Carbonatebuildups

CathyHollis

Definitionofcarbonatebuildups
Carbonatebuildupsarelaterallyrestrictedstructures,which
haveusuallyundergoneorganicallymediatedgrowth.They
canbegrosslydividedinto:

Reef(mud)mounds
Organic(skeletal)
(automicrites)are
reefs,builtby
inorganicallyand/or
organismswitharigid
calcareousframe,may biogenicallyconstructed
bematrixorskeleton butlackarigidskeletal
frameworkandunableto
supportedand
withstandhighenergy
depositedinwarmor
wind/waveaction
coldwaterandableto
withstandhighenergy
wind/waveaction
However,reefnomenclatureremainsanareaofsignificantdiscussion

Reeftypes
Framebuilt
Coral
Stromatoporoid
Redalgae
Stromatolites

Reefmound
Bryozoan
Phylloidalgae
Sponges

Codiaceanalgae
Seagrass
Crinoids

Mudmound
Microbialmats

Frame
builders
Sediment
contributors
Bafflers
Binders
Precipitators

ModifiedfromTuckerandWright,1990

Distributionofmoderndayreefs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef

Biologicalcontrols
Reefat1520mwaterdepth

W.M.Fenner/SEPMQuinanaRoo,Mexico

Controlsonreefmorphology

Moderndaycoralgrowthcontrolledbytemperature,
salinity,light,waveenergy,waterturbidity,nutrient
concentration

Controlsonreefmorphology
Topographiccontrols
Often,reefstendto
preferentiallydevelop
ontopographichighs,
including
olderreefs
karst
erosionalterraces
siliciclasticorvolcanic
features

Mayalsobea(salt)
tectoniccontrol
Bosence,2005

Controlsonreefmorphology
Sealevel
Drowining
Verticalaccretion
Backstepping

Retreat

Progradation

Rateofsealevelrise

Sincemostreefsgrowin
shallowwatertheyarehighly
susceptibletosealevel
fluctuations
Duringrisingsealevel,ifrateof
rise>rateofgrowth,reefwill
backstepand/ordrown(give
up)
Ifreefgrowthcankeeppace
withsealevelrise(keepup)an
accretionarygeometrywillbe
developed
Ifreefgrowthexceedstherate
ofsealevelrise,thenflankswill
prograde
Progradationmayalsooccur
duringsealevelfall,whichcan
alsoresultinexpsosure

Growthrate
ModifiedfromTuckerandWright,1990

Texturalclassificationofreefs
Allochthonous
Originalcomponentsnot
organicallyboundduringdeposition

Autochthonous
Originalcomponentsorganicallyboundduring
deposition

>10%grains>2mm

By
By
By
Supported organisms organisms organisms
Matrix
which
thatactas
whichbuild
supported by>2mm
encrust
baffles
arigid
component
andbind framework
Floatstone

Rudstone Bafflestone Bindstone Framestone

ModifiedfromEmbryandKlovan(1971)andJames(1984)

Reefdynamics
Constructiveprocesses:
Biologicalprocessesthrough
directgrowth,bafflingor
binding
Destructiveprocesses
Wavedamageandbiological
destruction
Cementation
Earlycementationfrom
seawater
Sedimentation
Accumulationofbiogenic
matterandreefderived
detritus

Organic(skeletal)reefs
Framebuildingorganisms
Autotrophicproducers
Selfnourishing,primarily
byphotosynthesis
Cyanobacteria
Greenalgae
Redalgae
Autotrophicproducersvia
symbionts
Largeforaminfera
Hermatypiccoral(relyon
algaefornutrition)
Somebivalves(?rudists)

Heterotrophicproducers
Nourishedfromanexternal
supplyoforganicmatter
Foraminfera
Sponges
Ahermatypiccorals(relyon
planktonicsfornutrition)
Gastropods
Cephalopods
Arthropods
Brachiopods
Bryozoan
Echinoderms

Organic(skeletal)reefs
Typesofcarbonatebuildup
Fringingreef:
attachedto
coastline

