs/sq meter
pounds/sq ft
poLrnds/sq in.
cms/sec
feet/sec
feet/min
teet/min
MULTIPLY BY
304.8
62.43
0.4335
knot5
0.01667
0.01829
0.3048
0.01136
30.48
1.097
0.5921
meters/min
14.29
miles/hr
miles/min
0.6818
0.01136
30.48
kms/hr
feet/ rn in
feet/ rnin
meters/min
feet/sec
feet/sec
teet/sec
feet/sec
feet/sec
leet/sec
cms/sec
leet/sec/sec
cms/sec/sec
feet/sec/sec
feet/sec/sec
feet/sec/sec
feet/ 100 feet
kms/hrlsec
1.097
meters/sec/sec
0.3048
0.6818
Foot
miles/hr
kms/hr
candle
miles/hrlsec
per cent graoe
Lumen/sq. meter
Btu
foofpounds
ergs
foot-pounds
gram-calories
np-nrs
joules
foofpounds
foot.pounds
foot-pounds
foo!pounds
foot'pounds/ min
foot-pounds/ min
Kg-ca{ones
kg-meters
kilovr'att-hrs
Btu/min
foot-pounds/sec
toot-pounds/min
toofpounds/min
kg-calories/ min
foot-pounds/man
kilowatts
foot-pounds/sec
foot.pounds/sec
foot-pounds/sec
{oot-pounds/sec
foot-pounds/sec
8tu/hr
Furlongs
furlongs
turlongs
in
gallons/min
gallons / m in
gausses
gausses
gausses
gausses
gilberts
gilberts/cm
gilberts/cm
gilberts/cm
Gills (Britash)
gills
gills
kilowatts
miles (U.S.)
feet
gallons (U.S.)
gallons of water
/m
horsepower
kg'calories/man
rods
gallons
Sallons
Salrons
gallons
Sallons
gallons
gallons (liq. Br. Imp.)
gallons
Btu/min
cu cms
cu feet
cu inches
cu meters
cu yards
liters
gallons (U.S. !iq.)
gallons (lmp.)
pounds oJ water
cu ft/sec
liters/sec
cu ftlhr
lines/sq in.
weoers/sq cm
webers/sq in.
webers/sq meter
ampere-turns
amp-turns/cm
amp{urns/jn
amp{urns/meter
cubrc cm.
liters
pints (liq.)
Grade
Radian
Gins
drams (avoirdupois)
g.ains
grains
grains
grains
0.5080
Srarns
dynes
grains
grams
grams
Srams
Srams
r.286 x 10 l
grarns/cm
grams/cu cm
grams/cu cm
grams/cu cm
107
grams/ liter
l0 '
Srams/
3.24 x 10-.
0.1383
3.766 x 10 ,
1.286 x 10 !
0.01667
3.030 x 10 -'
3,24 x 10 .
2.260 x lO- 5
o.o7717
1.818 x 10-'
0.01945
r.356 x 10-'
0.125
40.0
660.0
3,785.0
0.1337
231.0
3.785 x 10-'
4.951 x 10-1
3.785
1.20095
0.83267
8.3453
2.228 x lO- I
0.06308
8.0208
6.452
10 |
6.452 x
grains (avdp)
grams
ounces {avdp)
pennyweight (troy)
Srams
Srams
Srarns
10.764
1.356 x
0.3238
5.050 x
{troy)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
grains/l.J.S. gal
Srains/U.S. gal
graans/ lmp. gal
grams
grams
1.0
10-l
10-.
0.7958
0.7958
2.021
79.58
t4?.07
0.1183
0.25
.0t571
0.035s7143
INTO
TO CONVERT
liter
grams/ liter
grarns/liter
parts/million
pounds/million gal
parts/million
MULTIPLY gY
1.0
0.06480
2.0833 x 10-1
0.04167
17.118
142.86
14.286
980.7
15.43
joules/cm
9.807 x 10-!
joules/rneter (newtons)
9.807 x 10-r
kilograms
0.001
milligrams
1,000.
ounces (avdp)
o.03527
ouhces (troy)
0.03215
poundals
0.07093
pounds
2.205 x 10-r
pounds/inch
5.600 x 10-l
pounds/cu ft
62.43
pounds/cu in
0.03613
pounds/mil-foot
3.405 x 10-'
graans/gal
58.417
pounds/ gal
8.345
pounds/cu ft
0.062427
parts/mallaon
1,000.0
grams/sq cm
gram'calofle5
Sram-catofles
gram-calories
gram-catofle5
gram-calones
pounds/sq tt
2.0481
8tu
3.9683 x
4.1868 x
gram-calo es
gmm-calories/sec
watt-hrs
ergS
foot-pounds
horsepower-hrs
3.0880
1.5596 x
1.1630 x
1.1630 x
kilowatt-hrs
Btu/hr
10-!
l0'
10 .
l0-.
l0-3
t4.2a6
9.297 x 10 .
980.7
9.807 x l0-!
2.343 x 10-r
gram-centimeters
gram-centimeters
gram-centimeters
gram-centimeters
gram-centimeters
joules
kg-cal
kg-meters
Hand
Cm.
necrares
hectares
hectograms
sq feet
grams
1,076 x 10'
100.0
hectoliters
liters
r00.0
hectometers
hectowatts
hennes
Hogsheads {British)
Hogsheads (U.S.)
Hogsheads (U.S.)
horsepower
meters
watts
Btu
ergs
l0
-5
ho15epower
horsepower
horsepower (metric)
(542.5 ft lb/sec)
horsepower
(550 ft lb/sec)
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower (boiler)
horsepower {boiler)
norsepower-nrs
norsepower-nts
norsepower-nrs
horsepower-hrs
norsepower-hrs
10.16
2.47
mrllihenries
cubic ft.
cubic ft.
100.0
100.0
1,000.0
10.114
8.42184
Sallons (U,S.)
Bt!/min
foot'lbs/ min
foot-lbs/sec
4?.44
33,000.
550.0
0.9863
horsepower
(550 ft lb/sec)
horsepower (metric)
(542.5 ft lb/sec)
1.014
kg-calories/min
kilowatts
watts
Bt!/hr
kilowatts
Btu
ergs
loot-lbs
gram-calories
joules
10.68
0.7 457
7
45.7
33.479
9.803
2,547.
2.6845 x 10r'
1.98 x 1Cl'
641,190.
2,684 x 10.
1|
Appendix D: Conversion
Factors T7

