Panepisthmio Patrwn - Poluteqnikh Sqolh

Tmma Mhqanikn Hlektronikn Upologistn

kai Plhroforikc

Kruptografa
Sumplhrwmatikc shmeiseic

Ptra, Mrtioc 2010

Perieqmena
1

Eisagwg sthn jewra arijmn

1.1

Basikc nnoiec

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Arijmhtikc prxeic me uploipa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

Prwtkolla dhmosou kleidio

28

2.1

Dhmiourga kai antallag kleidin

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio

2.3

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio tou

Rabin

2.4

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio tou

El Gamal

RSA

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Elegqoc prtwn arijmn

32
33
36
40

43

3.1

Pijanotiko algrijmoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

3.2

O nteterministikc algrijmoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Efarmogc thc kruptografac

51

4.1

Sqmata diamorashc mustiko kai prwtkolla dsmeushc . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

4.2

Eklogc, dhmoprasec kai oikonomikc sunallagc

53

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 Eisagwg sthn jewra arijmn

Sthn enthta aut parousizoume me suntoma kpoiec basikc nnoiec thc stoiqeidouc jewrac arijmn, sqetik me to snolo

N = {0, 1, 2, . . .}

Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}

twn akerawn kai to snolo

twn fusikn arijmn. Epiplon, ja perigryoume orismnouc algorjmouc pou

mac epitrpoun na ektelsoume se poluwnumik qrno kpoiec basikc prxeic, pwc h eplush
grammikn exissewn, h eresh tetragwnikn rizn, klp.

1.1

Basikc nnoiec

Diairetthta kai diairtec

Ja xekinsoume parousizontac kpoiouc orismoc sqetik me thn diaresh. To gegonc ti nac

akraioc diaire kpoion llo enai pol shmantik sthn jewra arijmn. Ja sumbolzoume me
to ti

a = kd

isqei pwc

gia kpoion akraio

a>0

kai epiplon ti

enai pollaplsio tou

me

k,

an isqei ti

0.

en profanc isqei pwc kje akraioc diaire to

d|a,

tte isqei epshc ti

d|a,

en an o

|d| |a|.

den diaire ton

a,

d|a
An

Ja lme ti o akraioc

tte aut to sumbolzoume

d - a.
Suneqzontac, lme ti o akraioc

Epeid, an

d|a

tte isqei kai ti

enai diairthc enc akeraou

d|a,

an isqei ti

d|a

kai

d 0.

mporome qwrc blbh thc genikthtac na jewrsoume

ti oi diairtec enai mh arnhtiko akraioi, qontac kat nou ti gia kje diairth uprqei nac
arnhtikc arijmc pou epshc diaire ton
mno me jetikoc diairtec.
all qi megalteroc ap
Kje akraioc
diairtec tou

2, 3, 4

kai

a.

Sthn sunqeia tou keimnou epomnwc, ja asqolhjome

Isqei loipn pwc nac diairthc tou

|a|;

gia pardeigma, oi diairtec tou

18

diairetai ap touc tetrimmnouc diairtec

kalontai kai

pargontec

tou

a.

enai toulqiston soc me

enai oi

kai

1, 2, 3, 6

a,

kai

9.

en oi mh-tetrimmnoi

Gia pardeigma, oi pargontec tou

12

enai oi

6.

Jerhma thc diareshc, uploipa kai

An jewrsoume nan akraio

n,

modular

isodunamec

tte mporome na qwrsoume to snolo twn akerawn se

xna

metax touc uposnola.To na apoteletai ap ekenouc touc akeraouc pou enai pollaplsia tou

kai to detero ap autoc pou den enai pollaplsia tou

n.

Mporome na epektenoume aut

thn ida kai na diamersoume to detero uposnolo me bsh to uploipo thc diareshc me ton
To epmeno jerhma sunoyzei thn parapnw ida.

n.

Jerhma 1.

ttoioi

ste

0r<n

n|a

kai

q = a/n

O arijmc
ti

Gia kje akraio

an kai mno an

kai kje jetik akraio

a = qn + r

enai to

, uprqoun monadiko akraioi

kai

thc diareshc, en o

phlko

r = a mod n

to

. Isqei

uploipo

a mod n = 0.

Mporome epomnwc na qwrsoume touc akraiouc arijmoc se omdec me bsh to uploipo

thc diareshc touc me to
enai h

n.

klsh

[a]n = {a + kn : k Z}.

Gia pardeigma,

[4]7

omda mpore na sumboliste kai wc

pwc

a [b]n

kai wc

a b ( mod n).

Zn = {[a]n : 0 a n 1},
me thn katanhsh ti to

isodunamac

[10]7 .

modulo n

pou orzetai me bsh ton akraio

[3]7 = {. . . , 11, 4, 3, 10, 17, . . .},

en h dia

Mporome epshc na sumbolsoume to gegonc

To snolo lwn autn twn klsewn isodunamac enai to

en enallaktik mpore na sumboliste wc

[0]n ,

sumbolzei to

to

sumbolzei to

[1]n

Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1}

klp. Geniktera, protimme

na sumbolzoume kje klsh me bsh to mikrtero mh-arnhtik stoiqeo thc, den prpei mwc na
xeqnme pwc kje ttoioc arijmc sumbolzei mia klsh arijmn, oi opooi enai peiroi sto plroc.
'Etsi, mia anafor ston arijm
klsh isodunamac

[n 1]n ,

kajc

Zn

wc mloc tou

enai sthn pragmatikthta mia anafor sthn

1 n 1 ( mod n).

Koino diairtec kai mgistoi koino diairtec

An o akraioc
diairthc

twn

enai diairthc tou

kai

koino diairtec tou

kai epshc diaire kai ton

b.

Gia pardeigma, oi diairtec tou

18

kai tou

20

enai oi

kai

2.

20

b,

enai oi

tte lme ti o

1, 2, 4, 5, 10

kai

enai

koinc

20,

sunepc oi

enai koinc

Isqei geniktera pwc o arijmc

diairthc opoioudpote zegouc akerawn.

Mia shmantik idithta enc koino diairth enai ti an

d|(a b).

kai

d|a kai d|b, tte isqei epshc d|(a + b)

Geniktera, isqei h pol shmantik idithta ti an

d|a

kai

d|b,

tte

d|(ax + by),
gia opoiousdpote akeraouc
twn

kai

b.

Epshc, an

x kai y .

a|b,

(1)

Me lla lgia, o

tte ete

|a| |b|

d diaire opoiondpote grammik sunduasm

b = 0,

pou sunepgetai ti an

a|b

kai

b|a,

tte

a = b.
O

mgistoc

koinc

diairthc

do akerawn

b,

kai

enai o megalteroc ap touc koinoc diairtec twn

pardeigma,

gcd(18, 20) = 2,

gcd(11, 13) = 1

kai

pou den isontai kai oi do me to mhdn,

kai

kai sumbolzetai wc

gcd(0, 19) = 19.

An oi

kai

gcd(a, b).
b

Gia

den enai kai

oi do mhdn, tte o

gcd(0, 0) = 0,

gcd(a, b)

enai nac akraioc metax tou

kai tou

min(|a|, |b|).

Orzoume ti

prokeimnou oi akloujec stoiqeideic sqseic na isqoun pntote.

gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a),

gcd(a, b) = gcd(a, b),
gcd(a, b) = gcd(|a|, |b|),
gcd(a, 0) = |a|,
gcd(a, ka) = |a|,

k Z

To akloujo jerhma parqei nan diaforetik orism tou

gcd(a, b),

kajc ki nan mmeso

trpo eresc tou.

Jerhma

gcd(a, b)

2.

Gia

enai

sunduasmn twn

Apdeixh.

'Estw

s = ax + by
me to

s.

opoiousdpote

elqistoc

akeraouc

jetikc

akraioc

kai

tou

pou

den

isontai

kai

oi

do

{ax + by : x, y Z}

sunlou

kai

h tim tou mikrterou jetiko grammiko sunduasmo twn

gia kpoia

me

twn

to

mhdn,

grammikn

x, y Z.

'Estw epshc

q = a/s,

kai

kai stw

to phlko dhlad thc diareshc tou

Tte isqei ti

mod s = a qs

= a q(ax + by)
= a(1 qx) + b(qy),
kai epomnwc o

kai

b.

a mod s,

Epeid mwc

o opooc enai akraioc arijmc, enai epshc grammikc sunduasmc twn

a mod s < s,

jetikc grammikc sunduasmc. Sunepc,

o

ti

enai koinc diairthc twn

gcd(a, b)|s,

kajc o

twn do akerawn.

gcd(a, b) s

kai

kai

gcd(a, b)

Epeid

b,

gcd(a, b) s,
a

s|a

opte

kai

kai

s > 0,

prokptei pwc
kai

kajc o

enai o mikrteroc

s|b.

kai gia ton anlogo lgo isqei ti

gcd(a, b) s.

diaire ta

gcd(a, b)|s

mgistoc koinc diairthc twn

Prisma 3.

a mod s = 0,

qoume ti

Ap prohgomenh idithta sunepgetai

kai o

qoume ti

enai grammikc sunduasmc autn

gcd(a, b) s.

gcd(a, b) = s.

Sunduzontac to ti

Katalgoume loipn ti o

b.

Gia opoiousdpote akeraouc

kai

an

d|a

Epomnwc,

kai

d|b

tte

d| gcd(a, b)

enai o

Apdeixh.

Isqei kajc o

Prisma 4.

gcd(a, b)

enai grammikc sunduasmc twn

Gia louc touc akeraouc

a, b

kai gia

kje

mh-arnhtik

kai

b.

akraio

isqei

ti

gcd(an, bn) = n gcd(a, b).

Apdeixh.

An

n = 0,

tte profanc isqei h sqsh, en an

{anx + bny}

elqistoc jetikc ekprswpoc tou sunlou

jetik ekprswpo tou sunlou

Prisma 5.

n > 0,

tte o

kai isotai me

gcd(an, bn)

enai o

forc ton elqisto

{ax + by}.

Gia louc touc jetikoc

akeraouc

n, a

kai

an

n|ab

kai

gcd(a, n) = 1

, tte

n|b

Prtoi kai snjetoi arijmo

Sthn sunqeia ja asqolhjome me touc prtouc arijmoc, stic idithtec twn opown baszontai

a>1

arket prwtkolla kruptografac. 'Enac akraioc

lgetai

prtoc

prtoc) tan oi mnoi diairtec tou enai oi tetrimmnoi diairtec

arijmc ( aplostera,

a.

kai

Shmeinoume pwc o

2 enai o mnoc zugc prtoc arijmc, kajc loi oi megalteroi zugo arijmo diairontai

arijmc

ap autn. 'Enac akraioc megalteroc tou

pou den enai prtoc, lgetai

snjetoc

arijmc. O

1 den enai ote prtoc ote snjetoc, pwc epshc o arijmc 0 kajc kai loi oi arnhtiko

arijmc
arijmo.

Do akraioi
dhlad an
enai oi

kai

gcd(a, b) = 1.

kai

5,

onomzontai

sqetik

Gia pardeigma, oi

en oi diairtec tou

prtoi

kai

enai oi

Jerhma

6.

gcd(ab, p) = 1
Apdeixh.

Gia

p,

kai

6.

1,
5

To akloujo jerhma dhlnei ti an

tte kai to ginmen touc enai nac akraioc

p.

opoiousdpote

akeraouc

a, b

kai

an

gcd(a, p) = 1

kai

gcd(b, p) = 1

tte

Prokptei ap to Jerhma 2 ti uprqoun akraioi

1 kai bx +py = 1.
pyy ) = 1.

enai sqetik prtoi, kajc oi diairtec tou

1, 2, 3

do akraioi enai sqetik prtoi me nan arijm

sqetik prtoc me ton

an o mnoc koinc touc diairthc enai to

x, y, x kai y , ttoioi ste ax+py =

Pollaplasizontac autc tic do sqseic, qoume ti

Prokptei loipn ti o arijmc

ab(xx )+p(ybx +y ax+

enai jetikc grammikc sunduasmc twn

ab

kai

p,

opte to Jerhma 2 arke gia na oloklhrwje h apdeixh.

Epiplon, ja lme pwc oi akraioi

gia

i = j .

n1 , n2 , . . . , nk

enai

sqetik prtoi an do

an

gcd(ni , nj ) = 1

Monadik paragontopohsh

'Ena apl all shmantik gegonc gia thn diaresh me prtouc enai to akloujo.

Jerhma

kai

ta

7.

Gia

louc

touc

kai

louc

touc

akeraouc

a, b

an

p|ab

tte

p|a

p|b

do).

Apdeixh.

Upojtoume pwc

p|ab

kajc oi mnoi diairtec tou

ote ton
ti

prtouc

p|ab,

b.

all

p-a

enai to

kai o

Ap to Jerhma 6 prokptei ti

afo ap to ti

p|ab

p - b.

kai

p,

Sunepc,

gcd(a, p) = 1

kai ap thn upjesh o

kai

gcd(b, p) = 1,

den diaire ote ton

gcd(ab, p) = 1, kti pou enai antjeto me thn upjesh

sunepgetai pwc

gcd(ab, p) = 1.

Aut h antfash oloklhrnei thn

apdeixh.

Mia shmantik sunpeia tou Jewrmatoc 7 enai to ti kje akraioc mpore na paragontopoihje se prtouc arijmoc me monadik trpo.

Jerhma 8.

me

monadik

. . . < pr

kai

(Jerhma monadikc paragontopohshc) 'Enac snjetoc arijmc

trpo

ei

wc

enai

ginmeno

jetikc

thc

morfc

a=

pe11 pe22

. . . perr

pou

pi

enai

mpore na grafe

prtoc,

p1 < p2 <

akraioc.

Mgistoc koinc diairthc

Se aut thn enthta, perigrfoume nan poluwnumik algri-

jmo pou prwtoparousisthke ap ton Eukledh gia thn eresh tou mgistou koino diairth do
akerawn.