Fringing
reef

Patch
reef

Faro
reef
afterTuckerandWright,1990

Barrier
reef

Atoll

Pinnacle

Barrierreef:
separatedfrom
coastlinebya
lagoon
Patchreef:isolated
reef
Faroreef:atollwithina
lagoon
Atoll:ringlikestructure
withcentrallagoonindeep
water
Pinnacle:flattopped,no
lagoon,deepwater

Growthformofreefbuildingmetazoans
Growthform

Waveenergy Sedimentation

Delicate,branching

Low

High

Thin,delicate,plate
like

Low

Low

Globular,bulbous,
columnar
Robust,dendroid,
branching

Moderate

High

Moderatehigh

Moderate

Hemispherical,domal, Moderatehigh
irregular,massive
Encrusting
Tabular

Low

Intense

Low

Moderate

Low

ModifiedfromPomaretal,1985TuckerandWright,1990

Reeffacies
Spurandgroove
Reefflat
algalcoated
reefrubble
Reef
crest

Reeffront

Reefapron
carbonate
sand

ColumbusCay,Belize,CentralAmerica,E.G.Purdy Purdyet.
al.(1975)/SEPM

Reeffrontandcrest

Reeffrontextendsfromhighestpointonreeftoseawarddepthwherelittle/no
framebuilding(upto100m)
Reefcrestisthehighest,mostexposedpartofreefandthereforeveryhighenergy

Reeffacies
Reefcrest:composition
Reefcrestdominatedby
encrustingorganisms,
especiallyredalgae,usually
coatingdeadcoral/coraldebris.
Maybeencrustedbyforams,
gastropodsetc
Lowenergycrestsmaybe
composedofMilleporaor
AcroporaPalmata
Skeletalbreakage,abrasion,
bioerosionarehigh.Maybe
undergoperiodicsubaerial
exposure
Recognisedinancient
carbonatesas
bindstones/framestoneswith
laminarencrustingorganisms

AcroporaPalmata

Millepora(firecoral)

Porites
EdPurdy/SEPM

Barry Guimbellot,GrandCayman

Reeffacies

<10m

~10m

fewmsto
~20m

Monastreaannularis

AcroporaPalmata

1015m

Barry Guimbellot,GrandCayman

Coralgrowthisextensive
seawardofthereefcrestand
formsthereefcorepreservedin
ancientreeflimestones
Closetothecrest,inthehigh
energyzone,spurandgroove
structuresformobliquetothe
shoreline(probably
constructionalandwave
influenced)
Biotaevolveswithdepthaslight
penetrationandenergy
decreases
Lowpreservationpotentialdueto
bioerosionandearlydiagenesis

W.Mayhew(1988)/QuintanaRoo,Mexico

Reeffront

SEPM

Reeffacies

Monastrea,Diploria,Agaricia

Reeffront

26m
Gorgonians(softcoral)

Sponge

Agelasclathrodes
(elephantearsponge)

>15m(to~200m)

H.Roberts/CaymanBrac

Halimeda

Barry Guimbellot,GrandCayman

W.Mayhew(1988)/QuintanaRoo,Mexico

1520m

SEPM

Spatialdistributionofgrowthforms

Pomar,1991

Reeffacies
Reeffrontspurandgroove
muddycarbonatesands

grainstonebelt

surfzone
coralgrowth

spurandgroovezone

Lighthousereef,Belize,CentralAmerica
Lowaltitudeobliqueaerialphotographshowing
linearzonationoftheBelizeBarrierReef
CliffJordan/SEPM

Reeffacies
Forereefslope

Thecoarseforereefsedimentrich
inHalimedaplatesfromawater
depthof1025meters.
Scalebaris2mmlong

~115m

Forereeftalus
~30m

NoelP.James/SEPM/BelizeBarrier

Rockwall

Forereefslopeispositionedseawardofthereeffront,andprovidesthetransition
intothebasin
Sedimentationisdominatedbygravityflowmechanismsanddepositionofpelagic
sediments
Depositional/accretionaryreefmarginsslopecontinuouslyintothebasin
Bypassmarginshaveasteepescarpmentseperatingthereeffromreeftalus