i,ULTIPLY BY
t1{T0
TO CONVERT
horsepower-hls
horsepowet-nls
horsepower-hrs
hours
houls
Hund.edvreiShts (long)
Hundredweights (long)
Hundredwei ghts (short)
Hundredweights (short)
kg.calories
kg-meters
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
centimeters
641.1
2.737 x LA
o.7457
4.167 x 10-t
5.952 x 10-t
112
0.05
1600
100
0.0453592
kilowatt-hrs
days
pounds
tons (long)
ounces (avoirdupois)
pounds
tons (metric)
tons (long)
miles
millimeters
mtls
anches of mercury
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
ol mercury
of
of
of
of
mercury
mercury
mercury
mercury
of water (at 4'C)
ot wate. (at 4'C)
of water (at 4'C)
of water (at 4'C)
oI water (at 4'C)
of water (at 4'C)
lnternational Ampere
International Volt
lnternational volt
lnternational volt
almospneres
inches of mercury
Kgs/sq cm
ounces/sq In.
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq in.
Ampere (absolute)
Volts (absolute)
Joules (absolute)
JOUIeS
JOules
joules
joules
joules
joules
ioules
iouies/cm
joules/cm
joules/cm
2.540 x 10-1
0.5781
joules/'cm
joules/cm
1.0003
1-593 x 109.554 x 10'
10-'
107
l0-'
2,778 x lO-'
1.020 x 10.
10t
100.0
723.3
22,44
K
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kjlograms/cu meter
kilograms/cu meter
kilog.ams/cu meter
kilograms/cu meter
kilograms/meter
KaloSram/sq. cm,
kilograms/sq cm
kilograms/sq cm
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
5.204
0.03613
.9998
0.7376
2.389 x
0.1020
meter
meter
kilolines
kiloliters
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
o.4912
2.458 x 10 I
0.07355
9.480 x
meter
kilogram-calories
kilogram-calories
kalogram meters
kiiogram meters
kilogram meters
kilogram meters
kilogram meters
kilogram meters
2.778 x lo-1
0.03342
1.133
0.03453
345.3
70.73
Btu
ergs
foot-pounds
kg-calories
kg-meters
watGhrs
grams
dynes
joules/meter(newtons)
poundals
pounds
heter
kilogram.calories
10-r
10-,
I,000.0
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq in.
inches of
meter
rneter
mm
kilogram-calories
kilogram-calories
kilogram-calories
kilogram-calories
2.540
yards
atmospneres
feet of water
kgs/sq cm
kgs/sq meter
kilograms/sq cm
kilograms/sq
kilograms/sq
kilograms/sq
kilograms/sq
kilograms/sq
kilograms/sq
kilograms/sq
2.540 x
1.578 x
25.40
INTO
kalograms/sq cm
kilograms/sq cm
0.0446429
meters
TO CONVERT
dynes
980,665.
grams
1,000.0
joules/cm
0.09807
joules/meter(newtons) 9.8Q7
poundals
70.93
pounds
2,205
9.842 x 10-l
tons (long)
tons (short)
1.102 x !0 '
grams/cu cm
0.001
pounds/cu ft
0.06243
pounds/cu in.
3.613 x l0-'
pounds/mil-foot
3.405 x l0-'o
pounds/ft
0.6720
980,665
Dynes
0.9678
atmospheres
32.81
leet of water
"
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr
kilometers/hr/sec
kilometerc/hr/sec
kilometers/hrlsec
kilometers/hr/sec
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatt'hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
kilowatt-hrs
knots
t(hots
xnols
knots
MULTIPLY 8Y
mercury
24.96
ft
2,048.
in.
14.22
atmospheres
9.678 x l0-'
bars
98.07 x 10 '
feet ot water
3.281 t 10
2.896 x 10-1
inches of mercury
pounds/sq ft
0.2048
pounds/sq in.
1.422 x 10 t
kgs/sq meter
lcl'
Btu
3.968
foot-pounds
3,088.
hp-hrs
1.560 x l0 I
joules
4,185.
kg-meters
426.9
kiiojoules
4.186
kilowatt-hrs
1.163 x 10-'
Btu
9.294 x l0 I
ergs
9.804 x 10t
foot-pounds
7,233
joules
9.804
kg-calories
2.342 x 1O-'
kilowatt.hrs
2,723 x lO'.
maxwells
1,000.0
liters
1,000.0
centimeters
lot
feet
3,281,
inches
3.937 x 1Cl.
meters
1,000.0
miles
0,62f 4
millimeters
lO
yards
1,094.
cms/sec
27.74
feet/min
54.68
feet/sec
0.9113
knots
0.5396
merets/ fltn
lt.t /
miles/hr
0.6214
cms/ sec/ sec
zl,Ia
ft/sec/sec
0.9113
meters/sec/sec
0.2718
mifes/hrlsec
0.6214
Btu/min
55.92
foot-lbs/min
4,426 x W
foot-lbs/sec
737.6
horsepower
1.341
kg-calo.ies/min 14.34
watts
1,000,0
Btu
3,413.
ergs
3.600 x 10rt
footlbs
2.655 x 106
gram-calories 859,850.
horsepower-hrs
1.341
joules
3.6 x lcl.
kg-calories
860.5
kg-meters
3.671 x lot
pounds/sq
pounds/sq
pounds of water
evaporated from and
at212'F.
3.53
tuon62'to272'F. 22.75
teet/hr
6,080.
kilometers/hr
1.8532
1.0
nautical miles/hr
statute miles/hr
1.151
pounds of water raised
308

TO CONVERT
INTO
knots
Yards
KNOIS
feet/sec
MULTIPLY
lhl
8Y
2,027.
microhms
m
1.689
Ljght year
lines/sq cm
lines/sq an.
lines/sq in.
lanes/sq in.
lines/sq in.
links {engineer's)
webers/sq in.
liters
lrters
pints {U.S. liq.)
lrterS
Iiters
liters
liters
Ite15
liters
liters/min
liters/rhin
lumens/sq ft
quarts (U.S.
cu ftlsec
laq.)
gals/sec
Lumen/sq. ft.
foot-candles
Spherical candle power
Watt
Lumon/sq. meter
lur
foot'candles
Lumen
Lumen
0.1550
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
1.550 x 10-r
males
3.0
5.9 x l.0r:
9.46091 x 101!
1.0
8aus5e5
Sausses
webers/sq meter
tncnes
Inches
bushels (U.S, dry)
cu cm
cu feet
cu inches
cu meters
cu yards
gallons (U.S. liq.)
links (surveyor's)
liters
l0-l
1,550 x
10-'
12.O
7.92
0.02838
1,000.0
0.03531
6r.02
0.001
1.308 x
l0-!
o.2642
1.057
5.886 x 10-'
4.403 x r0 '
1.0
.079s8
.001496
10.76
kilolines
megohms
rneters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
centimeters
feet
meters/min
mbterc/min
meters/min
cms/sec
meters/man
meters/man
meters/min
melers/sec
fieters/sec
tnches
kilometers
miles {naut.}
miles (stat.)
millimeters
yards
varas
10r'
1oi
100.0
3.281
0.001
5.396 x
6.214 x
0.05458
0.06
0.03238
0.03728
196.8
3.281
3.6
0.06
knots
males/hr
feet / min
me(ers/5ec
miles/ hr
melers/sec
meters/sec/sec
meters/sec/sec
meters/sec/sec
metrs/sec/sec
miles/min
cms/sec/sec
ft/sec /sec
meteFkilograms
cmdynes
kms/hrlsec
miles/hr/sec
cm-8lams
pound-feet
farads
Srams
meEonms
10-'
10-'
1.094
1.179
teet/sec
kms/hr
(statute)
(statute)
(statute)
(statute)
miles/hr
miles/hr
miles/hr
miles/hr
miles/hr
miles/hr
m iles/hr
miles/hr
miles/hr/sec
miles/hr/sec
rniles/hrlsec
m
meteas
miles (statute)
yaros
centimeters
feet
Inches
kilometerc
metels
males (naut.)
yaros
feet/sec
kms/hrlsec
meters/sec/sec
cms/5ec
teet/sec
kms/min
knots /rn in
miles/hr
cu inches
nilligrams/liter
parts/million
kilograms
meters
gra ins
Srams
millihenries
henraes
millilite|s
liters
centimeters
leet
tls
miner's inches
Minims (British)
Manims (U.S,,
inches
kilometers
me(ers
m
fluid)
(angles)
(angles)
(angles)
{angles)
myr;agrams
mytrameters
mynawattS
r,609.
0.8684
1,760.
44.70
88.
1.467
rles
rls
yards
cu ttlsec
26.42
44.70
1.467
1.609
0.4470
2,642.
88.
1.609
0.8684
60.0
9.425 x
1,000.
10-.
1x 10-t
0.01543236
0.001
1.0
0.001
0.001
0.1
3.281 x
10-t
0.03937
l0-.
0.001
6.214 x
10-'
1.094 x
10-!
centimeters
feet
IncneS
mils
10
r.509
0.8584
miles/min
mils
6.336 x
l.609
c|hs/sec/sec
feet/sec/sec
millimeterc
millimeters
millimeters
millimeters
millirneters
million Sals/day
m ils
l0'
o.o26a2
rfieters/min
millimete6
l.l.516
2,027.
1,609 x
kms/min
knots
in
1,853.
kms/ht
mil-feet
milliers
Millim;crons
Milligrams
milligrams
rTr
1CP
6,080.27
kilometers
teet/min
males/hr/sec
niles/ min
miles/
feet
cms/sec
lnils
0.03728
100.0
2.237
9.807 x
{statute)
millimeters
millimeters
r,000.0
3.28r
meters/sec
meters/sec
mrcrotarad
micrograms
mtcronms
l0-.
teet/min
feet/sec
kilometers/hr
kilometers/min
meterkilograms
meterkilograms
0.001
1C|'
mrcrohms
ohms
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles
miles/min
miles/min
miles/min
0.0929
megarnes
megohns
meters
(naut.)
(naut,)
(naut.)
(naut.)
(statute)
(statute)
MULTIPLY BY
10-.
10-.
1x 10-.
liters
miles (naut.)
miles (approx.)
Miles
Kilometers
INTO
ohms
icroliteIs
Microns
league
Light year
TO CONVERT
kilometers
yaros
cu ft/min
cuDtc cm.
cubtc cm.
minutes
minutes
minutes
minutes
deSrees
nepers
Newton
decibels
quaorants
radians
seconds
kilograms
kalometers
kilo,,ratts
1.54723
2.540 x 10-'
8.333 x 10-!
0.001
2.540 x 10-3
2.778x 1O-,
1.f,
0.059192
0.061612
0.01667
1.852 x
2.909 x
60.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
10-.
l0-r
105
N
l0-.
Dynes
1x105
309
Appendix D: Conlersion Factors