H anlush tou qrnou ektleshc tou algorjmou apokalptei mia endiafrousa sn-

desh me thn akolouja twn arijmn

Fibonacci,

h opoa apotele to qeirtero stigmitupo pou

mpore na doje wc esodoc.

Sthn sunqeia, ja asqolhjome mno me mh-arnhtikoc akeraouc. Autc o periorismc dikaiologetai, kajc qoume dh diatupsei pwc

gcd(a, b) = gcd(|a|, |b|).

Prin proqwrsoume sthn parousash tou algorjmou tou Eukledh, parathrome pwc ma
enallaktik mjodoc gia ton upologism tou mgistot koino diairth

kai

gcd(a, b)

baszetai sthn monadik paragontopohsh autn twn akerawn.

a = pe11 pe22 . . . perr

kai

b = pf11 pf22 . . . pfrr ,

nou to snolo twn prtwn

p1 , p2 , . . . , pr

do akerawn

Ac upojsoume pwc

pou qrhsimopoiome kai mhdenikoc ekjtec prokeimna enai to dio gia ta

kai

b.

Tte, qoume

gcd(a, b) =

min (e1 ,f1 ) min (e2 ,f2 )

min (er ,fr )
p2
. . . pr
.

p1

To prblhma me thn parapnw mjodo enai pwc mqri stigmc oi kalteroi algrijmoi gia
thn paragontopohsh den oloklhrnoun thn ektles touc se poluwnumik qrno, sunepc den

uprqei h dunatthta na qrhsimopoihjon gia na dsoun nan apodotik algrijmo gia to prblhma
thc ereshc tou mgistou koino diairth.
O algrijmoc tou Eukledh baszetai sto akloujo jerhma.

Jerhma 9.

Gia kje mh-arnhtik

akraio

kai

kje

jetik

akraio

gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a mod b).

Ja dexoume ti oi

Apdeixh.

gcd(a, b)

kai

gcd(b, a mod b)

diairon o nac ton llon, epomnwc

prpei na isontai (kajc kai oi do enai mh-arnhtiko akraioi).

Prta, ja dexoume pwc

d|b.

Isqei

twn

kai

(a mod b) = a qb, pou q = a/b.

b,

qoume ti

prokptei ti

tte

d|(a mod b).

d| gcd(b, a mod b),

To na dexoume ti

mod b),

gcd(a, b)| gcd(b, a mod b).

d|b

kai

An orsoume

Epeid o

Epomnwc, epeid

isodnama, ti

d|b

kai

d|(a mod b),

Epeid,

a = qb + (a mod b),

d|a,

(ap to Prisma 3), isodnama, ti

d| gcd(a, b)

Arke na sundusoume to ti

(a mod b).

pou

kai

d|a

kai

ap to Prisma 3

gcd(a, b)| gcd(b, a mod b).

gcd(b, a mod b) gnetai sqedn me ton dio trpo.

d|(a mod b).

tte

(a mod b) enai grammikc sunduasmc

enai grammikc sunduasmc twn

katalgoume ti

d = gcd(a, b),

An orsoume

q = a/b,

Sumperanoume loipn ti

gcd(a, b)| gcd(b, a mod b)

kai to ti

d|a.

d = gcd(b, a

qoume ti o
Epeid

d|b

kai

gcd(b, a mod b)| gcd(a, b).

gcd(b, a mod b)| gcd(a, b)

gia na oloklhrwje h apdeixh.

O algrijmoc tou Eukledh

O akloujoc algrijmoc prwtoparousisthke sta

na tan gnwstc ap palitera.

a kai b pou dnontai wc esodoc enai aujaretoi mh-arnhtiko

akraioi.

EUCLID(a, b)
b=0
a

tte epstreye

allic epstreye

(perpou to 300 p.Q.), an kai pijann

Mpore na ekfraste wc na anadromik prgramma basismno

apeujeac sto Jerhma 9. Oi arijmo

1 an

Stoiqea

EUCLID(b, a mod b)

Gia pardeigma, an ektelsoume ton parapnw algrijmo gia na brome ton mgisto koin diairth
tou

30

kai tou

21,

qoume

EUCLID(20, 15) = EUCLID(15, 5)

= EUCLID(5, 0)
= 5.
Ston parapnw upologism uprqoun do anadromikc klseic tou algorjmou tou Eukledh
(

EUCLID). H orjthta tou algorjmou phgzei ap to Jerhma 9 kai to gegonc ti an o algri-

jmoc epistrfei

sthn gramm

2,

tte

b = 0,

epomnwc

gcd(a, b) = gcd(a, 0) = a.

O algrijmoc

den kaletai anadromik ep' peiron, kajc to detero risma meinetai se kje anadromik klsh
kai enai pntote mh-arnhtikc akraioc. Sunepc, o algrijmoc tou Eukledh termatzei pntote
me to swst apotlesma.

Qrnoc ektleshc tou algorjmou

Sthn pargrafo aut ja exetsoume poioc enai o qrnoc ektleshc tou algorjmou sthn qeirterh
perptwsh. Ja ton ekfrsoume se sunrthsh me to mgejoc twn
thc genikthtac, ti
an

b > a 0,

a > b 0.

tte o

a kai b.

Upojtoume, qwrc blbh

Aut h upjesh mpore na aitiologhje ap thn paratrhsh pwc

EUCLID(a, b)

ja knei amswc anadromik klsh ston

EUCLID(b, a).

Me

lla lgia, an to prto risma enai mikrtero ap to detero, tte h prth anadromik klsh
enallsei thn seir twn orismtwn. Paromowc, an
mia anadromik klsh, afo

b = a > 0,

o algrijmoc termatzei met ap

a mod b = 0.

O sunolikc qrnoc ektleshc enai anlogoc me ton arijm twn anadromikn klsewn kai
dhlnetai sto akloujo Lmma.

Lmma 10.

An

a>b1

a Fk+2

klseic, tte

kai

kai h klsh tou algorjmou

b Fk+1

EUCLID a, b
(

) prokale

k1

anadromikc

To akloujo jerhma prokptei wc meso prisma tou parapnw lmmatoc.

Jerhma

11.

EUCLID a, b
(

Gia

kje

prokale

akraio

arijm

ligterec ap

k1

an

a>b1

kai

b < Fk+1

tte

algrijmoc

anadromikc klseic.

Epeid mporome na proseggsoume ton

pou

k -ost

ro thc akoloujac

Fibonacci Fk

enai h qrus tom, o arijmc twn anadromikn klsewn enai

O(log b).

wc

k / 5,

Sunepgetai

ti an o algrijmoc ektelesje me do orsmata twn

prxeic kai
me

bits

O( 3 )

apaiton

prxeic se

O( 2 )

bits

bits,

tte ja qreiaston

O()

arijmhtikc

(upojtoume pwc o pollaplasiasmc kai h diaresh do arijmn

prxeic me

bits).

Se aut thn enthta ja dome pc mporome

O genikeumnoc algrijmoc tou Eukledh

na tropopoisoume ton algrijmo tou Eukledh ste na apokomzoume perissterh plhrofora.

Pio sugkekrimna, tropopoiome ton algrijmo tsi ste na upologzontai oi akraioi
pou ikanopoion thn sqsh

d = gcd(a, b) = ax + by .

Shmeinoume ti oi

kai

kai

mpore na enai

kai mh-jetiko akraioi kai ja mac fanon qrsimoi gia ton upologism tou pollaplasiastiko
antistrfou. O algrijmoc

EXTENDED-EUCLID

akerawn kai epistrfei mia trida thc morfc

dqetai wc risma na zeugri mh-arnhtikn

(d, x, y)

pou ikanopoie thn sqsh

d = gcd(a, b) =

ax + by .
EXTENDED-EUCLID(a, b)
1 an
2

b=0
tte epstreye

(d , x , y ) EXTENDED-EUCLID(b, a mod b)

(d, x, y) (d , y , x )a/by

5 epstreye

(d, x, y)

O parapnw algrijmoc baszetai ston algrijmo tou Eukledh. Arqik, h gramm 1 enai isodnamh me ton legqo an

EUCLID

b = 0

epistrfei qi mno

ste na isqei
tsi ste

a = ax + by .

sthn gramm 1 tou

d=a
An

d = gcd(b, a mod b)

EUCLID,

proume

kai

b = 0,

EXTENDED-EUCLID

b = 0,

tte o

EXTENDED-

x=1

prta upologzei to

kai

y = 0,

(d , x , y )

kai

mod b)y

se aut thn perptwsh qoume ti

ste

An

sthn gramm 2, all kai touc suntelestc

d = bx + (a
Ston

EUCLID.

d = ax + by ,

(2)

d = gcd(a, b) = d = gcd(b, a mod ).

xanagrfoume thn isthta 2 qrhsimopointac to ti

d = bx + (a a/bb)y
= ay + b(x a/by ).

Gia na

d = d.

Sunepc, jtontac

x = y kai y = x a/by ikanopoietai h exswsh d = ax+by kai apodeiknetai

h orjthta tou algorjmou

EXTENDED-EUCLID.

Epeid o arijmc twn anadromikn klsewn pou gnontai ston

soc me ton arijm twn anadromikn klsewn pou gnontai ston

EXTENDED-EUCLID
gia

a>b>0

1.2

diafrei ap autn tou

EUCLID

o arijmc twn anadromikn klsewn enai

EXTENDED-EUCLID

enai

EUCLID, o qrnoc ektleshc tou

kat nan stajer pargonta, dhlad,

O(log b).

Arijmhtikc prxeic me uploipa

Sthn sunqeia ja parousisoume orismnouc basikoc algrijmouc pou qrhsimopoiontai sthn

arijmhtik me uploipa. Mpore kanec na jewrsei thn arijmhtik tan douleoume me uploipa wc
thn kanonik arijmhtik me akraiouc arijmoc, mno pou tan douleoume
arijm

modulo kpoion akraio

n, antikajistome kje apotlesma x me kpoio stoiqeo ap to snolo {0, 1, . . . , n1} pou

enai isodnamo me to

x mod n.

Aut h anepshmh jerhsh enai arket prokeimnou na perigryei

kanec tic prxeic thc prsjeshc, thc afareshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo. Gia na dsoume nan
pio epshmo orism, prpei prta na perigryoume thn nnoia thc

Peperasmnec

telest

Mia omda

omdec

pou orzetai sto

1. Kleistthta: Gia kje

a, b S ,

tou sunlou, ttoio ste

tsi ste

a, b, c S ,

e S,

gia kje

omda

(S, )

tte kaletai

isqei

peperasmnh

omda.

pou kaletai

oudtero

stoiqeo

(a b) c = a (b c).

a S , uprqei na monadik stoiqeo, pou kaletai

antstro-

a b = b a = e.

(Z, +)

twn akerawn

enai to oudtero stoiqeo kai o antstrofoc tou

ikanopoie thn idithta thc antimetajetikthtac

abelian

sundedemno me nan duadik

a S.

Gia pardeigma, mpore kanec na jewrsei thn gnrimh omda

prxh thc prsjeshc: to

group).

a b S.

ae=ea=a

4. 'Uparxh antistrfou: Gia kje

a,

isqei

Uprqei na stoiqeo

3. Prosetairistikthta: Gia la ta

tou

enai na snolo

gia to opoo isqoun oi akloujec idithtec:

2. 'Uparxh oudterou stoiqeou:

fo

(S, )

omdac

, en an gia mia omda

omda

(S, ),

ab = ba
isqei ti

enai o

Z
a.

gia la ta

|S| < ,

gia thn
An mia

a, b S ,

tte kaletai

Omdec pou orzontai ap thn prsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasm me uploipa

Mporome na sqhmatsoume do peperasmnec abelianc omdec qrhsimopointac tic prxeic thc

prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo

modulo n,

pou

enai nac jetikc akraioc.

modulo n,

omdec baszontai stic klseic isodunamac twn akerawn

Autc oi

pou orsthkan sto prohgo-

meno keflaio.
Gia na orsoume mia omda sto

Zn

prpei na qoume katllhlec duadikc prxeic, tic opoec

mporome tic apoktsoume tropopointac katllhla tic sunhjismnec prxeic thc prsjeshc kai
tou pollaplasiasmo. Enai ekolo na orsoume thn prsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasm gia to

Zn ,

epeid h klsh isodunamac do akerawn prosdiorzei me monadik trpo thn klsh isodunamac
tou ajrosmatoc tou ginomnou touc. Dhlad, an

a a ( mod n)

kai

b b ( mod n),

tte

a + b a + b ( mod n),
ab a b (

mod n).

Sunepc, orzoume thn prsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasm

+n

kai

n ,

modulo n, me antstoiqouc sumbolismoc

wc exc:

[a]n +n [b]n = [a + b]n ,

(3)

[a]n n [b]n = [ab]n .

(4)

Parathrome pwc h afaresh mpore na oriste me parmoio trpo sto

[a b]n ,

Zn

wc

[a]n n [b]n =

all h perptwsh thc diareshc enai perisstero perplokh kai ja exetaste argtera.

Ta parapnw dikaiologon thn sunjh praktik na qrhsimopoiome ton mikrtero mh-arnhtik

akraio kje klshc isodunamac wc antiprswp thc tan knoume prxeic sto

Zn .

Oi prxeic thc

prsjeshc, thc afareshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo gnontai me orsmata touc antiprospouc twn
klsewn isodunamac kai sthn sunqeia kje apotlesma
thc klshc (dhlad ap to

x mod n).

Qrhsimopointac ton parapnw orism thc prsjeshc

jeshc

modulo n

Jerhma 12.

wc

(Zn , +n ).

omda

To mgejoc thc omdac enai

(Zn , +n )

enai

peperasmnh

Qrhsimopointac ton orism tou pollaplasiasmo

asmo

modulo n

wc

antikajstatai ap ton antiprswpo

(Zn , n ).

kai

modulo n,

orzoume thn omda prs-

|Zn | = n.

abelian.

modulo n, orzoume thn omda pollaplasi-

Ta stoiqea autc thc omdac enai to snolo

Zn

twn akerawn tou

Zn

pou enai sqetik prtoi me to

n:

Zn = {[a]n Zn : gcd(a, n) = 1}.