Carbonateplatforms
Rimmedcarbonateshelfmargins

TuckerandWright,1990Moore,2001

Reeffacies
Reefflat:pavement
Reefflatlocatedbehind
thereefcrestandis
partiallyprotectedbyit
Reefpavementforms
directlyshorewardofthe
crest,fewmetresof
waterdepthand
possiblyexposed.Some
coralgrowth,abundant
rubble
Zoneofintense
bioerosion.Boulders
maybealgalencrusted
Upto+100mwide
(Belize)

Landwardedgeofreefflatwithlargegastropods(Strombusgigas),soft
corals,andHalimedaongravellysubstratum.
L.A.=1.7m SalJ.Mazzullo/SEPM

Reeffacies
Reefflat:sandapron

HarryRoberts/SEPM/GrandCayman

Reefcrestandfront

Sandapron

Rum
point

Backreeflagoon

Developsbehindreefpavement,waterdepthsupto10m.Maybe
upto160kmlong,paralleltoreefand100200mwide
Comprisereworkedreefdebrisandcarbonatesand,withlocal
colonisationbyseagrassandalgalmats
Gradationalcontactwithbackreeflagoon

Reeffacies
Backreeflagoon
Lagoonsareareasoflow
energysedimentation,protected
Reefcrestandfront
fromtheopenoceanbythereef
rim
Openocean
Widthvariesfrom100smetres
tokmwide.Waterdepthmaybe
<10m,upto>70minsome
Pacificatolls
Usuallyareasofrelativelylow
energysedimentation:finer
grainedsedimentthantowards
reefmargin.
Backreeflagoon
(withpatchreefs)
Bioturbationmaybepervasive
Abundantcalcareousalgae
Peritidalenvironmentsmay
develop
TurksandCaicos

Reeffacies

Backreeflagoon:patchreefs
Isolatedreefs,commonlyin
backreeflagoons
Growthinitiatedascoral
knobswhichcoalesceand
growsupwardstoreach
wavebasemayshowbio
zonation
Switchtolateralaccretionas
reefreachessealevel
Inlowerenergy
environments,sediment
trappingandbindingbyalgae
andseagrassesmayleadto
mudmounddevelopment

E.Shinn/SEPMBelize

Patchreef

~200m
Pleistocene,TurksandCaicos

Nonframeconstructedreefs
Reefmound/Clusterreefs/bioherm
Buildupsinwhichinsitu
skeletonsarenotincontact
Stabilityprovidedbymatrix,
limitedcementation
Organiccomponentsinclude
bivalves(rudists),
stromatoporoids,corals,
sponges.Cangradeinto
framebuiltreefs
Lowtopographicreliefdo
notoffersignificantwave
resistance,butcantrap
sediment
Riding,2001

Nonframeconstructedreefs

Riding,2001

Microbialbuildups

http://www.aussieactionadventures.com/images/Warwickst4250L.jpg

Organicreef,formedfrommicrobiallytrappedsediment
(Riding,2001),withsomeearlycementation
ModernexamplesinSharkBay,Australia,andBahamas
Lowtopographicrelief

Nonframeconstructedreefs
Mudmounds
Devonianmudmounds,NWSaharaWendtetal.,1993Wendtetal,1997

http://www.unigraz.at/bernd.kaufmann/mudmounds.htm

Finegrained,mud(micrite)dominatedbuildupsthatdisplay
topographicreliefandfewornostromatolitesorinplace
skeletons(Riding,1990)
OccurmostlyinPalaeozoic,eitherduringperiodswhereframe
buildingmetazoansdidnotflourishorindeepwatersettings
Automicrite(ie.nonmicrobiallyderivedmicrite)ismain
constituent
Maybecolonisedbymetazoans