MULTIPLY
TO CONVERT
BY
0
OHlvl (lnternational)
ohms
ohms
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounceS
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
ounces
(fluid)
(fluid)
(troy)
(troy)
{troy)
(troy)
(troy)
Ounce/sq. inch
ounces/sq rn.
OHIVI (absolute)
megohms
mrcrohms
drams
grains
grams
pounds
ounces (troy)
tons (long)
tons (metricJ
cu inches
liters
grains
grams
ounces (avdp.)
pennyweights (troy)
pounds (troy)
0ynes/sq. cm.
pounds/sq in.
1.0005
10-,
10.
16.0
2a349527
0.0625
0.9115
2.790 x l0-5
2.835 x 10 5
1.805
o.02957
parts/mill,on
Miles
Kilometers
grains/U.S. gal
grains/lmp. gal
parts/million
pounds/million gal
Pecks (British)
Pecks (Britash)
Pecks (U.S.)
Pecks (U.S.)
Pecks (U.S.)
Pecks (U.S.)
pennyweights {troy}
pennyweights {troy)
pennyweights (troy)
pennyweights {troy)
pints (dry)
pints (liq.)
pints (liq.)
cubic inches
parts/million
pints (liq.)
pints (liq.)
pints (liq,)
pints (liq.)
pints (liq.)
pints (liq.)
Planck's quanturn
rotse
Pounds (avoirdupois)
poundats
p0unoals
pounoars
pounoats
poundats
pounoars
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds (troy)
pounds (troy)
liters
graans
ounces (troy)
grams
pounds (troy)
4309
0.0625
19 x 10u
3.084 x 10rr
0.0584
0.07016
8.345
554.6
9.091901
8.809582
8
24.O
cu mererS
cu yards
ga||ons
liters
quarts (liq.)
second
Gram/cm. sec.
Erg
ounces (troy)
dynes
grams
joules/cm
kilograms
pounds
drams
dynes
grains
grams
joules/cm
krlograms
ounces
ounces {troy)
pounoars
pounds (t.oy)
tons (short)
grarns
grams
INTO
ounces {avdp.)
ounces (troy)
pennyweights {troy)
pounds (avdp.)
tons {long)
tons (metric)
tons (shoft)
cu feet
cu Inches
ga
Ions
cu ltlsec
cm-dynes
cm-grams
meter-kgs
ft
tt
ft
grams/cu cm
kgs/cu meter
poun0s/cu rn,
ft
pounds/mil{oot
an.
gms/c(1 cm
in.
in.
in.
kgs/cu meter
pounds/cu ft
pounds/ in.
pounds/mil-foot
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq ft
pounds/sq rn.
pounds/sq in.
pounds/sq in.
pounos/sq In.
pounds/sq in.
pounds/mil{oot
kgs/meter
gms/cm
gms/cu cm
almospneres
feet of water
inches of mercury
kgs/sq rneter
pounds/sq in.
atmospheres
MULTIPLY 8Y
12.0
240.0
0.a22457
3.6735 x 10-r
3.7324x 1o-'
4.1143 x 10
0.01602
27.64
0.1 198
2.670 x 10-r
1.356 x 10'
13,825.
'
0.1383
0.01602
t6.02
5.787 x
5.455 x
2.768 x
1,724.
9.425 x
1.488
10-'
10-'
l0'
10
178.6
2.306 x 1Cr6
4.725 x lO-'
0.01602
0.01414
4.882
6.944 x
10-!
0.06804
2.307
2.036
inches ot mercury
kgs/sq meter
703.1
pounds/sq ft
144.0
0.05
4.1667 x 10-r
cu rnches
cu cms.
cu feet
cu inches
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
pounds of water
pounds of water
pounds of water
pounds of water/man
pound-feet
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/cu
pounds/ft
31.103481
1.09714
20.0
0.08333
bushels
cubic inches
liters
quarts (dry)
CONVERT
pound{eet
480.0
P
Parsec
Patsec
TO
413.2
0.01671
24.47
4.732 x 10-'
6.189 x 10-'
0.125
o.4732
0.5
6.624 x 10-11
1.00
14.5833
t3,826.
14.10
1.383 x 10-1
0.1383
0.01410
0.03108
44.4823 x
7,000.
lcl'
quadrants (angle)
quadrants {angle)
quadrants (angle)
quadrants (angle)
quarts (dry)
quarts (1,q.)
quarts (liq.)
quarts (laq.)
quarts (liq.)
quarts (liq.)
quarts (liq.)
quarts (liq.)
deg/ees
.ad ians
degrees
radtans
radians
radians
mrnutes
quaoran(5
seconds
90.0
5,400.0
minutes
rad ra ns
1.57I
seconds
cu Inches
cu cms
cu feet
cu rnches
cu rneters
cu yards
8aIons
liters
radians/sec
radians/sec
radians/sec
radians/sec/sec
revol!tions/min
0.4536
16.0
14.5833
rao rans / sec/ sec
radians/sec/sec
revs/sec /sec
32.t7
revoru!ons
4.448
1.21528
0.0005
5,760.
373.24177
9.464 x
1.238 x
o.25
0.9463
l0-.
10-!
revolutions/sec
revs/min/rnin
revs/min/sec
0.04448
3.24 x 105
67.20
946.4
0.03342
revolutions
tevolr.rtions
revolutions/min
revolut,ons/min
revolutions/min
quadranls
radtans
oegrees/ sec
dians/sec
tevs/sec
3,438.
0.6366
2.063 x
9.549
0.1592
573.0
9.549
0.1592
360.0
4.0
6.2a3
6.0
0.1047
0.01667
105
310
(Continued). Alphabeticel Conversion Factors