Gia na dome ti to snolo

Zn

enai kalc orismno, parathrome ti gia

a (a+kn) ( mod n) gia louc touc akeraouc k .

pwc

Zn

gcd(a + kn, n) = 1

gia louc touc akeraouc

Sunepc, ap to ti

k.

Epeid

0 a < n,

isqei ti

gcd(a, n) = 1 sunepgetai

[a]n = {a + kn : k Z},

to snolo

enai kalc orismno. 'Ena pardeigma ttoiac omdac enai to

Z12
= {1, 5, 7, 11},
pou h prxh tou pollaplasiasmo gnetai

Jerhma 13.

omda

(Zn , n )

modulo 12.

enai peperasmnh

kai

abelian.

Wc na pardeigma upologismo pollaplasiastiko antistrfou, upojtoume pwc

n = 11.

Tte o

5 (2) + 11 1.

EXTENDED-EUCLID(a, n)

Sunepc, to

(dhlad to

epistrfei

9 mod 11)

(d, x, y) = (1, 2, 1),

a=5

tsi ste

kai

1 =

enai pollaplasiastikc antstrofoc tou

5 modulo 11.
'Otan douleoume me tic omdec

(Zn , +n ) kai (Zn , n ) sthn sunqeia tou keimnou, ja suneqsoume

thn sunjh praktik na qrhsimopoiome ton ekprswpo miac klshc isodunamac gia na sumbolsoume thn klsh, kajc kai ta
metatrpoume tic isodunamec

modulo n

kai

gia na sumbolsoume ta

se exisseic sto

Zn .

+n

kai

n .

Epiplon, ja

Gia pardeigma, oi akloujec do

protseic enai isodnamec:

ax b (

mod n)

[a]n n [x]n = [b]n .

Epiplon, merikc forc ja anafermaste sthn omda
ap ta sumfrazmena.

Zn

(S, ) aplc wc S ,

Epomnwc, ja anafermaste stic omdec

tan h prxh uponoetai

(Zn , +n )

kai

(Zn , n )

wc

Zn

kai

antstoiqa.
O pollaplasiastikc antstrofoc enc stoiqeou

modulo n

orzetai ap thn exswsh

71 7 ( mod 12),

afo

a/b ab1 ( mod n).

7 7 49 1 ( mod 12),

Se antjesh me to snolo

Zn

a sumbolzetai me (a1 mod n).

pou isqei ti

kai tsi

|Zn | = n,

Gia pardeigma, sto

Z12

H diaresh
qoume ti

2/7 2 7 2 ( mod 12).

gia to snolo

Zn

ta prgmata den

enai tso apl kai qreizetai na orsoume mia na posthta gia na perigryoume to pljoc twn

stoiqewn tou. O arijmc loipn twn akerawn sto

gnwst kai wc

sunrthsh

tou

Euler,

sumbolzetai me

p|n

Aut h sunrthsh,

1
(1 ),
p

(5)

p diatrqei louc touc prtouc arijmoc pou diairon to n, en an to n enai prtoc tte

sumperilambnetai kai aut. Diaisjhtik, arqzoume ap mia lsta twn

1}

(n).

ikanopoie thn sqsh

(n) = n
pou to

Zn

kai gia kje prto

n,

pou diaire to

upolopwn

diagrfoume la ta pollaplsia tou

Gia pardeigma, efson oi prtoi diairtec tou

12

enai to

{0, 1, . . . , n

ap thn lsta.

kai to

1
1
(12) = 12(1 )(1 )
2
3
1 2
= 12( )( )
2 3
= 4,
to opoo epalhjeetai ap touc prohgomenouc upologismoc mac gia thn sstash tou

enai prtoc arijmc, tte

Zp = {1, 2, . . . , p 1}

.
Z12

An o

kai

(p) = p 1,
en an o

enai snjetoc, tte

Upoomdec

An to

omda, tte to

(S , )

(S, )

(6)

(n) < n 1.

enai omda, uprqei na snolo

kaletai upoomda tou

(S, ).

S S

kai to

(S , )

enai epshc

Gia pardeigma, oi zugo akraioi arijmo

apotelon upoomda twn akerawn gia thn prxh thc prsjeshc.

To akloujo jerhma dhlei

pwc arke na isqei h prxh thc kleistthtac gia na enai na uposnolo upoomda.

Jerhma

uposnolo

14.

tou

An

to

ttoio

(S, )

enai

mia

peperasmnh

a b S

ste

gia

kje

omda

a, b S

kai

to

tte

S
to

enai

opoiodpote

(S , )

enai

mh-ken

upoomda

tou

(S, )
Gia pardeigma, to snolo

{0, 2, 4, 6} apotele upoomda tou Z8 , kajc enai mh-ken kai isqei

h idithta thc kleistthtac gia thn prxh thc prsjeshc. To akloujo jerhma perigrfei na
qrsimo periorism gia to mgejoc miac upoomdac.

Jerhma 15.

(Jerhma tou

enai upoomda tou

(S, )

, tte

Lagrange

) An to

to

|S |

(S, )

enai mia peperasmnh omda kai to

enai mh-tetrimmnoc diairthc

tou

|S|

(S , )

Mia upoomda

miac omdac

kaletai

upoomda an

kanonik

ja fane qrsimo kat thn anlush tou elgqou

S = S .

To akloujo prisma

Miller-Rabin gia to an nac arijmc enai prtoc

qi.

Prisma 16.

Upoomdec

An to

pou

enai kanonik

prokptoun

upoomda miac peperasmnh

ap

(S, ):

a(k)

a(k) =

gia

1ik

Gia pardeigma, an
Sthn omda

a=2

Zn ,

gia thn omda

qoume

Efson, to

a(i) a(j) = a(i+j) ,

upoomda tou

S.

S.

|S | |S|/2

kai epil-

qrhsimopointac thn prxhc thc

wc

h akolouja

a(1) , a(2) , . . .

kai sthn omda

<a>

Zn

enai

qoume

(< a >, )

dhmiourge thn upoomda

enai peperasmnh omda, to

pijann na periqei la ta stoiqea tou

ti

k1

sumbolzetai me

en ja lme ti to stoiqeo

tte

a
| a
{z. . . a} .

a(k) = ka mod n

upoomda pou prokptei ap to

{a(k) : k 1},

Z6 ,

dialgoume na stoiqeo

goume la ta stoiqea pou mporon na dhmiourghjon ap to

omdac. Pio sugkekrimna, orzoume to

To jerhma 14 mac dnei nan trpo na

stoiqeo

dhmiourgome mia upoomda miac peperasmnh omdac

omdac

< a >

2, 4, 0, 2, 4, 0, . . ..
a(k) = ak mod n.

kai orzetai wc

enai peperasmnh upoomda tou

<a>

Gia pardeigma, merikc upoomdec sto

< a >=

< a >.

Epeid, ap thn prosetairistikthta tou

isqei h kleistthta gia to

kai ap to jerhma 14, to

Z6

S,

pou

prokptei

<a>

enai

enai oi

< 0 > = {0}

< 1 > = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
< 2 > = {0, 2, 4}.
Paromowc, gia to

Z7 ,

oi prtec upoomdec enai oi

< 1 > = {1}

< 2 > = {1, 2, 4}
< 3 > = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
H

txh

tou

a (gia thn omda S ) orzetai wc o elqistoc jetikc akraioc gia ton opoo a(t) = e

kai sumbolzetai wc

ord(a).

Jerhma 17.

me

to

Gia kje peperasmnh omda

mgejoc thc

Prisma 18.

an kai

mno an

(S, )

upoomdac pou dhmiourge,

akolouja

a(1) , a(2) , . . .

enai

kai kje

aS

ord a = | < a > |

allic

periodik

me

perodo

t =ord(a)

Prisma

aS

),

dhlad

a(i) = a(j)

gia kje akraio

19.

An

to

(S, )

a(0)

wc

e kai to a(i)

wc

a(i

mod t) ,

i.

enai

peperasmnh

omda

me

oudtero

stoiqeo

to

tte

gia

kje

a(|S|) = e

isqei ti

Eplush

t =ord a

i j ( mod t)

Smfwna me to parapnw prisma, mporome na orsoume to

pou

, h txh enc stoiqeou isotai

grammikn

Se aut thn enthta ja asqolhjome me thn eplush

exissewn

exissewn thc morfc

ax b ( mod n),
pou

a>0

kai

n > 0.

(7)

Uprqoun arketc efarmogc auto tou problmatoc; gia pardeigma ja

to qrhsimopoisoume wc mroc thc diadikasac ereshc kleidin sto prwtkollo

toume ti mac dnoun touc arijmoc

a, b

kai

RSA.

Upoj-

x modulo n

kai prpei na brome tic timc tou

pou

ikanopoion thn exswsh 7. Mpore na uprqoun kama, ma kai perissterec ttoiec lseic.

<a>

'Estw

h upoomda tou

x > 0} = {ax mod n : x > 0},

Lagrange

mac lei ti to

Gia

pou dhmiourgetai ap to stoiqeo

h exswsh 7 qei lsh an kai mno an

|<a>|

nan akrib qarakthrism tou

Jerhma 20.

Zn

prpei na enai diairthc tou

a.

Epeid

b < a >.

< a >= {a(x) :

To jerhma tou

n.

To akloujo jerhma parqei

an

d = gcd(a, n)

< a >.

opoiousdpote jetikoc

akeraouc

kai

tte

< a >=< d >= {0, d, 2d, . . . , ((n/d) 1)d},

sto

Zn

kai

Apdeixh.

sunepc

Arqzoume apodeiknontac pwc

pargei akeraouc

d < a >.

| < a > | = n/d

kai

(8)

d < a >.

ttoiouc ste

Upenjumzoume ti o

ax + ny = d.

Sunepc,

EXTENDED-EUCLID(a, n)

ax d ( mod n)

opte

Epeid,

d < a >

pollaplsio enc pollaplsiou tou

periqei kje stoiqeo ap to snolo

kai sunepc

m = ax + ny

ap thn exswsh 1. 'Ara,

{0, d, 2d, . . . , ((n/d) 1)d}.

An

m < a >,
y.

gia kpoion akraio

| < a > | = n/d,

kai to

n 1,

'Omwc,

22.

parathrome ti uprqoun akribc

ax b ( mod n)

exswsh

, ete den

a > |

qei

ax b ( mod n)

| < a > | = n/d.

ai mod n,
akribc

gia

qei

b < a >,

i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,

23.

upologzontai

'Estw

gia

qei wc

ap

ap

ton

ap tic lseic

tte to

afo to

d = gcd(a, n)

pardeigma

ma

proc

ete

kai

d|n

gia kpoion

d|m

kai epomnwc

< a >=< d >.

pollaplsia tou

to

Gia na dexoume

anmesa sto

se

block

gia

mno an

gcd(a, n)|b

modulo n

lseic

mkouc

n 1.

pou

n/d

Oi dektec

me timc

twn

ord(a) = | <

enai periodik me

forc sthn akolouja

< a >

epanalambnetai

jsewn gia tic opoec

ax

ax b ( mod n).

kai

d = ax + ny

gia

EXTENDED-EUCLID

tic thn tim

x0

kpoiouc

).

pou

d(b/d) (

mod n.

mod n)
mod n)

b ( mod n),
enai lsh gia to

i = 0, 1, . . .,

emfanzetai akribc

ax0 ax (b/d) (

x0

an kai

Ap to Jerhma 17,

Isqei ti

kai sunepc to

diaforetikc

ai mod n,

x0 = x (b/d)
Apdeixh.

n/d

b < a >.

qei lsh, tte

enai oi lseic thc exswshc

Jerhma

mod n)

An

forc so auxnetai to

mod n = b

< d >< a >.

m = ax mod n
d|a

<a>

kama lsh.

ax b ( mod n)

An h

lnetai wc

kai epomnwc sunepgetai ti h akolouja

perodo

'Ara, to

m < d >.

H exswsh

d = gcd(a, n)
Apdeixh.

a.

miac kai kje

sumperilambanomnwn twn krwn.

Prisma 21.

Prisma

Epomnwc,

tte

Sunduzontac ta parapnw apotelsmata, katalgoume ti

pwc

< a >,

ankei sto

enai me thn seir tou pollaplsio tou

< a >< d >.

Ja dexoume tra pwc

akraio

petai ti kje pollaplsio tou

ax b ( mod n).

An

d|b

akeraouc

tte

kai

exswsh

(pwc

ax b (

Jerhma 24.

kai pwc to

x0

'Estw ti h exswsh

enai mia lsh gia thn exswsh.

modulo n

, pou dnontai ap

Apdeixh.

ax b ( mod n)

n/d > 0

Afo

kai

modulo n.

lec diaforetikc

ax0 mod n = b.

thn sqsh

Efson to

axi

x0

d|b

Tte, h exswsh qei akribc

xi = x0 + i(n/d)

0 i(n/d) n

Sunepc, gia

epiletai (dhlad

gia

gia

d = gcd(a, n)

),

diaforetikc lseic

i = 0, 1, . . . , d 1

i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1,

oi timc

enai lsh thc exswshc

i = 0, 1, . . . , d 1,

, pou

x0 , x1 , . . . , xd1

ax b ( mod n),

enai

qoume

qoume

mod n = a(x0 + in/d) mod n

= (ax0 + ain/d)
= ax0

mod n

mod n

= b,
kai epomnwc to
enai oi

xi

enai epshc lsh. Ap to prisma 22, uprqoun akribc

d lseic,

opte autc

x0 , x1 , . . . , xd1 .