Nonframeconstructedreefs
MuleshoeMound,SacrementoMountains

KirkbyandHunt,1996
Exhumedmudmound(500mlong,100mhigh),traditionallyinterpretedasdeep
water,butwithevidenceforgrowthinarelativelyhighenergy,currentinfluenced
setting.Fivefaciesassociations,eachseperatedbyahiatalsurface
I
limemudstonecore
II
limemudstonecoreandcrinoidalpackstone/grainstoneflank
III
bryozoancementstoneandgrainstonecore, crinoidalpst/gstflank
IV
bryozoancementstoneandgstcore,brecciaandmegabrecciaonflanks
V
limemudstonecoreandflank

Stratigraphicdistributionofreefs
Thedominanceof
reefsandmudmounds
hasvariedthrough
timeinresponseto
changesinocean
basinmorphology,
climateandocean
chemistry
Thecompositionof
framebuiltreefshas
changedthroughtime
inresponseto
evolution

increasing
abundance

Caino
zoic

corals&algae
rudists&corals

200

Mesozoic

100

reefs
sponges

&corals

T
P

algae&

300

Palaeozoic

400

mudmounds

microbes

D
sponges

&corals

sponges

500

600

bryozoans&

microbes

C
microbes
Proterozoic

extinctionevents
Flgel1997

InfraCambrian
Namibia

Grotzingeretal.,2005

DepositionpredatesCambrianexplosion
Microbialitesdominate:stromatolitesandthrombolites
Mostlyformsheetlikebioherms,butcandevelopinto
patchreefsandpinnaclereefs

InfraCambrian
AraFormation,Oman

Schroederetal.,2005

Uniqueoilandgasreservoirsin
SouthOman
Saltencasedraftsofcarbonate,
withinnerrampsuccession
comprisingmicrobialbuildups
andcarbonatesand

Devonian
CanningBasin

laminar
stromatoporoid

Domal
stromatoporoid

sponge

Wood,1998

Dominatedbystromatoporoidspongecommunities.
Cavitiesmaybefilledbycyanobacteria(Renalcis
[R])andradiaxialcalcite[C]
PrincipalreservoirinWestCanadaBasin,Canada,
wherepervasivelydolomitised

Carboniferous
SierradelCuella,Asturias,Spain

Kenteretal.,2005

Laminatedmicrobialcrustswithcementfilledvoidsandminor
skeletaldebris(crinoids,bryozoa,brachiopods,bivalvesand
massive,clottedmicrobialites
Elsewhere(eg.UK)seefringingcoralreefsanddeepwater
mudmounds

Carboniferous
TengizField,Kazakhstan

Kenteretal.,2005

Permian
CapitanReef
Waveresistant,porous
structureforming
platformmargin
Dominantlyconstructed
byspongesand
bryozoa
Capitanreefand
associatedfaciesform
majorreservoirsin
PermianBasinofWest
Texas

S=sponge,B=bryozoan,M=microbialmicrite
Scalebar=10cm

Woodetal.,1994

Mesozoic
Reefmounds

Length=4mm

Hillgartneretal.,2003

Skeletalorganismscapableofframebuildingnotabundant
dominatedbymicrobialbound(rudistandcoral)buildups
PlatformmargindevelopmentlocallyinLowerCretaceous,
butmorecommonasisolatedbuildupsinmidCretaceous
MajorhydrocarbonreservoirsintheMiddleEast

Miocene,Mallorca

Pomar,1991,2003

Shallowwater,euphotic(autotrophic)coral
algalreefassemblagesformingsteeply
dippingplatformmargins

Miocene,Pinnaclereefs
LuconiaProvince,Malaysia

Epting,1989

Summary
Carbonatebuildupsarelaterallyrestricted
structures,whichhaveusuallyundergone
organicallymediatedgrowth
Thegrowthandmorphologyofcarbonatebuild
upsisstronglyinfluencedbyrelativesealevel
andthetypeofreefbuildingorganisms.These
organismshavechangedthroughtimeasa
functionofevolution
Themorphologyofthereefandtheassociated
reeffaciesexertastrongcontrolonreservoir
properties