IO
CONVERT
revolutions/rhin/min
revolutions/min/min
avolutions/min/min
revolut'ons/sec
revolutrons/sec
revolutions/sec
revolutions/sec/sec
revolutions/sec/sec
revolutions/sec/sec
KOO
INTO
radians/sec/sec
revs/min/sec
revs/sec/sec
oegrees/ sec
radians/sec
revs/mrn
radians/sec /sec
revs/min/min
revs/min/sec
Chain (Gunters)
Rod
I\reters
Rods (Surveyors' meas-) yaros
feet
rcds
MULTIPLY BY
1.745 x
0.01667
l0
2.778x lO-.
360.0
6.283
60.0
3,600.0
60.0
TO CONVERT
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
mils
6.452 x
mrls
yards
yaros
yards
yards
yards
yards
yards
sq
Pounds
sq feet
sq inches
sq inches
sq meters
feet
square
square
square
square
square
mles
sq millimeters
sq yards
meteas
sq rncnes
sq mrles
sq millimeters
sq yards
acres
sq feet
sq xms
sq meterc
sq yards
square rniles
square miles
millimeters
millimeters
millimeters
millimeters
mils
10
rr
l0-.
\o-'
l0!
144.0
circular mils
square miles
0.1550
929.O
Incnes
Inches
Inches
Inches
Inches
Incnes
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
kiiometers
kilometers
kilometers
meters
meters
metets
meters
meters
1.973 x 10r
1.076 x l0-r
5q crhs
5q
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
5quare
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
square
20
circular mils
sq merers
sq cms
sq feet
sq millimeters
sq mrls
acres
sq cms
sq ft
sq Inches
sq millimeters
temperature
absolute temperature ('C)
1.0
temperature
("c) + 17.78
temperature
temperature ('F)
1.8
absolute tenperatlre ("F)
1.0
temperature (" F)
temperature ('C)
0.09290
3.587 x 10-r
9.290 x rd
0.1111
1.273 x 106
6.452
6.944 x 10-!
645.2
106
7,716 x
247.1
('F) +460
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
(long)
(long)
(long)
-32
(metric)
(metric)
(short)
(short)
(short)
(short)
(short)
(short)
(short)
(short)/sq tt
(sho.t)/sq ft
tons of water/24 hrs
tons ol water/24 hrs
tons of water/24 hrs
Volt/ inch
Volt (absolute)
sq feet
circular mils
sq cms
sq {eet
sq Inches
circular mils
kilograms
pounds
tons (short)
kilograms
pounds
kilograms
ounces
ounces (troy)
pounds
pounds {troy)
tons (long)
tons (metric)
kgs/sq meter
pounds/sq in.
pounds of water/hr
gallons/min
cu ft/ hr
watts
foot-lbs/min
907.1848
32,000.
29,156.66
2,000.
2,430.56
o.a92a7
0.9078
9,765.
2,000.
0.16643
1.3349
10
'
106
106
1,973.
1.076 x l0-r
1.550 x 10-l
1.273
3.4r29
0.05688
107.
44.27
fooflbs/sec
0.7374
norsepower
horsepower (rnetric)
1.341 x
1.360 x 10-!
0.01.433
Watts (Abs.)
Watts (Abs.)
kg-calories/min
kilowatts
B.T.U. (mean)/min.
joules/sec.
watt-hours
Btu
watfhours
erSs
watt-hours
watt-hours
watt-hours
watt-hours
watt.hours
watt-hours
foofpounds
106
2.590
0.0I
Btu/hr
8tu/min
ergs/sec
10.76
1,550.
3.861 x l0-'
10.
1.196
640.0
27.88 x 106
2.590 x
3.098 x
2,205.
10.76 x 106
1.550 x l0'
l0
1.120
1,000.
.39370
.003336
Statvolts
1otr
0.3861
1.196 x
2.471 x
1,016.
2,240.
I0 '
106
sq miles
sq yards
acres
sq cms
0.8361
3224 x 1O-,
8.361x 10'
sq males
2.778 x 10-.
0.01667
3.087 x 10-.
4.848 x 10-6
14.59
32.17
0.0001
3.861 x
100.0
1.196 x
2.296 x
1.833 x
sq mrles
sq millimeters
sq yards
actes
2.066 x 10-a
8,361.
9.0
cfis
16.5
Steradians
ci.cular mils
10-'
5,029
grains
minutes
quadrants
radrans
Kilogram
10 -6
sq inches
actes
('c) +213
Scruples
seconds (angle)
seconds (angle)
seconds (angle)
seconds (angle)
Slug
Slug
Sphere
square centimeters
square centimeters
square centimeters
square centtmeters
square centimeters
square cenrmelers
square centameters
square feet
square feet
square feet
square feet
square feet
MULTIPLY 8Y
INTO
watts
Watt (lnternational)
webers
webers
Eram-caloneS
norsepower-has
kilogram-calories
kilogram-meters
kalowatt-hrs
Watt (absolute)
maxwells
kilolines
l0-'
0.001
0.056884
1
3.413
3,60 x l0ro
2,656.
859.85
1.341 x
0.8605
0.001
1.0002
lo
l0'
l0-1
I
Factors
Appendix D: Conlersion
Synchronous Speeds
Synd'ronout Spced
Frsoucncy
120
N;;|T;G;TREOUENCY
FNEOUENCY
60
.ycl.
50
cy.lo
50 Gyclo
50.y.ls
3600
3000
1500
12
't71.1
112.9
lg00
t 500
750
11
63.6
136.4
1200
000
500
15
56.5
30.1
900
750
375
18
t50
t2s
t0
720
600
300
50
141
t20
l2
600
500
250
l1
514.3
128.6
214.3
t6
450
375
t8
400
20
360
2l
30
38.5
rr5.4
51
33.3
lll.t
187.5
56
2s.6
t07.t
166 -7
5S
121.1
103
300
150
60
t20
100
272.7
136.4
62
l6.l
96.8
300
250
t25
61
1r2.5
93.7
276.9
230.8
It5,4
66
09. I
90.9
257 .1
211.3
07.1
68
05.9
88.2
210
200
100
70
r02.9
85.7
72
100
83.3
225
93
-7
.5
176.5
71
97 .3
8l,l
200
166.7
76
91.7
78.9
38
189.5
t57.9
92.3
76.9
,t0
180
t50
90
75
31
35
.8
Courtesy Inge$oll-Rand Co.
78.9
80
311
312
Temperature Conversion
NOIA Thc c.ntlr .olsm'| of .'rmbcrt in boldl.ce r.ter3 to the tempe.ot'rre i. degree3, irher Cenriorodc or fohre.heir, which ii i! dcti..d ro convcrt into th.
othe. .col.. lf .o.v.dine from Fohrenh.it ro Ce.ligrode degreei, lhe equivolen. tempe.oture will be found in rhe tefr coiumn, whit if Gonve.ri^s trom d.er.er
Cenligrodc to desrc$ Fohrenhi.t, th. on.wer wi be found in thc cotumn on rhe righr.
Cenligrod.
-273.t7
-268
-267
-257
-25l
-216
-210
-231
C.ntisrode
-159.f
-20.6
-,150
-212
-207
-20 |
-196
-190
-16.7
-ato
-16.
-184
-179
-173
-r69
-r68
-162
-157
-l5l
-t1.t
-360
-350
-260
-250
-240
-t10
-220
-r31
-2to
-129
-200
-190
-tol
-96
-90
-81
-79
-73.3
-67.8
-62.2
-59,a
-t!0
-r70
-10.6
-10.0
-9.1
459.1
-151
-136
r00
-90
30
-lt
-70
-15.6
-12.8
-10.0
-5t
-{5
-{0
12.8
r
3.3
39.2
l3 .9
4r.0
t2.g
11.6
46.1
14.2
-361
-316
t0
50 .0
t2
53.6
tl
5.7
-310
t27.1
t29.2
l3l
60.0
.0
62
15.0
15.6
r
6r
t41.8
52
63
5a
113.6
115.4
6.l
18.3
18.9
19.4
20.0
t5
59.0
20.6
2t .l
2t .7
60 .8
62.6
61.1
66.2
68.0
69.8
t8
l9
20
22.8
23.3
23.9
2a.1
25.0
25.6
7t.6
68.3
71.1
-t81
-166
-l
-{.6
o.0
t.l
-ta8.o
-t30.0
-l
12.0
-t03.0
-91 .0
-85.0
-76.0
-67 .0
-58.0
-19.0
-40 .0
-35
-30
-31 .0
25
-13.0
-20
-I5
-10
-,(.o
.4.0
forhulot ol thc right moy olro be urcd