'Wc tra qoume parousisei to aparathto majhmatik upbajro pou qreizetai gia na lsoume
thn exswsh
Oi esodoi

ax b ( mod n); o akloujoc algrijmoc upologzei lec tic lseic gia thn exswsh.

kai

enai aujaretoi jetiko akraioi, en to

enai nac aujaretoc akraioc.

MODULAR-LINEAR-EQUATION-SOLVER(a, b, n)
1

(d, x , y ) EXTENDED-EUCLID(a, n)

2 an
3

d|b
tte

x0 x (b/d) mod n
gia

i0

5
6

mqri

tpwse

d1

(x0 + i(n/d)) mod n

allic tpwse den uprqei lsh

Wc na pardeigma thc leitourgac tou parapnw algorjmou, ac exetsoume thn exswsh

( mod 21),
1, parnoume

pou

(d, x, y) = (3, 3, 1).

upologzoume to
lseic

kai

a = 6, b = 3, n = 21.

11.

Epeid

Kalntac ton

3|3,

x0 = (3)(1) mod 21 = 18,

EXTENDED-EUCLID

6x 3

sthn gramm

ektelontai oi grammc 3-5 kai sthn gramm 3

en o brqoc stic grammc 4-5 tupnei tic do

MODULAR-LINEAR-EQUATION-SOLVER ektele O(log n+gcd(a, n)) arijmhtikc prx-

eic, kajc o

EXTENDED-EUCLID

qreizetai

O(log n)

arijmhtikc prxeic kai kje epanlhyh

tou brqou apaite stajer arijm ap arijmhtikc prxeic.

Ta aklouja porsmata tou Jewrmatoc 24 parousizoun idiatero endiafron.

Prisma 25.

lsh

Gia kje

n>1

, an

, tte h exswsh

ax b ( mod n)

qei monadik

modulo n

An

b = 1,

mia sunhjismnh perptwsh me idiatero endiafron, to

laplasiastikc antstrofoc tou

Prisma 26.

lsh

gcd(a, n) = 1

modulo n

Gia kje

allic

, an

gcd(a, n) = 1

, tte h exswsh

ax 1 ( mod n)

jome ston pollaplasiastik antstrofo tou

gcd(a, n) = 1,

epistrfetai apo ton

qei monadik

uprqei lsh.

To prisma 26 mac epitrpei na qrhsimopoisoume ton sumbolism

touc. An

pou anazhtme enai pol-

a modulo n.

n>1

den

a modulo n,

tte mia lsh gia thn exswsh

EXTENDED-EUCLID,

tan ta

(a1 mod n) gia na anafera

kai

ax 1 ( mod n)

enai prtoi metax

enai o akraioc

pou

kajc h exswsh

gcd(a, n) = 1 = ax + ny
uponoe ti

ax 1 ( mod n).

qrhsimopointac ton

Sunepc, mporome na upologsoume to

Stouc prtouc ainec m.Q. o Kinzoc majhmatikc

asqoljhke ki luse to prblhma thc ereshc ekenwn twn akerawn

2 tan diairejon me to 3, 5 kai to 7 antstoiqa.

qoun thn morf

23 + 105k

upolopwn (gia pardeigma

gia aujaretouc akeraouc

3, 5

kai

7)

k.

kai miac exswshc

Sun Tzu

pou afnoun uploipo

Mia ttoia lsh enai to

parqei mia antistoiqa anmesa se na ssthma exissewn

to

apodotik

EXTENDED-EUCLID.

Kinziko jerhma upolopwn

kai

(a1 mod n)

2, 3

x = 23; lec oi lseic

To Kinziko jerhma twn upolopwn

modulo enc sunlou sqetik prtwn

modulo

to ginmeno touc (gia pardeigma

105).
To Kinziko jerhma twn upolopwn qei do shmantikc qrseic. 'Estw nac akraioc

paragontopoietai wc

n = n1 n2 . . . nk ,

pou oi pargontec

ni

pou

enai ana do prtoi metax touc.

Arqik, to jerhma enai na perigrafik domik jerhma pou perigrfei thn dom tou
parmoia me aut tou kartesiano ginomnou

Zn

wc

Zn1 Zn2 . . .Znk , me prsjesh kai pollaplasiasm

modulo ni

gia to

i-ost

sustatik.

Epiplon, aut h perigraf mpore na qrhsimopoihje ste

na sqediaston apodotiko algrijmoi, kajc enai apodotiktero na efarmoston se kajna ap

ta

Zni

par na efarmoston

Jerhma 27.

do

prta

(Kinziko

metax touc.

modulo n.

jerhma

twn

Jewrome tic

upolopwn)

n = n1 n2 nk

'Estw

pou

ta

ni

enai

an

antistoiqec

a (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ),
pou

a Zn , ai Zni

kai

antistoiqa anmesa sto

efarmzontai

to

na

sta

ai = a mod n

Zn

stoiqea

efarmzontai

gia

i = 1, 2, . . . , k

kai sto kartesian ginmeno

tou

anexrthta

Zn

mporon

se

kje

(9)

isodnama

antstoiqo

Tte,

antistoiqa

Zn1 Zn2 . . . Znk

na

efarmoston

ssthma

stic

(9)

enai

`1-1`

Oi leitourgec pou

antstoiqec

suntetagmnwn.

mia

Aut

-dec

me

shmanei

pwc

sto

an

a (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak )
b (b1 , b2 , . . . , bk ),
tte

(a + b) mod n ((a1 + b1 ) mod n1 , . . . , (ak + bk )

mod nk ),

(a b) mod n ((a1 b1 ) mod n1 , . . . , (ak bk )

mod nk ),

(ab) mod n ((a1 b1 )

Apdeixh.

mod n1 , . . . , (ak bk )

mod nk ).

H metbash ap thn ma anaparstash sthn llh enai arket apl.

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak )

apaitontai mno

diairseic.

O upologismc tou

apo ta

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak )

perisstero polplokoc kai epitugqnetai wc akolojwc. Arqik, orzoume to

1, 2, . . . , k;

ra to

mi

enai to ginmeno lwn twn

nj

Ap to

mi = n/ni

pou enai diaforetik ap to

ni .

enai

gia

i=

Akolojwc,

orzoume to

ci = mi (m1
i
gia

i = 1, 2, . . . , k .

mod ni )

(10)

H exswsh 10 enai pntote kalc orismnh: epeid ta

metax touc (ap to Jerhma 6), to Prisma 26 eggutai ti uprqei to

mi

kai

(m1
i

ni

enai prtoi

mod n).

Tloc,

mporome na upologsoume to

wc sunrthsh twn

a1 , a2 , . . . , ak

a (a1 c1 + a2 c2 + . . . + ak ck ) (
Ja dexoume tra ti h exswsh 11 eggutai pwc
ti an

j = i,

epshc ti

mj 0 ( mod ni ),

tte

ci 1 ( mod ni ),

wc exc:

mod n).

(11)

a ai ( mod ni ) gia i = 1, 2, . . . , k .

Parathrome

cj mj 0 ( mod ni ).

Parathrome

to opoo uponoe ti

ap thn exswsh 10. 'Eqoume tsi thn qrsimh antistoiqa

ci (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
na dinusma pou qei panto

ci

ektc ap thn

i-ost

suntetagmnh, pou uprqei

sqhmatzoun kat kpoion trpo mia bsh gia thn anaparstash. Gia kje

a ai ci (

1;

epomnwc ta

qoume

mod ni )

ai mi (m1
i

mod ni ) (

mod ni )

ai ( mod ni ),
to opoo enai aut pou jlame na apodexoume. H mjodoc upologismo tou
na

pou ikanopoie touc periorismoc

a ai ( mod ni )

gia

i = 1, 2, . . . , k .

ap ta

ai

pargei

H antistoiqa enai

`1-1`, afo mporome na metabome kai proc tic do kateujnseic.

Ta epmena porsmata ja qrhsimopoihjon argtera.

Prisma 28.

touc

n1 , n2 , . . . , nk

modulo n

lsh

Prisma 29.

touc akeraouc

ta

a1 , a2 , . . . , ak

akeraouc

monadik

An

kai

gia

to

ssthma

ton gnwsto

n1 , n2 , . . . , nk

An ta

enai

prtoi

exissewn

i = 1, 2, . . . , k

touc

kai

n = n1 n2 nk

x ai ( mod ni )

gia

tte

gia

louc

i = 1, 2, . . . , k

qei

enai prtoi metax touc kai

n = n1 n2 nk

, tte gia louc

xa(
gia

metax

an

kai

mod n)

mno an

x a ( mod n).
Wc pardeigma miac efarmogc tou Kinzikou jewrmatoc twn upolopwn, ac upojsoume ti
qoume do exisseic

a 2(

mod 5)

a 3(

mod 13),

tsi ste

mod 65,

a1 = 2, n1 = m2 = 5, a2 = 3

miac kai

n = 65.

Epeid

n2 = m1 = 13,

kai

131 2 ( mod 5)

kai

kai jloume na upologsoume to

51 8 ( mod 13),

c1 = 13(2

mod 5) = 26,

c2 = 5(8

mod 13) = 40,

qoume

kai

a 2 26 + 3 40 (
52 + 120 (
42 (
Sunepc, mporome na douleoume

mod 65)

mod 65)

mod 65).

modulo n

apeujeac na doulyoume sthn metasqhmatismnh

anaparstash qrhsimopointac bolikoc xeqwristoc upologismoc

'Uywsh enc stoiqeou se dnamh

modulo ni .

'Opwc enai logik na exetsoume ta pollaplsia enc

arijmo

a modulo n, enai epshc logik na exetsoume thn akolouja twn dunmewn tou a modulo

n,

a Zn :

pou

a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ,
modulo n.
h

i-ost

Deiktodotntac ap to

tim enai to

2i

ai mod n.
i
mod 7

en oi dunmeic tou

Se autn thn enthta,

h mhdenik tim autc thc akoloujac enai

Gia pardeigma oi dunmeic tou

2

10

11

...

...

sto

Z7

isotai me to mgejoc tou

Jerhma 30.

kai

Zn

kai

me

enai

10

11

...

...

stw

a0 mod n,

enai

< a >

h upoomda tou

epanalambanmenouc pollaplasiasmoc, kai stw

< 2 >= {1, 2, 4}

2 modulo 7

3 modulo 7

i
3i mod 7

0,

ord7 (2) = 3.

ordn (a)

Zn

pou dhmiourgetai ap to

h txh tou

sto

Zn .

Gia pardeigma,

Qrhsimopointac to ti h sunrthsh

tou

Euler

kajc kai to Prisma 19 odhgomaste sta aklouja jewrmata.

(Jerhma tou

Euler

) Gia

louc touc akeraouc

a(n) 1 (

mod n), a Zn .

n>1

Jerhma 31.

(Jerhma tou

Fermat

An o

Ap thn exswsh 6,

(p) = p 1

an o

enai prtoc.

Zp

H teleutaa sqsh isqei gia kje stoiqeo sto

llh, gia kje
An

ordn (g) = |Zn |

enai rza (

modulo 7
kuklik

, gia

ap a ( mod p)
Zn

tte kje stoiqeo tou

ektc ap to

an o

generator)

den enai rza

modulo 7.

An to

Zn

efson

0
/ Zp .

Ap thn

enai prtoc.

enai dnamh tou

dhmiourgc (

0,

tou

Zn .

g modulo n,

kai lme ti to

Gia pardeigma, to

enai rza

qei rza, tte lme ti h omda

Zn

enai

32.

Oi

kje prto

An to

( mod n).
bsh

isqei ti

primitive root)

all to

Jerhma

2pe

a Zp ,

arijmc, tte

mod p), a Zp .

a(p) 1 (
Apdeixh.

enai prtoc

timc

tou

p>2

kai

enai rza tou

Aut to

Zn

n>1
louc

kai to

to kalome

gia

tic

opoec

touc jetikoc

to

Zn

enai

akeraouc

kuklik

omda

logrijmo

tou

2, 4, pe

oi

kai

a enai stoiqeo tou Zn , tte uprqei na z

diakrit

enai

ttoio ste

gz a

modulo n

gia thn

tan douleoume

g.

Jerhma

33.

(Jerhma

g z g z ( mod n)
Apdeixh.

tou

isqei an kai

diakrito

mno

an isqei

x y ( mod (n)).

'Estw ti

logarjmou)

Tte,

An

exswsh

to

enai

rza

tou

Zn

tte

exswsh

x y ( mod (n))

x = y + k(n)

gia kpoion akraio

k.

Gi' autn

ton lgo

g x g y+k(n) ( mod n)
g y (g (n) )k (
g y 1k (

mod n)

mod n)

g y ( mod n)
Ap thn llh pleur, stw
kje stoiqeo tou
twn dunmewn tou
kai

<g>
g

g x g y ( mod n).

kai

| < g(n) > | = (n),

enai periodik me perodo

x y ( mod n).

Epeid h akolouja twn dunmewn tou

g dhmiourge

ap to Prisma 18 sunepgetai ti h akolouja

(n).

Sunepc, an

g x g y ( mod n)

tte prpei

'Uywsh se dnamh me epanalambanmeno tetragwnism

suqn sthn jewra arijmn enai h ywsh enc arijmo se mia dnamh
mia prxh pou enai gnwst kai wc

ywsh parousa upolopou

Mia prxh pou sunanttai

modulo kpoion llo arijm;

modular exponentiation).

akrbeia, aut pou anazhtome enai nac apodotikc trpoc na upologsoume to

ta

a kai b enai mh-arnhtiko akraioi kai to n enai jetikc akraioc.

Gia thn

ab mod n,

pou

H ywsh parousa upolopou

enai mia shmantik prxh se pollc mejdouc pou elgqoun an nac arijmc enai prtoc qi,
kajc kai sto prwtkollo

RSA. H mjodoc tou

epanalambanmenou tetragwnismo

prblhma apodotik, qrhsimopointac thn duadik anaparstash tou

'Estw

< bk , bk1 , . . . , b1 , b0 >

anaparstash qei mkoc

shmantik

bit.

h duadik anaparstash tou

k + 1 bits,

to

bk

enai to pio shmantik

O akloujoc algrijmoc upologzei to

asmoc kai prosjseic ap

se

b.

lnei aut to

b.

Aut shmanei ti h duadik

bit,

en to

b0

enai to ligtero

ac mod n, kajc to c auxnetai me diplasi-

b.

MODULAR-EXPONENTIATION(a, b, n)
1

c0

d1

3 stw

< bk , bk1 , . . . , b1 , b0 >

4 gia

ik

c 2c

d (d d) mod n

an

mqri

h duadik anaparstash tou

bi = 1

tte

d (d a) mod n

9
epstreye

cc+1

H ywsh sto tetrgwno sthn gramm 6 exhge giat h mjodoc aut onomzetai epanalambanmenoc
tetragwnismc.

Gia pardeigma, an

akolouja timn

modulo 561,

a = 7, b = 560

kai

pwc fanontai paraktw.

mopoiontai fanetai sthn gramm me dekth

c.

n = 561,

o algrijmoc upologzei mia

H akolouja twn ekjetn pou qrhsi-

H metablht

den enai anagkaa gia thn ektlesh

tou algorjmou, all sumperilambnetai giat bohjei sthn katanhsh kai thn anlus tou.

i
bi
c
d

17

35

70

140

280

560

49

157

526

160

241

298

166

67

O algrijmoc enai sqediasmnoc tsi ste na isqoun ta aklouja:

1. H tim tou

tou

2.

enai dia me to prjema

< bk , bk1 , . . . , b1 , b0 >

thc duadikc anaparstashc

kai

d = ac mod n

An oi esodoi

a, b

kai

enai arijmo me

prxewn pou apaitontai enai

Tetragwnik

uploipa

O()

kai

bits,

tte o sunolikc arijmc twn arijmhtikn

kai o sunolikc arijmc twn prxewn se

eresh

tetragwnikn

rizn

bits

enai

O( 3 ).

Sthn pargrafo aut ja

exetsoume to prblhma thc eplushc thc exswshc

x2 = a ( mod n),

(12)

me lla lgia to prblhma thc ereshc tetragwnikn rizn.

Katarqc, tonzoume ti h parapnw exswsh endqetai na mhn qei kan kpoia lsh. Oi akraioi

gia touc opoouc h exswsh (12) qei kpoia lsh onomzontai

residues) modulo a,
uploipa

to an o

tetragwnik uploipa

en auto gia touc opoouc den uprqei lsh onomzontai

quadratic non-residues).

quadratic

tetragwnik

mh-

Sthn sunqeia, diakrnoume do periptseic pou orzontai ap

enai prtoc snjetoc.

Sthn perptwsh pou enai prtoc, tte, akoloujntac thn smbash na sumbolzoume touc
prtouc arijmoc me

p,

prokptei h isodunama

sqetzetai me ta tetragwnik uploipa

Jerhma 34.

nan

'Enac akraioc

peritt prto arijm

an

modulo

sto disthma

kai

x2 = a ( mod p).

nan prto arijm enai to kritrio tou

1ap1

Qp

Euler.

enai tetragwnik uploipo

modulo

mno an

a 2 (p1) = 1 (
An sumbolsoume me

'Ena basik apotlesma pou

(antstoiqa, me

Qp )

mod p).
to snolo twn tetragwnikn upolopwn (an-

tstoiqa, twn tetragwnikn mh-upolopwn) tan douleoume

modulo

nan prto arijm

p,

tte

isqei ti

|Qp | = |Qp | = |Zp | = (p 1)/2,

tetragwnik uploipa

modulo p.

Q13 = {2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11},

Sthn perptwsh pou o

tte nac akraioc
uploipo tso
kai

Gia pardeigma, tan

p = 13

enai tetragwnik uploipo

modulo p so kai modulo q .

|Qq | = 3(p 1)(q 1)/4.

modulo n

Epomnwc, isqei ti

Gia pardeigma, an

n = 21,

kai

kok.

n enai snjetoc arijmc ttoioc ste n = pq , pou p, q

a Zn

enai

Q13 = {1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12}

tte

16 = 1 ( mod 13), 26 = 12 ( mod 13)

giat

Zp

me lla lgia akribc oi miso akraioi sto

prtoi arijmo,

an kai mno an enai tetragwnik

|Qn | = |Qp ||Qq | = (p1)(q1)/4

tte

Q21 = {1, 4, 16}

kai

Q2 1 =

{2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 17, 19, 20}.

Sthn sunqeia ja asqolhjome me to prblhma thc ereshc thc tetragwnikc rzac enc
tetragwniko upolopou, me lla lgia me ton upologism enc

mod n), tan gnwrzoume ti a Qn .

x Zn

ttoiou ste

Knoume pli thn dikrish sqetik me to an o

x2 = a (

n enai prtoc

snjetoc.
'Estw loipn ti douleoume

modulo

nan prto arijm

kai mlista upojtoume ti isqei

p = 3 ( mod 4).

Gia thn eresh thc lshc qrhsimopoiome to akloujo lmma.

Lmma 35.

modulo p

An

, tte oi

enai

prtoc

lseic thc

arijmc

thc

morfc

4k 1

kai

to

enai

tetragwnik

uploipo

exswshc

x2 = a (

mod p)

dnetai ap thn sqsh

x = ak
Apdeixh.

Euler

Epeid gnwrzoume pwc to

( mod p).

enai tetragwnik uploipo

modulo p,

to kritrio tou

dnei
1

a 2 (p1) = 1 (
Epeid

k = 14 (p + 1),

mod p).

qoume pwc
1

a 4 (p+1) a 4 (p+1) = a 2 (p+1) = a 2 (p1) a

= a (

Sthn perptwsh pou douleoume

ste

p = q = 3 ( mod 4),

mod p).

modulo nan snjeto n = pq , pou p, q

tte akoloujome ta aklouja bmata.

prtoi arijmo ttoioi

1. Arqik prpei na brome tic lseic

(r, r)

2. Upologzoume antistoqwc tic lseic

3. Upologzoume

c, d

ttoia ste

mopointac ton algrijmo

4. Upologzoume ta

thc isodunamac

(s, s)

thc isodunamac

cp + dq = 1.

5. Epistrfoume wc lseic touc arijmoc

kai

x2 = a ( mod q).

Shmeinoume pwc aut enai efikt qrhsi-

EXTENDED-EUCLID

x = rdq + scp ( mod n)

x2 = a ( mod p).

afo

gcd(p, q) = 1.

y = rdq scp ( mod n).

(x, y).

Parathrome ti o parapnw algrijmoc baszetai sthn gnsh thc paragontopohshc tou

n.

Geniktera, isqei to isqurtero apotlesma ti to prblhma thc ereshc tetragwnikn rizn

modulo n

tan

n = pq

enai upologistik isodnamo me to prblhma thc paragontopohshc tou

stouc prtouc pargontec

kai

q.

An qoume nan poluwnumik algrijmo gia to prblhma thc

paragontopohshc, tte ton qrhsimopoiome gia na brome ta

p, q

parapnw algrijmo gia na brome tic tetragwnikc rzec.

Gia thn antjeth katejunsh, stw

ti qoume nan poluwnumik algrijmo

modulo n.

Tte arke na dialxoume na

ektelsoume ton

A(a, n)

kai stw

A(a, n)

kai sthn sunqeia ektelome ton

pou epistrfei kpoia tetragwnik rza tou

x Zn ,

na upologsoume to

a = x2 ( mod n)

h epistrefmenh tetragwnik rza.

An

kai na

y = x ( mod n),

tte apotqame kai prpei na dokimsoume pli dialgontac kpoia diaforetik tim gia to
allic o

gcd(x y, n)

'Enac arijmc

enai pargontac tou

kaletai

an epalhjeei thn exswsh

rzec:

35.

1 modulo n.

mh

tetrimmnh

n,

ete o

tetragwnik

x2 1 ( mod n)

Gia pardeigma to

ete o

rza

x,

q.
tou

1,

tan douleoume

modulo n

all enai diaforetikc ap tic do tetrimmnec

enai mh-tetrimmnh tetragwnik rza tou

1 modulo

To akloujo prisma ja mac fane qrsimo gia na apodexoume thn orjthta tou elgqou

Miller-Rabin

gia to an nac arijmc enai prtoc qi.

Prisma 36.

An uprqei mh-tetrimmnh

rza tou

1 modulo n

tte o

enai

snjetoc arijmc.

2 Prwtkolla dhmosou kleidio

Sthn enthta aut afo orsoume ti enai ta prwtkolla dhmosou kleidio kai knoume mia
sgkrish anmesa sta prwtkolla dhmsiou kai idiwtiko kleidio, sthn sunqeia parousizoume
orismna prwtkolla dhmosou kleidio, dnontac idiaterh mfash sto prwtkollo

RSA.

'Ena ssthma dhmosou kleidio mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia na kruptografhjon ta mhnmata

pou do ontthtec jloun na antallxoun kat thn epikoinwna touc.

O stqoc enai na mhn

mpore kpoioc pou krufakoei to kanli epikoinwnac na katalbei to perieqmeno tou, en na

ssthma dhmosou kleidio epitrpei epshc ston apostola na episunyei sto mnuma mia yhfiak
upograf pou den gnetai na plastografhje.

Mia ttoia upograf mpore na jewrhje wc to

hlektronik antstoiqo thc qeirgrafhc upografc se na kemeno grammno se qart.

Mpore

ekola na epalhjeuje ap opoiondpote diabzei to kemeno, all dskola mpore kpoioc na

thn plastografsei, epiplon, an allxei stw ki na
egkurtht thc.

bit

ap to kemeno, h upograf qnei thn

Epomnwc, parqei nan trpo na pistopoietai tso h tautthta tou qrsth-

apostola, so kai to perieqmeno tou mhnmatoc.

Se na ssthma dhmosou kleidio, kje summetqon mroc qei na
mustik

kleid

Kje kleid periqei na kommti plhroforac.

dhmsio

kleid

kai na

Enai snhjec ta summetqonta

mrh pou epijumon na qrhsimopoisoun kruptografikc mejdouc kat thn epikoinwna touc na
kalontai me ta onmata
ta kleidi tou

Alice kai Bob.

Sumbolzoume me

PA , SA ta kleidi thc Alice kai me PB , SB

Bob.

Kje summetqwn dhmiourge to dik tou dhmsio kai mustik kleid kai frontzei tsi ste to
mustik kleid na mhn to mjei kanec lloc, all mpore na anakoinsei to dhmsio se opoiondpote
kai na to dhmosiopoisei se louc.

Sthn pragmatikthta, h deterh epilog enai protimterh

kai sunjwc uprqei nac dhmsioc katlogoc pou periqei dhmsia kleidi diafrwn qrhstn,
tsi ste na dieukolnetai h eresh tou dhmsiou kleidio kpoiou qrsth.
To dhmsio kai to mustik kleid kajorzoun kpoiec sunartseic-metasqhmatismoc efarmzontai se opoiodpote mnuma.
pardeigma, to

'Estw

to snolo lwn twn epitreptn mhnumtwn.

Gia

mpore na enai to snolo lwn twn akoloujin me peperasmno arijm ap

bits.

Ston arqik, kai aplostero, orism thc kruptografac dhmosou kleidio, apaitetai to dhmsio
kai to mustik kleid na kajorzoun sunartseic `1-1' ap to
antistoiqe sto dhmsio kleid

PA

thc

ston eaut tou. H sunrthsh pou

Alice sumbolzetai me PA () kai h sunrthsh pou antistoiqe

sto mustik kleid

ojtoume ti oi
kleidin

PA

kai

SA

PA ()

me

SA ().

kai

SA ()

Oi sunartseic

PA ()

kai

SA ()

enai loipn metajseic tou

D.

Up-

mporon na upologisjon apodotik, dedomnwn twn antstoiqwn

SA .

To dhmsio kleid kai to mustik kleid kje qrsth apotelon zeugri up thn nnoia ti
orzoun sunartseic pou h ma enai antstrofh thc llhc, dhlad

gia opoiodpote mnuma

SA ,

m D.

M = SA (PA (M )),

(13)

M = PA (SA (M )),

(14)

An metasqhmatsoume epituqc to

me ta do kleidi

me opoiadpote seir, ja prpei na katalxoume kai pli sto arqik mnuma

PA

M.

Se na ssthma dhmosou kleidio enai shmantik na mhn mpore kanec par mno h
na upologsei thn sunrthsh

SA ()

se kpoio logik qronik disthma.

Alice

lektronikc epikoinwnac pou kruptografetai kai stlnetai sthn

yhfiakc upografc thc
thn

SA ().

Alice

sthrzontai sthn upjesh ti mno h

Aut h propjesh exhge giat h

Alice

kai

Alice

H idiwtikthta thc h-

kai h aujentikthta thc

Alice

mpore na upologsei

prpei na kratsei mustik to

SA ;

an den to

knei, tte qnei thn monadiktht thc wc qrsthc kai to ssthma dhmosou kleidio den mpore
na thn prostatesei. H upjesh ti mno h
akma ki an kajnac gnwrzei to
pou enai antstrofh thc

SA ().

PA

Alice mpore na upologsei thn SA () prpei na isqei

kai mpore se logik qronik disthma na upologsei thn

PA (),

H meglh duskola ston sqediasm enc praktiko sustmatoc

dhmosou kleidio enai to pc ja dhmiourghje na prwtkollo pou epitrpei thn dhmosiopohsh

thc

PA (),

qwrc na mpore na breje h antstrofh sunrthsh

SA ().

Se na ssthma dhmosou kleidio, h kruptogrfhsh gnetai wc exc: upojtoume ti o

jlei na stelei sthn

Alice

na mnuma

Bob

me ttoio trpo tsi ste opoiosdpote krufakoei to

kanli epikoinwnac na mhn mpore na katalbei ti enai to mnuma.