conyerling Centi!.odc or tohrcnhir
inlo the orhcr i.ole.,
2.a
205
40t
2t0
410
l s4 .,(
t00.0
212
all
r02
r04
215
119
107
220
225
12e
7l
155.2
158.0
159.8
72
161 .6
t0
230
116
,3
163.4
165.2
116
233
2ao
161
75
75
167.O
l8
t2l
2tl5
t73
250
192
121
127
255
,a9l
7.50
500
t29
265
509
2fo
5t8
r38
2t0
536
t79.6
r4I
245
,1
r43
r83.2
l,a6
t,a9
290
295
26.7
EO
lt3
68.8
170.6
172.1
|
171.2
t76 .O
3.9
1.1
5.0
5.6
6.I
6.7
7.2
7.5
8.3
8.9
9.4
10.0
t0.6
27 .2
27 .a
EI
a2
't77 _g
86.0
28.3
28.9
E3
r8l
a7 .a
89.6
29 .1
9l
30.0
30.6
65
86
a7
88
l4
93.2
36
96.8
31
.7
89
98.6
32 .2
90
00 .,(
32.8
9l
3l
r35
185.0
186.8
t5{
8s.6
r60
90.1
166
2f5
300
3t0
t37
527
563
572
590
171
320
330
340
192.2
194.0
195.8
197.6
177
350
t82
t88
360
370
680
698
716
731
608
626
611
40
102.2
| 0,( .0
33.9
93
99.4
193
3t0
{t
31.1
35.0
94
201 .2
r99
105.8
147.6
| 09.1
203.0
201.8
201
12
95
95
390
400
2t0
at0
770
216
420
430
806
39
a3
44
45
35.6
36. I
113.0
15
47
1
1
a9
50
5t
Des,ee3 c.r.. .c =
206.6
208.1
210.2
212.0
221
l|0
230
213
219
251
260
97
9E
111.8
48
Dcaree! Kelvin,
92.
ln.2
Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand Co.
82 .1
81 .2
34
35
37
371
98 .9
78 .a
95.0
329
338
317
t52.6
58
69
70
25
.l
?20
96.r
78
79
3t
200
3l
r50.8
26.l
.,(
t90
t95
tt0
tt5
302
149.0
77 .O
0.6
175
281
293
5f
75
3l
79.1
s2.2
85.0
266
275
55
55
73.1
75.2
a9
t65
t70
a7
90
80.6
.7
t30
f35
lfo
ra5
t50
t55
t50
73.9
40.0
117 .2
Fohr.6h.it
.g
.6
93.3
?3
24
2a
.8
65.6
132.8
13,(.6
r36. a
138.2
17 .2
t7 .8
57 .2
2l
-1.1
5a.t
125.6
57
58
59
60
t1.1
55.1
t4
-8.3
32
53
54
55
55
5r.8
t3
tf
C.nti9.od.
37 .1
6
7
l5
-5.6
-236
-220
-202
-rr0
I
2
3
a
-8 .9
-100
-r50
-rao
-t30
-t20
50
-23.3
-Ll
-t60
-65
-60
-26.1
11.7
-271
-256
-53 .9
-51 .l
18.3
3,t.a
-31 .7
-12.2
-3to
130
-l t2
-107
-t2.8
-330
-320
-2r0
11.7
16.7
-ta0
-2It
ll.l
32.0
-15.0
-3t0
-116
-t23
-l l8
-t5.6
-a00
-390
-300
-290
-2ao
-5
0
-aao
-,r30
-a20
-3!0
-2t8
Cenligrode
23.0
37
37
16.6
18.1
.2
.8
40.6
43.3
99
t00
105
120 .2
46.1
239
122.0
t 23.8
48.9
51 .7
t20
r25
215
j er +
rot
-ro
257
Dcsre3 Fohr.,
.F
223,2
: ! r. + rot -.0
9
| et-r'r
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727
Desre.. non&lne,
't :of
c +32
+159.7
:lao
,150
460
1fo
aEo
a90
500
821
812
860
878
896
914
932
Appendix D: Conrersion
Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures
Ke/'q
Hs Abr.
-5000
77
75
73
-1526
25
21
23
,{500
-t373
-1000
-3500
-3000
-1068
-9r5
70
21
-2500
-763
6t0
58
66
61
20
6l
t6
-1220
2000
-t500
-t000
7l
-,f58
-305
-500
0
500
t53
t9
l8
l7
59
57
t1
r000
t500
158
2000
6t0
2500
763
3000
3500
915
4000
,1500
t2.t6
.78
I
I
22.23
2l .39
632.s
609.3
586.7
561.6
513.3
.860
21.90
23.99
12.23
3S
,91
.828
.797
.767
10.50
.738
20.58
522.7
t0.10
r6.89
.7to
A29 .0
13.76
.12
8.903
319.5
226.1
8.29
6.76
5.46
1.37
.060
't79 .3
3.17
111 .2
2.73
_9
3050
1O,67i
66
18
37 .9
61,o20
720,O00
240.000
260,000
1t .7
45.5
19.3
67,122
73,221
79,326
2S0.000
53.1
85,128
300,000
56.9
91,530
,{00,000
500.000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
75.9
122,010
152,550
l,{
r52
189
-11
-70
-70
-57
-55
62
52
-57
-59
-16
_26
I -t6
12/11
18,8t 6
51,918
28
t9
-3
-t9
68.9
2.135
1.325
18.273 |
51.2
2t.0
5.200-'
3.290-'
8.36
I .358-r
3.,(5
5 .917-7
2./16-7
1.284-'
5.816-r
t29
-90
2.523 '
9.955-.
3.513-r
-88
3.737
.5
2.7t2
1.{3-r
6.3
'
t.1-,
5.9-.
t.5l
ft
gt-t
3.26-I
| .48-I
6.A1-'
2.53 '
8.92-!
3.67-'
9.19.
l .60-'
3.56-6
1.50-6
,r.06-'
1.30-t
2.0-,
s.08 r
2.08-l
| .6-r
366,t 20
127,110
1,600.000
30,{
,{88.t60
r.800.000
312
5!9,r80
| .8-ro
610,200
L 2-r'
8.2-r0
3.8
10
ooro t6h N^s^ srodord

{t9621.
n.np.rorur. o.d bc'oi.t.' înoph.r.
or. oppori6". to. n.qcriv. 6ftrud.,,
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Courrdy hs.EollRand Co-
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1
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2.31-e
.956
.876
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.307
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9
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.255
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224
266
2.000,000
87
12
66
| ---l-r 83,060
- |I 211,080
-305,100 --
.l
t.l
1.375
3.111
t,400,000
1,200,000
2A2
86
11
733 .O
23.t0
-57
-57
-57
12,2O1
200,000
-5
-t4
-30
22.8
26.6
30.4
31.2
91.8
23
610?
7628
9153
120,000
1,{0,000
160,000
180,000
.960
611.1
t8.9
3.66
.909
.892
3l
2A,108
27,159
30,510
36,612
.975
l2.69
2716
17.1
13 .91
6s6.3
2111
15.2
719.6
706.5
7
5
.7
18,306
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2t,357
.0333
11.43
14.16
2.93
{t
.4
r4.696
716.3
15
13
3.3
760.O
.943
8000
29.92
3.17
9000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
t00,000
.o52
3.41
1220
1373
t6/81
11.96
34
10 .4
773.9
t09
.091
t7
t3,730
l5 .23
.071
30.t7
r19
693.9
681 ,2
668.8
1068
15,255
802.1
27.32
26.82
26.33
25.84
25.37
2136
6.6
7.6
8.5
.129
15.79
r5.51
6.3,r
l0
1.3
1.5
35,000
40,000
45,000
50,000
55,000
t6.06
816 .1
.188
.169
50
a8
l83l
30,000
830.6
r6.62
27 .82
1526
25,000
32.70
32.11
3l .58
3t .02
I6.90
t1
20,000
.229
.209
889.0
871.3
859.5
845. t
52
0.95
2.a
3.8
1.7
5.7
17.18
17.19
35.00
31.12
33.84
33.27
12
5000
10,000
15,000
903 .7
PSIA
28.86
28.33
6000
7000
Hg Ab3.
:!:
ot
t,
Facrors
313
Mechanical Design ol Procesr Sysrems

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Index
concrete modulus of elasticity of, 186

concrete and steel, relative strength of, 186
gusset plates, 188* 189
ACI bearing strengths, 180

American Institute of Steel Construction. See AISC.
Anchor bolts
analysis, preloaded bolt, 184, 186
bolt area, required, 184
bolt loads, allowable, 187
bolt load, minimum required, 184
bolt spacing, 186
common types of, 190
large bolts, undesirability of, 184
loading force, distribution of, 186
loadings induced on, 184
lubricant, 190
philosophy, design, 184
size and number, 228
stress in, 184, 186
tension on gross area, 187
torque, anchor bolt, 189-190, 229
ASME Piping Codes
ASME 831.1, 48
ASME 831.3, 48
ASME B3I.4, 48
ASME B3I.5, 48
.ASME 831.8,48
ASME Section IlI, 48. Also see Pressure vessels.
for piping, 48
for pressure vessels, 48
ASME Section VIII, Division II
for piping, 48
Aspect ratio, 85
k-factor, offset, 188

steel, modulus of elasticity, 187
steel-concrete moduli ratio, 186
Bernoulli equation, 2
Bingham, 6-7
Boundary conditions for saddle plate design, 178
Buckling coefficients for saddle plate design, 175-178
Centroid, section,212
Circumferential stress, moment, 170
Codes, vessel
differences in, 159
foreign, 159
Cold-spring,49
Colebrook equation, 4. Also see Friction factors.
Compressible flow
adiabatic
flow, 2
compressibility effects, 24
introduction to, l-2, 24
isothermal flow 1
modulus, bulk compressibility, 24
non-steady flow, 24
sound, velocity of, 24
steady flow, 24
Concrete mixes for baseplate design, 186-187
Concrete modulus of elasticity, 186
Conical sections, 199, 224
Baseplate design, 186-189

anchor bolt size range, 186
bearing pressure on, 189
concrete foundation for, 186
concrete mixes, 186, 187
Cost-plus contractor, 183
Creep,49
Critical damping factor, 202, 2O4
Critical pressure, 83
315
316
Critical temperature, 83
Critical wind velocity, 236
Heads
Damping coefficient, 2OZ 2M
thickness of, 160

Heat transfer
Deflections, windt 199-2Ol , 242

Degree of freedom, 201
Discontinuity, 236
Drag, 195,203
Ductile materials, 50, 52
Dynamic magnification factor, 201-204
Dynamic response, 200
EJMA. Sze Expansion joints, bellows.

Electrical tracing, 103
Equivalent length, 2
Expansion joints
bellows, corrugated, 77
gimbal joint, 79
hinged joint, 78-79
inJine pressure balanced, 79
multi-ply, 80
pipe span, allowable, 78
pressure thrust, 78-79
single ply, 80
standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers
Association (EJMA), 80
stiffness, rotational, 78
stiffness, translational, 78
tie rods, 78-79
reasons for, 78
universal joint, pressure-balanced, 78
Fanning equation, 3
Fluid Mechanics, piping. See Hydraulics.

Fourier number, l5l
Friction factors, 4
Colebrook equation, 4
laminar flow, 4
Moody friction factors, 4
Prandtl solution, 5
turbulent flow, 4
von Karman solution,
Gimbal joint, 79
Grashof number, 132, 134, 153
Gusset plates, 188-189
Gust (wind) effects, 194-196, 236-237
Guy wires, 249
-*T co'\J 'rv

foot of, 2
pressure, I
Head
5oo
r{ 'll"i, '
static, I
velocity. See Velocity head.
manufacture
of,
160
control mass, 115, 131

control volume, 115, 13l
electrical tracing, 103
Fourier number, 151
Grashof number, 132, 134, 153
in jacketed pipe, I 12- I l5
LMTD (log mean)
chart for, 114
definition of, I 14
Nusselt number, 132, 134, 153
in pipe shoes, 135- 136
application of, 156
heat balance for, 136
temperature distribution
in,
136
in pipe supports, 133

in piping
temperature distribution in, 134
typical applications of, 133- 134
Prandtl number, 112, 139-140
in process systems, 103
in residual systems
applications of, 132
deflections, thermal, 134-135
overall heat transfer coefficient, 134
tubular tracers. See Tracing.
in vessel skirts
application of, 152- 154
coefficients of, 132
convection, significance of, 133
free convection, 133
rate
of,
133
temperature, distribution oI, 132- 133

Heat transfer design example, 148-150
static analysis, i48- 150
transient analysis, 150- 152
Heisler's chart, l5l
Hesse formula, 82
Horizontal pressure vessels

saddle bearing plate design, 180
ACI bearing strengths, 180
bearing plate thickness, 180
factor of safety for, 180
saddle plate buckling analysis, 251 252
saddle plates
application of , 249 -252

boundary conditions for, 178
buckling coefficients for, 175- 178
design
of,
174- 179
effective area, 174, 178
l:;:..
effective width, 113, 178, l'79
horizontal reaction, 119, 252
stiffener plates, I74, 179
STTESS
criterion for residual, 178

elastic buckling, 179
inelastic buckling, 179
U.S. Steel design method, 174-179
web plates, 174
wear plate requirements, 215
Zick analysis, 166, 215
bending moment diagram, 167
constant, circumferential bending moment, 170
introduction to, 166
saddle supports, location, criteria for, 172
shear stress, 171
yield-pseudoplastic, 6 7
piping, reasonable velocities in, 25
problem formulation, 24
two-K method, 8,21
viscosity,24-26
Incompressible flow. See Hydraulics.
Internal pressure, 159- 160
Jacketed pipe
annulus, hydraulic radius for, 112

applications of, l12-115, 139 140
details of, 104-106, I 12-l l3
expansion joints for, 105- 106
heat transfer, I 12- I l5
coefficient, film, I l2
coefficient, overall, 112
shell
stiffened by head, 171

unstiffened, saddles away from head, 17l
stiffening rings, 172, 174
rates of, I 12- 115

pressure drop in, I l5- I 17
rules of thumb for, 103
allowable compressive, 166

circumferential compressive, l7 I
circumferential at horn of saddle, 17l
versus traced pipe, 103- 106

Joints. expansion. See Expansion joints.
Laminar flow, 4. Also see Friction factors.
Lumped-mass approach, 204-205
head used as a stiffener, 171
Lump-sum contractor, 183
STTESS
"Hot-spring," 49
Hydraulic radius,
definition of, 2i
Maximum allowable working pressure, 160

Mitchell equation , 210, 212
Moments
equations
tabulated values, 24
Hydraulics
basic equations, I
Bernoulli equation, 2
modified form of,
compressible flow
adiabatic flow, 2
compressibility effects, 24
introduction to, l-2, 24
isothermal flow, I
modulus, bulk compressibility, 24
non-steady flow, 24
sound, velocity of, 24
steady flow, 24
incompressible flow, 1
non-Newtonian fluids
Bingham,6-7
introduction to, 5-7
Metzer and Reed, 7
pseudoplastic, 6-7
rheological constants, 8
rheopectic,6-7
thixotropic, 6 7
time-dependent, 6-7
time-independent, 6-7
viscoelastic, 6-7
for, 198
of inertia, for tube bundle, 222-223
wind-induced, 198
Moody friction factors. See Friction factors.
Myklestad method, 200-201
Non-Newtonian fluids. See Hydraulics.
Nusselt number, 132, 134,153
Ovaling, 205, 208

Pipe loops, 59-68
Pipe lug supports , 70-12, 98-99
Pipe materials
ductile materials, 50, 52
non-ductile materials, 50
plastic deformation, 50 52
stress-strain curves, 50-51
Pipe shoes, heat transfer in, 135-136
Pipe supports, heat transfer in, 133
Piping codes. See ASME.
Piping expansion joints. See Expansion joints.
Piping mechanics
anchor, pipe, definition, 58
API,47
318
equipment nozzle loads, 94
stiffness
beam element, 54
extraneous piping loads
"cold spring" for, 80

vibration
applications for, 100- 101
natural frequency of beam elements, 86
vortex shedding, 83,87
resonance,83
Reynolds number, 195, 200, 2Ol, 236
Strouhal number, 84-85
vortex force, 83
vortex streets, 83
flexibility (compliance) matrix, 53
flexibility method, 59-68, 8l
advantages of, 53, 68
application of, 95-98
"hot-spring," 49
nozzle flexibility factors,
angle of twist, 70
circumferential, 70
longitudinal, T0
Oak Ridge Phase 3 Report, 70
rotation deformation of, 70
rotational spring rate, 70
pipe loops, 59-68
pipe lug supports , 70-72, 98-99
pipe restraints
moment restraints (MRS), 5'7 -59,
rotational 58, 68
translational,58,68
pipe roughness, 5
Prandtl number,
77
, 88-94
prpe stress
circumferential bending/membrane, 7l
"cold-spring," 49
creep,49
"hot-spring," 49
internal pressure, circumferential stress, 49
longitudinal stress, 49
pipe weight, bending stress, 49
pressure, 72
prestressed piping, 80
primary stress, 49-50, 72
range, allowable, 42
residual stress, 5l
secondary stress, 49-52, 72
self-spring,49
"shakedown," 52
thermal expansion, 49
torsional or shear stress, 49
self-spring,49
shear flow, 58-59
spring supports, 72, 75, 76
guided load column, 72
jamming of, 77
concrete,69
matrix,53-54
method,8l
advantages,53,68
applications of, 88-94
piping elements, 55-56, 69
translational, 54
Pipe Stress. See Piping mechanrcs.
Piping systems
adiabatic process, 83
API 520 Pafi 2, 82
ASME 31.I, 82
critical pressure, 83
critical pressure ratio, 83
critical temperature, 83
Hesse formula, 82
impulse-momentum principle, as applied to a pipe
elbow, 8l
nozzle correction factor, 82
nozzle discharge coefficient, 82
nozzles,83
ll2,
139-140
Pressure vessels
ASME Section VIII Division
components, 159- 160
I,
160
design, philosophy of, 159

external pressure, 160
heads, 160
horizontal
saddle bearing plate design, 180
saddle plate buckling analysis, 251-252
saddle plate design, 174- 179
application of , 249-252
effective width, 173, 178, 179
horizontal rcaction, 179, 252

stiffener plates, 174, 179
stress, criterion for residual, 178
stress, elastic buckling, 179
stress, inelastic buckling, 179
web plates, 174
Zick analysis, 166, Zl5
compressive B-factor, 174
head used as stiffener, 171
saddle support location, 172
b"l- !
moments
equations
shear stress in head/shell, 171

shell
stiffened by head, l7l

unstiffened, saddles away from head,
for, 198
of inertia, for tube bundle, 222-t3
171