To prwtkollo douleei wc

exc:

Bob

brskei to dhmsio kleid

apeujeac ap thn

Bob

PA

thc

Alice

Alice).

upologzei to kruptografhmno mnuma

kai stlnei to

(ete ap kpoion dhmsio katlogo ete

sthn

Alice.

C = PA (M )

pou antistoiqe sto mnuma

Alice

'Otan h

gia na anaktsei to arqik mnuma

Epeid oi

ap to

C,

lbei to kruptografhmno mnuma

SA

qrhsimopoie to mustik thc kleid

M = SA (C).

SA () kai PA () enai antstrofec sunartseic, h Alice mpore na upologsei to mnuma

C.

Epeid mno h

pou mpore na upologsei to

Alice

mpore na upologsei thn

C.

ap to

SA (),

H kruptogrfhsh tou

enai tautqrona kai h mnh

me thn

PA ()

perieqmeno tou mhnmatoc kai den epitrpei thn angnws tou, par mno sthn

prostateei to

Alice.

Oi yhfiakc upografc enai epshc ekolo na ulopoihjon me autn ton orism tou sustmatoc
dhmosou kleidio.

Shmeinoume pwc uprqoun ki llec mjodoi na proseggiste to prblhma

dhmiourgac yhfiakn upografn, all den ja mac apasqolsoun sthn parosa enthta.
jtoume ti h

Alice

jlei na apantsei ston

Bob

me na mnuma

Upo-

pou qei upografe yhfiak,

opte prokptoun ta aklouja.

Alice

upologzei thn yhfiak thc upograf

mustik kleid

'Otan o

Alice

SA

kai thn sqsh

lbei to

(M , ),

na qrhsimopoisei.
numa

qrhsimopointac to

(M , )

ston

Bob.

mpore na epibebaisei ti prorqetai ap thn

mopointac to dhmsio kleid thc

ojtoume ti to

gia to mnuma

= SA (M ).

stlnei to zegoc mhnmatoc-upografc

Bob

Alice

gia na epalhjesei thn sqsh

periqei to noma thc

Alice,

ste o

An h sqsh epalhjeute, tte o

periqei ntwc thn yhfiak upograf thc

Bob

Bob

Alice.

Alice

qrhsi-

M = PA ().

Up-

na xrei poio dhmsio kleid

mpore na sumpernei ti to mAn den epalhjeute, tte o

Bob

mpore na sumpernei ete ti to mnuma ete h yhfiak upograf peirqthkan kat thn
metdosh. Aut mpore na ofeletai se ljoc tou kanalio metdoshc, mpore mwc kai na
gine appeira plastogrfhshc thc upografc appeira tropopohshc tou mhnmatoc.

Epeid h yhfiak upograf prosfrei tautqrona tautopohsh tou apostola pou upogrfei
kai pistopohsh tou perieqomnou tou mhnmatoc, enai anlogh me thn qeirgrafh upograf se
na kemeno pou uprqei sto qart.
Mia shmantik idithta thc yhfiakc upografc enai ti mpore na epibebaiwje ap opoiondpote pou qei prsbash sto dhmsio kleid tou apostola. 'Ena upogegrammno mnuma mpore na
epibebaiwje ap nan qrsth kai met na metabibaste se llouc qrstec, oi opooi akolojwc

mporon na epibebaisoun thn upograf. Gia pardeigma, to mnuma mpore na enai mia hlektronik epitag ap thn

Alice gia ton Bob.

Afo o

Bob epalhjesei thn yhfiak upograf thc Alice,

mpore na dsei thn epitag sthn trpez tou, h opoa mpore epshc na epalhjesei thn upograf
thc

Alice

kai na probe sthn antstoiqh sunallag.

Shmeinoume ti wc tra jewrome ti to mnuma den qei kruptografhje, metaddetai pwc

enai kai den prostateetai ap kpoion pou parakolouje to kanli epikoinwnac.

Sunjtontac

to prwtkollo thc kruptogrfhshc me aut thc yhfiakc upografc, mporome na dhmiourgsoume mhnmata pou enai tautqrona kruptografhmna kai upogegrammna. O apostolac prta
episunptei thn yhfiak upograf sto tloc tou mhnmatoc kai akolojwc kruptografe to zegoc
mhnmatoc-upografc me to dhmsio kleid tou paralpth. O paralpthc, afo lbei to mnuma,
apokruptografe me to mustik tou kleid gia na apoktsei to zegoc mhnmatoc upografc kai
sthn sunqeia epalhjeei thn upograf qrhsimopointac to dhmsio kleid tou apostola.

antstoiqh diadikasa se ggrafh epikoinwna ja tan na upogryei o apostolac to ggrafo kai

sthn sunqeia na to blei se kleist fkelo pou ja anoiqje mno ap ton paralpth.

Sgkrish me prwtkolla idiwtiko kleidio

H basik diafor metax twn prwtokll-

wn dhmosou kleidio kai idiwtiko kleidio enai ti sta prta den uprqei h apathsh to kleid
pou qrhsimopoietai gia thn kruptogrfhsh enc mhnmatoc na enai dio me aut pou qrhsimopoietai gia thn apokruptogrfhsh.

To gegonc aut epitrpei thn dhmosiopohsh tou kleidio pou

qrhsimopoietai gia thn kruptogrfhsh, me ton shmantik periorism ti ja prpei na mhn enai
efikt na qrhsimopoihje aut h gnsh ste na prokyei to kleid thc apokruptogrfhshc, to
opoo apokaletai kai

mustik

kleid

Antjeta, sta prwtkolla idiwtiko kleidio ta do aut

kleidi tautzontai kai gi' aut prpei na paramenoun mustik.

Ma prth sunpeia enai ti na prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio sto opoo summetqoun
qrstec apaite

kleidi (sthn pragmatikthta apaite

zegh thc morfc dhmsio kleid -

mustik kleid), en na antstoiqo prwtkollo idiwtiko kleidio apaite

kajc prpei na dhmiourghje na kleid gia kje zegoc qrhstn.

(n)
2

n(n1)
2

kleidi,

Ap thn llh pleur, ta

prwtkolla idiwtiko kleidio enai arket taqtera ap ta antstoiqa dhmosou kleidio.

2.1

Dhmiourga kai antallag kleidin

En sta prwtkolla dhmosou kleidio enai ekolo na brei kanec to kleid me to opoo
prpei na kruptografsei to mnuma proc kpoion sugkekrimno apostola (efson autc to
dhmosiopoie), sta prwtkolla idiwtiko kleidio genntai to erthma tou pc do qrstec ja
sumfwnsoun se na sugkekrimno kleid. H phg tou problmatoc enai ti mqri na oristikopoihje kpoio kleid to kanli epikoinwnac enai anasfalc, epomnwc opoiodpote mnuma metax
autn twn do qrhstn mpore na anagnwsje ap louc soi qoun prsbash sto kanli.

Me

lla lgia, antimetwpzoume to prblhma thc dhmiourgac enc asfaloc kleidio me qrsh enc
anasfaloc kanalio epikoinwnac.
Sthn sunqeia, parousizoume me suntoma thn lsh pou protjhke to

Die
U

kai

Martin Hellman

gia to sugkekrimno prblhma.

qrstec ki stw

ui

ap

i-ostc

qrsthc.

sumfwnsoun se nan meglo prto arijm

qrstec

ui

kai

uj

ui

upologzei to

a
Ai j

upologsei to
qrstec

ui

kai

uj

Arqik, ja prpei loi auto oi qrstec na

g Zp .

ui

Epiplon, kje qrsthc

kai na upologsei to

Ai = g ai mod p.

prpei na

An tra do

jloun na dhmiourgsoun na idiwtik kleid ste na mporon sthn sunqeia

ui

na epikoinwnon, tte arke o

o

ai Zp

Upojtoume ti qoume na snolo

p (ja prpei na enai pol megalteroc ap to pljoc

twn qrhstn) kajc kai na dhmiourg-stoiqeo

dhmiourgsei tuqaa na stoiqeo

1976 ap touc Whiteld

Aaj i

na stelei to

Ai

ston

uj

kai o

uj

to

Aj

ston

mod p = (g aj mod p)ai mod p = g ai aj mod p

mod p = (g ai )aj mod p = g ai aj mod p.

ui .

Sthn sunqeia,

kai antstoiqa o

uj

na

Parathrome ti telik oi do

qoun upologsei thn dia posthta, h opoa apotele kai to idiwtik kleid gia

to sugkekrimno zegoc qrhstn.

To prwtkollo twn

Die

kai

Hellman

baszetai sto prblhma tou diakrito logarjmou, me

lla lgia sto ti en enai ekolo dojntwn twn

p, g

kai

ai

na upologiste to

enai upologistik dskolo na antistrafe aut h prxh kai dojntwn twn

sugkekrimno

p, g

Ai = g ai mod p,

kai

Ai

na breje to

ai .

Oloklhrnoume aut thn pargrafo me na pardeigma ki stw ti oi qrstec qoun sumfwnsei ston prto arijm

p = 71

kai sto dhmiourg stoiqeo

g = 7.

Do qrstec

u2

dialgoun tuqaa ap nan arijm ap to

Z71

ti

A1 = g a1 mod p = 75 mod 71 = 51

A2 = g a2 mod p = 713 mod 71 = 4.

kai

ki stw

a1 = 5

kai

a2 = 12.

u1

kai

Tte isqei

wc, afo oi sugkekrimnoi qrstec antallxoun ta parapnw mhnmata, upologzei o

Epomn-

u1

to

45

mod 71 = 30

kai o

u2

to

5112 mod 71 = 30.

u1

kai

u2

gia thn metax touc epikoinwna enai o arijmc

qrhsimopoion oi

Sunepc, to idiwtik kleid pou ja prpei na

30.

Shmeinoume ti

gia ton upologism thc ywshc se dnamh oi qrstec prpei na qrhsimopoisoun ton algrijmo

MODULAR-EXPONENTIATION
2.2

pou parousisame sthn Enthta 1.2.

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio

RSA

RSA

baszetai sthn meglh diafor anmesa sthn eukola

ereshc meglwn prtwn arijmn kai thn duskola paragontopohshc tou ginomnou do meglwn
prtwn arijmn.

Sthn enthta 3 perigrfetai mia apodotik diadikasa gia thn eresh meglwn

prtwn arijmn.
Kje qrsthc dhmiourge to dhmsio kai to mustik kleid me thn akloujh diadikasa.

1. Epilgei tuqaa do meglouc prtouc arijmoc

upojtoume ti enai

2. Upologzei to

512 bits

tsi ste

p = q .

Oi prtoi arijmo

n = pq.

d,

o opooc enai sqetik prtoc me to

to opoo enai to pollaplasiastik antstrofo tou

Prisma 26 eggutai ti to

(n),

to opoo

d uprqei kai enai monadik.

e modulo (n).

Gia na upologsei to

To

d ap ta e kai

mpore na akoloujsei thn mjodo thc enthtac 1.2.

5. Dhmosiopoie to zegoc

P = (e, n),

6. Krat mustik to zegoc

to opoo enai to dhmsio

S = (d, n),

Se aut thn mjodo, to pedo

pou sqetzetai me to dhmsio kleid

RSA

to opoo enai to mustik

enai to snolo

P = (e, n)

Zn .

kleid tou.

RSA

kleid tou.

O metasqhmatismc enc mhnmatoc

enai o

P (M ) = M e (

mod n).

O metasqhmatismc tou kruptografhmnou mhnmatoc

(d, n)

(p 1)(q 1).

4. Upologzei to

(n)

kai

o kajnac.

3. Epilgei nan mikr peritt akraio

isotai me

pou sqetzetai me to mustik kleid

(15)

S=

enai o

S(C) = C d (

mod n).

(16)

Autc oi do exisseic efarmzontai kai gia thn kruptogrfhsh kai gia thn upograf.

Gia na

upogryei to mnuma, o qrsthc efarmzei to mustik tou kleid sto kajar mnuma, ant gia to
kruptografhmno.

Gia na epalhjesei mia upograf, o paralpthc efarmzei to dhmsio kleid

tou apostola sthn upograf, ant gia to mnuma.

Oi prxeic gia thn dhmiourga tou dhmsiou kai tou mustiko kleidio mporon na gnoun qrhsimopointac thn diadikasa
enthta 1.2.

log n .

O( 2 )
kai

(e, n)

ikanopoion

Apdeixh.

bits.

prxeic se

Jerhma

kai to mustik kleid

(d, n)

ikanopoion tic sqseic

Tte, h qrsh enc dhmsiou kleidio apaite

prxeic se

O( 3 )

pwc aut parousisjhke sthn

Gia thn anlush tou qrnou ektleshc twn prxewn autn, upojtoume ti to

dhmsio kleid
kai

MODULAR-EXPONENTIATION

37.

Oi

log e = O(1), log d

O(1) modular

H qrsh enc mustiko kleidio apaite

pollaplasiasmoc kai

O() modular

pollaplasiasmoc

bits.
exisseic

tic sqseic 13 kai

15

kai

16

orzoun

antstrofouc

metasqhmatismoc

14.

Ap tic exisseic 15 kai 16, qoume ti gia kje

M Zn

P (S(M )) = S(P (M )) = M ed ( mod n).

Epeid ta

kai

enai pollaplasiastiko antstrofoi

modulo (n) = (p 1)(q 1),

ed = 1 + k(p 1)(q 1)
gia kpoion akraio

k.

Tte mwc, an

M = 0 ( mod p),

tte qoume

M ed M (M p1 )k(q1) ( mod p)
M (1)k(q1) ( mod p)
M (
Epshc,

M ed M ( mod p)

an

mod p).

M 0 ( mod p).

Sunepc,

M ed M ( mod p)
gia kje

M.

Paromowc,

M ed M (

mod q)

sto

Zn

pou

gia kje

M.