stress, allowable compressive, 166
stress, circumferential con.rpressive, 171
stress, location of, 168- 169
tangential shear, 167- 171
wear plates, 171- 172
internal pressure
component thickness, 159
maximum allowable working pressure, 160
quality of welds, 159
upset conditions, 160
vertical
anchor bolts
analysis, preloaded bolt, 184, 186
bolt area, required, 184
bolt loads, allowable, 187
bolt load, minimum required, 184
bolt spacing, 186
common types of, 190
large bolts, undesirability of, 184
loading force, distribution of, 186
loadings induced on, 184
lubricant, 190
philosophy, design, 184
size and number, 228
stress in, 184, 186
ANSr-1982,215
baseplate design, 186- 189
anchor bolt size range. 186
bearing pressure on, 189
concrete foundation for, 186
concrete mixes, 186, 187
concrete modulus of elasticity of, 186
concrete and steel, relative strength of, 186
. gusset plates, 188- 189
k-factor, offset, 188
steel, modulus of elasticity, 187
steel-concrete moduli ratio, 186
stress, compressive, on concrete, 188
thickness, baseplate, 188
centroid, section,212
combined loads on, 181
compression plate, 189
cone, truncated, equivalent radius for, 214
conical head, equivalent radius for,214
conical sections, equivalent radii for,224
earthquake, See Seismic design.
loads, wind and seismic, 190-191
pressure sections, centroids

vectors, section force, 198
of,
198
wind-induced, 198
wind pressure, distribution of, 198
section properties of, 181
seismic analysis of, loads, combined, 190-l9l
seismic design
baseplate design, 238
coefficients, Mitchell, 210, 213

coefficients, structure type, 210
criteria, quasi-static, 210
criteria,238
Mitchell equation, 2lO, 2lZ
compared to Rayleigh equation, 237 -238
occupancy importance factor, 210
period
characteristic site, 238

numeric integration of vibration, 238-239
of tower, 210, 2lZ
Rayleigh equation, 212
compared to Mitchell equation, 237 238
seismic zone factor/map, 210-211
site structure interaction factor, 210, 212
equation for, 212
shear forces
earthquake force, total, 212
lateral force, equation for, 212
vertical distribution of, 212

seismic moments, equation for, 212
skirt design, 238
structural period response factor, 210
Uniform Building Code, 209 210

self-supporting, 180
skirts
controlling criteria for, 184
design of, 183, 185
cost-plus contractor, 183
Iump-sum contractor, 183
stress equation, 183
supports, 183, 185
thichess, 183- 184

stress, bending, 181
combined loading,
181
compressive B factor,
l9l
compressive, leeward side,

discontinuity, 236
elements
in,
182
tensile, windward side, l8l

vacuum, 183
towers
centroids, section, 230-231
181
319
32O
definition of, 181

equivalent circle method, 214
section moment of inertia, 241-243
skirt and baseplate destgn, 228-229
anchor bolts, 228
anchor bolt torque, 229
compression ring thickness, 229
skirt thickness, 229
weld size, minimum for skirt-to-base plate,
229
skirt detail, 230

stress, discontinuity
criteria foq 2 14
for conical sections, 214
stresses, wind section, 226-228
transition piece, 241, 243-244
vibration ensemble, 216
of lumped masses, 232, 246
wind deflections
modes of, 199
schematic diagram of, 201
superposition, method of, 199
wind ensemble, 242
vibration, wind-induced
angular natural undamped frequency, 205
applications of, 232-236, 241-249
area-moment method, 205-207
conjugate beam. See Area moment.
controlling length, 203
critical damping factor, 202, ZO4
critical wind velocity, 208-209 , 236, 248,249
total wind force, 209
Zorilla criteria, 209
damping coefficient, 203
damping ratio, 202-203
degree of freedom, single, 201
differential equations for, 201-2OZ
dynamic magnification factor, 201-202, 2O3,
2M
dynamic response, 200
example of, 232-236
first period of, 204
force amplitude, 235

force amplitude, dynamic, 200
forced vibration theory, 200
frequency
natural,248
ratio,202
vortex shedding, 208, 248
guy wires, disadvantages of, 249
Holzer procedure, 200
lock-in effect, 200
logarithmic decrement, ZO3-204
lumped mass approach, 204-205
mode shapes, 200

Myklestad method, 200, 201
ovaling,205
natural frequency of, 205
vibration due to, 208
wind velocity, resonance, 208
period of vibration, 234-235, 248
phase angle, 202
Rayleigh equation, ZOO, 201, 204, 205
resonance,236
Reynolds number, 195, 20O,201,236
soil types, 204
stresses, dynamic, 236
tower
fluid forces on, 203
model for, 201-202
moment disrribution in, 205
stiffness, 205
of lumped masses, 232
vibration, first peak amplitude, 200
vortex shedding, 199
vortex strakes, 249
wind tunnel tests, 236
wind analysis of, loads, combined, 190-191
wind design speed
ASA 58.1-1955, 194
ANSI-A58.1-1972, 192
basic wind pressure, 192
effective velocity pressure, 192
gust response factor, dynamic, 192
ANSI A58. 1- 1982, 196, 236-237
effective velocity pressure, 192
gust response factor, 192
importance coefficient, 192
velocity pressure coefficient, 192
wind speed, variation of, 192
centroid of spandrel segment, for wind section,
218
coefficient, drag, 195
structural damping, 217
conical sections, 199
constant exposure category, 195
cross-sectional area, effective, 217
cylinder, pressure fields around, 196
equivalent diameter method, 236-237
vs. ANSI-A58. 1- 1982, 236-237
exposure lactor. 196
fatigue failure, 198
flexible structures, defined, 197
gust duration, 196
vs. gust diameter, 197
gust frontal area, 196
ii
l:r.=
gust response, dynamic, 194

gust response factor, 195, 196,217,236-231
gust size, 196
isopleths, 192- 193
Kutta-Joukowski theorem, 195

loading analysis, quasi-static, 196
logarithmic law, 192

parabolic area, centroid of, 219
parabolic function, 194
peak values, types of, 196
power law, 192
probability of exceeding. 196
response spectra, 198
return period, 192
similarity parameters, 195
structure size factor, 196, 197
surface roughness, 195
tower
application of , 249 -252


effective width, 173, 178, 179
horizontal react\on, 179, 252
stiffener plates, 174, 119
stress, criterion for residual, 178
stress, (in-) elastic buckling, 179
web plates, 174
of, 198
fluid force exerted on, 194-195
gust velocity vs. structural response, 197
natural frequency of, 197

wind area section properties, 219
wind force distribution, 218
wind distribution
parabolic, 194, 218-219
triangular, 194
wind load
equivalent static, 195
mean, 195
weld size, skirt-to-base plate, 189
welding, joint efficiencies for, 161-165,172
compressive B-factor, 174
head used as stiffener, l7l
shell
stiffened by head, 171

unstiffened, saddles away from head, 171

stress, circumferential compressive,
wear plates, 171- 172
30,32 41. 1,19-l{l"t. l-!:.

145,147
non-Newtonian fluids. See Hydraulics.
Non-Newtonian fluids.
Strouhal coefficient vs., 85
vortex shedding, for, 83-85
Newtonian fluids, 21,
Saddle plate design, 174- 179
cross-sectional area
171
Seismic design
baseplate design, 238
coefficients, Mitchell, 210, 213

coefficients, structure tYPe, 210
criteria, quasi-static, 210
compared to wind, 238
Mitchell equation , 210, 212
compared to Rayleigh equation, 231-238
moments, equation for, 212
occupancy importance factor, 210
period, characteristic site, 238
period, vibration
numeric integration of, 238 239
tower,210,212
Rayleigh equation, 212
compared to Mitchell equation, 231-238
seismic zone factor/map, 210, 2ll
shear forces
earthquake force, total, 212
lateral force, equation for, 212
vertical distribution of, 212

site structure interaction factor, 210, 212
equation for, 212
skirt design, 238
structural period response factor, 210
Uniform Building Code, 209-210
Skirts, 185
controlling criteria for, 184
cost-plus contractor, 183
design
in, 132-135
in piping, 154- 155
Reynolds number, 195, 2OO, 2Ol, 236
drag coefficient vs., 203
Residual systems, heat transfer
of,
183
lump-sum contractor, 183

stress equation, 183
supports, 185
thickness, 183- 184
322
Strouhal number, 84
Reynolds number vs., 85
vibration, vortex shedding, 84-85, 200, 20g
Supports, 72,75,76. Also see p\ping mechanics.
heat transfer, rules of, 107

modes of heat transfer, 107
Thermal design. See Heat transfer tie rods, 78-79

Towers
definition of, l8l

equivalent circle method, 214
section moment of inertia, 241-243
skirt and baseplate design, 228-229
anchor bolts, 228
anchor bolt torqte, 229
compression ring thickness, 229
skirt thickness, 229
weld size, minimum for skirt{o-base plate, 229
skirt detail, 230
stress, discontinuity
criteria for, 214
for conical sections, 214
stresses, wind section, 226-228
transition piece, 241, 243t244
of lumped masses, 232, 246
wind deflections of
modes of, 199
schematic diagram of, 201
of,
film coefficients for, 143

of, 115
applications of, 130, 140- 148
film coefficient, vessel-side, 147
use
heat duty of, jacketed heads, 146

heat transfer coefficients, reasonable values of,
130
transient, I l5
criteria for, 115
importance of, 130
internal baffle plates, heat duty of, 144
jacketed walls, heat transfer film coefficient, 145
jackets, types of, 115, l28,13l
non-Newtonians, use of, 146
plate channels, equivalent velocity of, 147
reasons
for,
Turbulent f|ow,
115
4
- Also see Friction factors.
Velocity head
introduction,3,8
method,3
two-K method, 8, 21
values of, 9-20, 21, 22-23, 30-32
199
wind ensemble, 242