Opte, ap to Prisma 29 gia to Kinziko jerhma twn upolopwn, qoume

M ed M ( mod n)
gia kje

M.
RSA

H asfleia tou prwtokllou

baszetai se meglo bajm sto ti enai upologistik

dskolh h paragontopohsh meglwn akerawn. An nac antpaloc mpore na paragontopoisei

to

n se na dhmsio kleid, tte mpore na apoktsei to mustik kleid ap to dhmsio kleid, qrhsip

mopointac thn gnsh twn paragntwn

kai

q,

me ton dio trpo pou o dhmiourgc tou dhmosou

kleidio touc qrhsimopohse. Epomnwc, an enai upologistik ekolh h paragontopohsh meglwn

akerawn, tte enai upologistik ekolo na parabiaste to prwtkollo

RSA. H antjeth prtash

den qei apodeiqje, sunepc mia apdeixh ti h paragontopohsh enai upologistik dskolh den
ja apodeknue ti to

RSA enai asfalc.

Mporome mwc, met ap sqedn 30 qrnia ereunhtikn

RSA

prospajein, na pome ti o eukolteroc trpoc na parabiaste h asfleia tou

thc paragontopohshc meglwn akerawn. Epilgontac tuqaa do arijmoc twn

enai msw

512 bits

kai pol-

laplasizontc touc, mpore kanec na dhmiourgsei na dhmsio kleid pou den mpore na spsei
se logik qrno me bsh thn parosa teqnologik katstash.

Katalgontac, an den epljei

kpoia drastik allag kai prodoc sthn jewra arijmn, to prwtkollo

RSA

enai asfalc,

tan ulopoietai proseqtik.

Epigrammatik, pijano trpoi ste na parabiaste h asfleia tou prwtokllou

RSA

enai oi

akloujoi:

Msw paragontopohshc tou

n = pq ,

tte mpore na brei to

Msw upologismo tou

(n):

n:

Profanc, an o antpaloc brei ta

(n) = (p 1)(q 1)
An to

(n)

kai

kai to mustik kleid

gia ta opoa

d.

enai gnwst, tte mpore na upologiste to

Enai ekolo mwc na dome pwc h gnsh tou

Aut sumbanei lgw twn sqsewn

(n)

odhge sthn paragontopohsh tou

p + q = n (n) + 1, (p 1)2 = (p + q)2 4n

d.
n.

kai

q = 21 [(p + q) (p q)].
Gia lgouc eukolac kai taqthtac, arket suqn qrhsimopoietai sthn prxh na ubridik
sqma pou periqei kai grgora prwtkolla pou den baszontai se dhmsia kleidi.

Se na t-

toio ubridik ssthma, ta kleidi pou qrhsimopoiontai gia thn kruptogrfhsh kai thn apokruptogrfhsh enai dia.

An h

Alice

jlei na stelei na mnuma

ston

Bob,

epilgei tuqaa na

kleid

kai kruptografe me grgoro trpo to

to kruptografhmno mnuma

C.

To

qrhsimopointac to

enai diou megjouc me to

mikr se mgejoc. Sthn sunqeia, kruptografe to

d, to

enai mikr se mgejoc, o upologismc tou

PB (K)

PB (M )).

Bob,

gia na prei to

apokruptografsei to mnuma

PB (K)

opte qei upologsei

all to

enai arket

me bsh to dhmsio kleid tou

ap ti ja qreiaztan gia na upologiste to

o opooc apokruptografe to

M,

K,

Bob.

Epei-

gnetai grgora (pol grhgortera

Akolojwc, metaddei to

K,

gia na prei to arqik mnuma

(C, PB (K))

ston

to opoo to qrhsimopoie gia na

M.

Mia parmoia ubridik prosggish qrhsimopoietai gia thn grgorh dhmiourga yhfiakn upografn. To

RSA sunduzetai me mia dhmsia one-way hash function h; mia sunrthsh pou mpore

na upologiste ekola all gia thn opoa enai upologistik adnato na brejon do mhnmata
kai

ttoia ste

tou mhnmatoc

M.

gia na prei to

Bob

to

h(M ) = h(M ).
An h

h(M ),

Alice

H tim

h(M )

enai na mikr (ac pome

jlei na upogryei to mnuma

M,

Bob

apotpwma

efarmzei prta thn

to opoo upogrfei me to mustik thc kleid.

(M, SA (h(M ))).

160 bits)

sto

PA

sto

SA (h(M ))

Akolojwc, stlnei ston

h(M )

mpore na epalhjesei thn upograf upologzontac to

kai epalhjeontac ti an efarmsei to

pou labe ja prei to

h(M ).

Epeid

enai upologistik adnato na dhmiourghjon do mhnmata me to dio apotpwma, enai upologistik adnato na alloiwje na upogegrammno mnuma kai na paramenei anallowth h yhfiak
upograf.
Tloc, anafroume ti h qrsh
dhmoswn kleidin.

pistopoihtikn

certicates) knei eukolterh thn dianom twn

Gia pardeigma, upojtoume ti uprqei mia mpisth arq

dhmsio kleid enai gnwst se louc. H

(pistopoihtik) ap thn

T,

Alice

T,

thc opoac to

mpore na tte na prei na upogegrammno mnuma

to opoo ja lei ti to dhmsio kleid thc

Alice

enai to

to pistopoihtik pistopoie kat kpoion trpo ton eaut tou, kajc loi xroun to

PA .

PT .

Aut

Alice

mpore na episunyei to pistopoihtik se kje upogegrammno mnum thc, opte o paralpthc

qei sthn dijes tou amswc to dhmsio kleid me to opoo ja epalhjesei thn upograf. Epeid
to kleid thc enai pistopoihmno ap thn

T,

o paralpthc mpore na enai sgouroc ti qei sthn

dijes tou to pragmatik dhmsio kleid thc

2.3

Alice.

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio tou

'Opwc proanaframe sthn suzthsh gia to prwtkollo

Rabin
RSA,

gnwrzoume ti mpore na para-

biaste an uprqei kpoioc apodotikc algrijmoc gia to prblhma thc paragontopohshc. Qrhsi-

mopointac rouc upologistikc poluplokthtac, aut mpore na anaparastaje wc

RSA Paragontopohsh.

Parabash

Den qei apodeiqje mwc ti to prblhma

RSA enai upologistik tso dskolo so to prblhma

thc paragontopohshc.
Mia diaforetik ida, pou epshc baszetai sthn jewra arijmn, protjhke ap ton
to 1979. O

Rabin

M. Rabin

prteine na prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio to opoo enai apodedeigmna tso

dskolo so to prblhma thc paragontopohshc.

Kje qrsthc epilgei na zeugri

diaforetikoc prtouc akeraouc, to opoo kratei mustik.

(p, q)

Dialgei epshc nan akraio

ap

B <

N = pq .
To dhmsio kleid enai to zegoc

(B, N ).

To mustik kleid enai h paragontopohsh

H sunrthsh kruptogrfhshc

(p, q)

tou

M,

enc mhnmatoc

N.

pou to

(an enai meglo, mporome na

to qwrsoume se tmmata) anaparstatai wc nac akraioc sto disthma

e(M ) = M (M + B) (
An sumbolsoume to kruptografhmno mnuma me
enai na breje na

{1, . . . , N 1},

enai

mod N ).

C , tte to prblhma thc apokruptogrfhshc

ttoio ste

M2 + MB = C

mod N ).

(17)

H kentrik ida tou prwtokllou enai h akloujh.

Lmma 38.

Mia lsh

gia

thn isodunama

x2 + Bx = C
mpore na breje

kai

akeraouc

a=1 (

an brome

kai

ttoiouc

mod p),

Tte qoume pwc

tic lseic

h sqsh

kai

gia

mod pq)
tic

(18)

isodunamec

u2 + Bu = C

( mod p),

v 2 + Bv = C

( mod q),

ste

a=0 (

mod q),

x = au + bv

b=0 (

ikanopoie

mod p),

thn isodunama 18.

b=1 (

mod q).

(19)

Apdeixh.

a = 1 + kp a = lq

Knontac arijmhtikc prxeic kai antikajistntac

pou qreizetai.

Suneqzoume thn parousash tou prwtokllou me to akloujo apotlesma.

Lmma 39.

mporon

to

na

log pq

Afo oi

brejon

kai

enai prtoi arijmo, oi akraioi

qrhsimopointac

ton

kai

EXTENDED-EUCLID

pou ikanopoion thn sqsh 19

se

qrno

poluwnumik

wc

proc

Apdeixh.

Ektelome ton algrijmo

airth twn

p kai q .

EXTENDED-EUCLID

kai brskoume ton mgisto koin di-

Afo enai prtoi metax touc, katalgoume se mia sqsh san thn

H apdeixh oloklhrnetai an jsoume

a = fq

kai

1 = ep + f q .

b = ep.

Sunepc, h apokruptogrfhsh mpore na gnei ekola an mporome na lsoume thn isodunama

modulo

nan prto arijm. To parapnw mwc mpore na gnei wc exc.

Lmma 40.

eplush thc

u2 + Bu = C
enai isodnamh me

thn eplush

thc

y 2 = C + (41 )p B 2
pou

to

(41 )p

Apdeixh.

To

dhlnei ton

(41 )p

( mod p)

pollaplasiastik

uprqei efson o

( mod p),

antstrofo

tou

(20)

4 modulo p

enai prtoc arijmc kai h sqsh 20 prokptei an

sumplhrsoume to anptugma tou tetragnou.

Efson o

enai epshc prtoc, to Lmma 40 isqei kai an pou

qoume to

q,

kai sunepc

qoume angei to prblhma thc apokruptogrfhshc sto prblhma thc ereshc tetragwnikn rizn

modulo

kpoion prto arijm.

Sunduzontac ta parapnw apotelsmata, apodeiknoume thn akloujh prtash.

Prisma

diadikasa

41.

thc

An

oi

prtoi

arijmo

kai

afnoun

kai

oi

do

apokruptogrfhshc mpore na gnei se poluwnumik

uploipo

qrno.

3 modulo 4

tte

Apdeixh.

O paralpthc, o opooc gnwrzei touc prtouc pargontec

kai

tou

n,

gnwrzei

epshc pwc to kruptografhmno mnuma prpei na enai tetragwnik uploipo kai mpore na lsei
tic exisseic
lsh

modulo p

kai

modulo q

kai na qrhsimopoisei ta Lmmata 38 kai 40 gia na bre thn

thc exswshc 17.

Sthn pragmatikthta, o

Rabin

p, q

enai pwc akma ki an oi arijmo

kai oi do uploipo

apdeixe kti pio isqur ap to prisma 41.

3 modulo 4),

Aut pou deixe

den ankoun se aut thn kathgora (dhlad den afnoun

tte kai pli oi exisseic

modulo p

kai

modulo q

lujon se poluwnumik qrno, qrhsimopointac nan pijanotik algrijmo.

mporon na

ton opoon den ja

parousisoume ed.
Anakefalainontac, gia opoiousdpote prtouc arijmoc

kai

q,

h diadikasa thc apokrup-

togrfhshc mpore na gnei (ete msw nteterministiko ete msw pijanotiko algorjmou) se
poluwnumik qrno.
Gia pardeigma, upojtoume ti h

Alice

qei wc dhmsio kleid to zegoc

(p, q) = (7, 11)

en to mustik thc kleid enai h paragontopohsh

M = 3,

tou

N.

(B, N ) = (2, 77),

An to mnuma enai to

tte

C = M 2 + 2M = 15 (
Gia na apokruptografsei, h

Alice

mod 77).

ja prpei na lsei tic

u2 + 2u = 15 = 1 (

mod 7)

kai

v 2 + 2v = 15 = 4 (
Autc lnontai, an lsei tic
tic timc

(u + 1)2 = 2 ( mod 7)

u + 1 = 22 = 4 ( mod 7)
u=3

b = 21,

kai

(v + 1)2 = 5 ( mod 11)

kai

v + 1 = 53 = 4 ( mod 11).

2,

Akolojwc, qrhsimopointac ton algrijmo

kai

mod 11).

v=3

x2 + 2x = 15 (

mod 77)

Sunepc,

6.

EXTENDED-EUCLID

kai h lsh sto

gia na prei

parnei tic timc

a = 22

enai h

2 22 3 21

2 22 6 21
x=
3 22 3 21

3 22 6 21

Aut shmanei pwc h

dhlad

Alice

( mod 77).

qei na dialxei anmesa se

pijan mhnmata tou apostola,

M1 = 3, M2 = 17, M3 = 58, M4 = 72.

To parapnw pardeigma parousizei na ap ta meionektmata tou prwtokllou dhmosou

kleidio tou

Rabin,

arqik mhnmata.

dhlad to ti o paralpthc prpei na dialxei anmesa se perisstera pijan

Sunjwc, to prblhma aut lnetai ap thn dia thn fsh tou mhnmatoc

(an dhlad gnwrzoume ti to arqik mnuma tan mia prtash sta ellhnik, tte enai apjano na
uprqoun pnw ap na pijan mhnmata pou na qoun nhma sta ellhnik). Wc na epiplon mtro
asfaleac, mporome na epibloume se louc touc qrstec tou prwtokllou na epanalambnoun
p.q.

ta prta

64 bits

sto tloc tou mhnmatoc.

Tte, o paralpthc ja elgqei kje pijan

mnuma gia to an qei aut thn eidik morf.

Tloc, ja knoume mia sntomh anafor se na ssthma yhfiakn upografn pou qrhsimopoie
to prwtkollo tou

B = 0.
s

Rabin,

gia to opoo ja upojsoume ti gia louc touc qrstec isqei pwc

An o apostolac jlei na apostelei na mnuma

tsi ste

s2 = m ( mod n)

m,

tte upologzei thn tetragwnik rza

kai stlnei ston paralpth to mnuma

O paralpthc me thn seir tou, koitzei to dhmsio kleid

m = s2

( mod n).