Tracing
Vessels. See Pressure vessels.
of pipes
applications
of vessels and equipment

agrtators
centroids, section, 230-231
superposition, method
outside film coefficient, 107

overall heat transfer coefficient, 107
procedure for design, 107
of,
136- 139
condensate return for, I l0
condensate load, determining, 1l I
guidelines for, 110-l

spargers, 1l I
ll
separation keys, I l1
typical layout, 111
water hammer, 11 I
hot oil, application of, 137-139
steam, application of, 136-137
versus jacketed pipe, 103- 106
with heat transfer cement, 106, 109- I 10
advantages, 106
procedure for, 109
film coefficient, natural convection, 108

heat balance for, I l0
heat transfer rates of, I l0
without heat transfer cement, 106-109
advantages of, 106
disadvantages of, 106
equivalent insulation thickness, 107

heat balance
fog
107
109
Vibration, wind-induced
angular natural umdamped frequency, 205
applications of , 232-236, 241 -249
area-moment method, 205-207
conjugate beam. See Area moment.
controlling length, 203
critical damping factor, 202, 204
critical wind velocity, 208-209 , 236, Z4g-249
total wind force, 209
Zorilla criteria, 209
damping coefficient, 203
damping ratio, ZO2-203
degree of freedom. single. 201
differential equations for, 201,202
dynamic magnification factor, 201 -202, 203, ZO4
dynamic response, 200
example of, 232-236
first period of, 204
force amplitude, 235
force amplitude, dynamic, 200
forced vibration theory, 200
frequency
natural,248
,!i
lri:r
ftIio, 202
vortex shedding, 2O8' 248

wires, disadvantages of' 249
-suyi{olzer
procedure, 200
lock-in effect, 200
losarithmic decrement, 203 -204
lumfed mass aPProach, 204-205
mode shapes, 200
Myklestad method, 200, 201
ovaling,205
natuial frequencY of. 205
vibration due to, 208
wind velocitY, resonance, 208
period of vibration, 234-235, 248
ohase angle, 202
ilayleigh-equarion. 200. 201. 204 ' 205
resonance,236
Reynolds number, 195, 200, 2O1' 236
soil types, 204
stresses, dYnamic, 236
tower
fluid forces on, 203
model for, 201-202
moment distribution in, 205
equations for, 205
stiffness,205
of lumped masses, 232
vibration, first peak amplitude' 200
vortex shedding, 83-87' 199
vortex strakes, 249
Viscosity, 24-25
von Karman solution, 5
Vortex shedding,83-87
aspect ratio, 85
cylinders,83
damping vs. amPlitude, 87
guidelines for, 85
mode shaPes, 85
reduced damPing, 85
Weld sizes
recommended values, for Plates, 71
skirt to baseplate, 189

Welding, joint efficiencies for, 161-165, 172
Wind design sPeed
ASA 58.1-1955, 194
ANSI A58.1-1972
basic wind Pressure, 192
effective velocitY Pressure, 192
qust response iactor. dynamic. 192
ANsl A58. l-1982, t96, 236-231
effective velocitY Pressure, 192
sust response factor. 192
irpottun." coefficient.
192
velocitv pressure coefficient, 192
wind speid, variation of' 192

: i -r
centroid of spandrel segment, for wind section'
coefficient, drag, 195
structural damPing, 217
conical sections, 199
constant exposure category, 195
cross-sectional area, effective, 217
cvlinder, pressure fields around, 196
equivaleni diameter method, 236-237
vs. ANSI-A58.1- 1982, 236-231
exposure factor, 196
fatigue failure, 198
fle;ble structures, defined, 197
gust duration, 196
vs. gust diameter, 197
gust frontal area, 196
iurt t.rpon.., dYnamic. 194
iurt ,.tpont" factor. 195. 1c0.217.236-237
gust size, 196
isopleths, 192- 193
Kuna-Joukowski Theorem. 195
loading analysis, quasi-static, 196
losarithmic law, 192
paiabolic area, centroid of, 219
parabolic function, 194
peak values, tYPes of, 196
power law, 192
probability of exceeding, 196
iesponse sPectra, 198
return period, 192

similarity parameters, 195
structure size factor, 196' 197
surface roughness, 195
tower
cross-sectional area
of,
198
fluid force exerted on, 194-195

gust velocity vs. structural response' 197
iatural frequencY of,
197
wind area section Properties, 219

wind force distribution, 218
wind distribution
parabolic, 194, 2t8-219
triangular, 194
wind load
equivalent static, 195
mean, 195
Yield,
159
octahedral shear stress theory, 236
324

compressive B-factot 174
head used as stiffener, l7l
shell
stiffened bv head.
l7l
unstiffened, saddles away from head, 171

stiffening ings, 172, 174
stress, circumferential compressive, 171
wear plates, l7l-172

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Mgchanica!

Gulf Publishing Company

O 1986 by Gulf Publishing Compann Houston,'Ibxas.

Library of Congrcss Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN G87201-562-9 (Vol. 1)

Fluid Forces Exerted on Piping Systems,

Example 1-2: Frictional Ptessure Drop for a Hot

Extraneous Piping Loads, 83

Jacketed Pipe versus Traced Pipe, 103

Tracing Piping Systems, 106

Heat Transfer in Residual Systems, 132

Primary and Secondary Stresses, 49

Flexibility and Stiffness of Piping Systems, 52

Stiffness Method and Large Piping, 58

Pipe Lug Supports. Spfing Supports. Expansion

Heat Transfer through Cylindrical Shells.

Steam Tracing Design, 136

Hot Oil Tracing Design, 137

Thermal Evaluation of a Process

Internal Baffle Plates Film Coefficient. Film

Example 3-6: Transient and Static Heat Transfer

Example 4-3: Seismic Analysis of a Vertical

Static Heat Transfer Analysis. Total Heat

Moments of Inertia. Wind Deflections.

Example 3-7: Heat Transfer through Vessel

Example 4-5: Saddle Plate Analysis of

Saddle Plate Buckling Analysis. Horizontal

Longitudinal Bending Stresses. Location of

Steel Saddle Plate Design, 174

Minimum Shell Thickness Reouired for

Insulation Weight Factors, 278

Wear Plate Requirement Analysis,

Alphabetical Conversion Factors, 304

Example 12: Mechanical Design of Process

Sectron lt{omenls of Inertial lbwer Section

vibrarion. Equivalent Diameter Approach

Weights of Piping Materials, 279

Seismic Design of Tall Towers, 209

Criteria for Determining Wind Speed, 265

r'\'ind Design Speeds. Wind-Induced Moments.

Partial Volumes of Spherically Dished Heads,

Designing for Internal Pressure, 159

The engineer who understands the impact of process

Although the author has made a herculean effort in

In this two-volume work on Mechanical Design of

chemical process engineers alike. It is presented in such

John J. McKexa. Ph.D., P.E.

the ill-fated space shuttle Chnllenger (Flight

discuss all of them.

ysis of heat transfer through pipe supports and vessel

Junior or senior undergraduate engineering students

Topics include.d in the text are considered to be those

cal textbook for junior-, senior-, or graduateJevel

courses in the mechanical, civil, or chemical engineering

the phenomenon of external pressure, this subject is only

ductory level textbook.

learned from books alone. It is one ofthis book's eoats to

and words of encouragement. I also wish to thank other

Larry D. Briggs for reviewing some ialculations

A. Keith Escoe, PE.

Piping Fluid Mechanics

Although this topic is popularly known in industry as

- Pz = V,t=- vrt + (y. _yr;1p