An

m = m

(m, s).

tou apostola kai upologzei to

tte apodqetai ti to sugkekrimno mnuma ntwc to steile o

upotijmenoc apostolac.
'Ena pijan prblhma me to parapnw ssthma yhfiakn upografn, enai pwc nac kakbouloc qrsthc mpore na epilxei na
na stelei to

(s, m),

me dhmsio kleid

n.

s Zn ,

na upologzei to

m = s2

( mod n)

kai akolojwc

to opoo fusik o paralpthc ja nomzei ti prorqetai ap ton apostola

Eutuqc, gia thn asfleia tou prwtokllou, h pijanthta to (tuqao)

na

qei kpoio nhma enai pol mikr.

2.4

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio tou

To prwtkollo dhmosou kleidio

baszetai sto prwtkollo twn

Die

El Gamal

kai

El Gamal

protjhke ap ton

Hellman

Taher El Gamal

to 1984 kai

pou perigryame nwrtera.

Oi qrstec pou prkeitai na summetsqoun sto prwtkollo qreizetai na akoloujsoun ta

aklouja bmata gia kje fsh tou prwtokllou.

Dhmiourga

stoiqeo
to

g Zp

g a mod p.

Kje qrsthc epilgei nan meglo prto arijm

kleidio

kajc kai na tuqao akraio

An o qrsthc

prpei na brei to dhmsio kleid

PA

tou

jlei na epikoinwnsei me ton qrsth

A ki stw PA = (p, g, g a mod p).

metatrpei to mnuma pou jlei na stelei se nan arijm

epilgei nan tuqao akraio

ttoion ste

qreizetai na upologsei tic posthtec

to mnuma

ologzei to
mnuma

2 k p 2.

= g k mod p

p1a mod p,

upologzontac to

A,

afo qei lbei to

gia to opoo isqei ti

( a ) mod p,

dhmiourg stoiqeo

tte prin ap la

Akolojwc, o qrsthc

sto disthma

{0, . . . , p 1}

kai

Gia na kruptografsei to mnuma

= m(g a )k mod p,

g = 2 Z2357

c,

kai tloc stlnei

qrhsimopoie to mustik kleid

p1a = a = g ak .

kajc isqei ti

Upojtoume ti o qrsthc

Pardeigma

kai

c = (, ).

Apokruptogrfhsh

to

(p, g, g a mod p), en to mustik kleid

a.

Kruptogrfhsh

ston qrsth

na dhmiourg

a ttoion ste 2 a p 2 kai katpin upologzei

To dhmsio kleid tou qrsth enai h trida

enai o akraioc

p,

kai up-

Tloc, anakt to

a g ak mg ak m ( mod p).

qei dialxei ton prto arijm

kai ton akraio

a = 1751.

p = 2357,

to

Mpore sunepc na upologsei

g a mod p = 21751 mod 2357 = 1185 kai to dhmsio kleid tou enai PA = (p = 2357, g = 2, g a

mod p = 1185).
An o qrsthc
upologzei ta
Epomnwc, o

jlei na stelei to mnuma

= g k = 21520 mod 2357 = 1430

stlnei to mnuma

O teleutaoc upologzei ta

2035,

m = 2035, epilgei na k = 1520 kai sthn sunqeia

c = (1430, 697)

kai

ston

(p, g, g a )

El Gamal

gia ton qrsth

na stelei na mnuma

A.

p1a = 1430605 mod 2357 = 872 kai m = 872697 mod 2357 =

epomnwc qei katafrei na anaktsei to mnuma

Upografc

= 2035 11851520 mod 2357 = 697.

m.

Kat' arqc, to stdio thc dhmiourgac tou dhmsiou kleidio

enai dio pwc kai sto prwtkollo kruptogrfhshc. 'Otan o

m ston B , arqik dialgei nan tuqao akraio k

ttoion ste

PA =
jlei

2 k p2

kai

gcd(k, p 1) = 1

mod p 1.

kai upologzei ta

H yhfiak upograf tou

'Otan o paralpthc

gia to mnuma

kai

enai to zegoc

s = k 1 {h(m) ar}

(r, s).

prei to mnuma kai thn upograf, arqik brskei to dhmsio kleid

tou apostola kai epibebainei ti

upologzei ta

r = g k mod p, k 1 mod p 1

1 r p1

allic aporrptei to mnuma.

v1 = g ar rs mod p, h(m) kai v2 = g h(m) mod p.

An isqei ti

Sthn sunqeia,

v1 = v2

tte dqetai

to mnuma kai thn upograf, allic ta aporrptei.

Gia na apodexoume ti to sugkekrimno prwtkollo yhfiakc upografc enai swst, arke
na jewrsoume thn sqsh
me

tte prokptei

ks = {h(m) ar} mod p 1

to dhmiourg stoiqeo
kai sunepc

s = k 1 {h(m) ar} mod p 1.

kai

sta do mlh, prokptei ti

An pollaplasisoume kai ta

h(m) = ar + ks mod p 1.

g h(m) = g ar+ks mod p

g h(m) = (g a )r (g k )s = (g a )r (r)s mod p

mlh

An uysoume

(ap to Jerhma 33)

kai sunepc isqei ti

v1 = v2 .

3 Elegqoc prtwn arijmn

Se aut thn enthta, ja asqolhjome me to prblhma thc ereshc meglwn prtwn arijmn.
Arqik ja exetsoume to zthma thc puknthtac twn prtwn arijmn, akolojwc ja exetsoume
mia elogh prosggish sto prblhma tou elgqou gia to an nac megloc arijmc enai prtoc
kai ja parousisoume nan apodotik pijanotik algrijmo elgqou pou anptuxan o

Rabin.

Agrawal, Kayal

Tloc, ja parousisoume ton algrijmo twn

kai

Saxena

Miller kai o

pou to 2002 se

mia pol shmantik ergasa gia thn jewra arijmn parousasan nan nteterministik algrijmo
pou epilei to prblhma tou elgqou se poluwnumik qrno.

Ja dsoume megalterh mfash

sthn parousash pijanotikn algorjmwn, kajc enai grhgorteroi kai parousizoun idiatero
endiafron gia didaktikoc lgouc.

Se pollc efarmogc (pwc h kruptografa), qreizetai

Puknthta twn prtwn arijmn

na brome meglouc tuqaouc prtouc arijmoc.

Eutuqc, oi megloi prtoi den enai pol

spnioi, opte se elogo qronik disthma mporome na elgxoume tuqaouc meglouc arijmoc
mqri na breje kpoioc prtoc. H sunrthsh katanomc
arijmn pou enai mikrteroi soi me to
arijmo mikrteroi soi me to

12,

n.

Gia pardeigma,

oi opooi enai oi

arijmn parqei mia qrsimh prosggish gia to

Jerhma 42.

(Jerhma prtwn

(n)
limn n/
ln n

(n) prosdiorzei ton arijm twn prtwn

(12) = 4

2, 3, 5, 7

kai

11.

afo uprqoun

prtoi

To jerhma twn prtwn

(n).

arijmn)

= 1.

Mporome na qrhsimopoisoume to jerhma twn prtwn arijmn gia na ektimsoume thn pijanthta ti nac tuqaa epilegmnoc akraioc
na exetsoume perpou

ln n

na enai prtoc wc

1/ ln n.

tuqaa epilegmnouc akeraouc kont sto

nan prto me dio mgejoc pwc to

n.

n,

Sunepc, ja prpei

tsi ste na brome -

Gia pardeigma, gia na brome nan prto me

mpore na qreiaste na exetsoume perpou

ln 2512 355

tuqaouc arijmoc twn

512 bits,

512 bits.

Sthn

pragmatikthta, ja prpei na exetsoume touc misoc, an perioristome se perittoc akeraouc.

Sto uploipo autc thc enthtac, ja asqolhjome me to prblhma tou elgqou an nac
megloc perittc akraioc enai prtoc qi.

Ja qrhsimopoiome thn bolik upjesh ti o

paragontopoietai se prtouc pargontec wc

n = pe11 pe22 . . . perr ,

pou
O

r 1, p1 , p2 , . . . , pr

enai oi prtoi pargontec tou

enai prtoc an kai mno an

r=1

kai

n kai oi e1 , e2 , . . . , er

enai jetiko akraioi.

e1 = 1.

Mia apl prosggish sto prblhma tou elgqou enai h exonuqistik diaresh. Dokimzoume
na diairsoume to

me kje akraio

akeraouc. Enai profanc ti o

akeraouc den diaire to

n.

kai epomnwc

exetzontac mno to

kai touc perittoc

n enai prtoc an kai mno an kannac ap touc proanafermenouc

Upojtontac ti kje diaresh apaite stajer qrno, o qrnoc ekt-

leshc thc qeirterhc perptwshc enai

Upenjumzoume ti an to

2, 3, . . . , n,

( n),

o opooc enai ekjetikc wc proc to mkoc tou

anaparstatai sto duadik alfbhto me

n = (2/2 ).

bits,

tte

n.

= log(n + 1)

'Ara, h dokimastik diaresh douleei kal mno an to

enai mikr

tuqanei na qei kpoion mikr prto pargonta. 'Eqei to pleonkthma pwc den apofanetai mno
gia to an o

enai prtoc, all epistrfei kai nan prto pargonta sthn antjeth perptwsh.

Sthn enthta aut endiafermaste mno na mjoume an nac arijmc

enai prtoc; an o

enai snjetoc den mac endiafrei na brome thn paragontopohs tou se prtouc pargontec.
Enai mllon endiafron to ti enai eukoltero na apanthje an nac arijmc enai prtoc ap to
na breje h paragontopohs tou an enai snjetoc.

3.1

Pijanotiko algrijmoi

'Elegqoc

yeudoprtwn

Ja exetsoume tra mia mjodo gia legqo prtwn arijmn pou

sqedn douleei kai enai arket kal stic perissterec periptseic. Argtera, ja ekleptnoume
thn mjodo ste na mhn qei kpoio meionkthma. 'Estw
tou

Zn+

to snolo twn mh-mhdenikn stoiqewn

Zn :
Zn+ = {1, 2, . . . , n 1}.

An o

enai prtoc, tte

Lme ti o

enai

Zn+ = Zn .

yeudoprtoc me

bsh

an o

an1 1 (
Ap to jerhma tou

enai snjetoc kai

mod n).

(21)

Fermat (Jerhma 31) sunepgetai ti an o n enai prtoc, tte to n ikanopoie

thn exswsh (21) gia kje

a.

Sunepc, an mporsoume na brome kpoio

gia to opoo to

ikanopoie thn exswsh, tte mporome na apofanjome me bebaithta ti to

akraioc. To antjeto isqei

sqedn

nac arijmc enai prtoc qi.

den

enai snjetoc

pnta, epomnwc qoume na arket kal kritrio gia to an

Dokimzoume na dome an to

ikanopoie thn exswsh (21) gia

a = 2.

An qi, tte lme ti to

enai snjetoc. Allic, upojtoume ti to

sthn pragmatikthta to mno pou xroume enai pwc to

bsh

enai prtoc (tan

enai ete prtoc ete yeudoprtoc me

a).

O akloujoc algrijmoc genikeei thn parapnw diadikasa gia na elgxei to

ton algrijmo

MODULAR-EXPONENTIATION

n.

ap thn enthta 1.2. H esodoc

ti enai kpoioc perittc akraioc megalteroc tou

Qrhsimopoie

upojtoume

2.

PSEUDOPRIME(n)
1 an

MODULAR-EXPONENTIATION(2, n 1, n) = 1 ( mod n)

tte epstreye SUNJETOS

allic epstreye PRWTOS

\\sgoura

\\

elpzoume

Autc o algrijmoc mpore na knei ljh, all mno enc edouc.

snjetoc, tte enai opwsdpote snjetoc.
knei ljoc an o

An mwc pei pwc o

enai yeudoprtoc me bsh to

oi

22

341, 561, 645

timc tou

1105.

kai

mikrterec ap

enai prtoc, tte mpore na

10, 000

Eutuqc, kti ttoio sumbanei spnia.

Up-

enai

gia tic opoec knei ljoc; oi prtec

bits

tenei sto

kajc

akribsterouc upologismoc, mporome na dexoume ti nac arijmc twn

o algrijmoc apofaszei ti enai prtoc, qei pijanthta mikrterh ap

enai

Mpore na apodeiqje ti h pijanthta ti o algrijmoc knei ljoc

gia nan tuqaa epilegmno arijm twn

doprtoc bshc

a.

Pso suqn mpore na gnei na ttoio ljoc?

rqoun mno

An dhlad pei pwc o

kai nac tuqaa epilegmnoc arijmc me

lei ti enai prtoc, qei pijanthta mikrterh ap

1024 bits,

stic

1041

Qrhsimopointac

512 bits,

stic

gia ton opoo

1020

na enai yeu-

gia ton opoo o algrijmoc

na enai yeudoprtoc bshc

2.

Epomnwc, an mia efarmog aplc qreizetai nan meglo prto arijm, enai protimtero na
akoloujsoume ton parapnw algrijmo o opooc sthn prxh douleei.

An mwc o arijmc pou

exetzoume den enai tuqaa epilegmnoc, tte enai anagkaa mia kalterh prosggish.
Dustuqc, den mporome na glutsoume ap ta ljh, allzontac aplc thn bsh
exswsh 21, gia pardeigma stw pwc
thn 21 gia la ta
arijmo
mno

a.

Carmichael

a = 3,

giat uprqoun snjetoi akraioi

Auto oi akraioi enai gnwsto wc

enai to

561, 1105

255 mikrteroi tou 100, 000, 000.

algrijmo, tsi ste oi arijmo

kai

1729.

arijmo

Carmichael.

gia thn

pou ikanopoion
Oi prtoi treic

Enai arket spnioi; gia pardeigma uprqoun

Akolojwc, ja dexoume pc mporome na beltisoume ton

Carmichael

na mhn apotelon prblhma.

'Elegqoc

Miller-Rabin

gia prtouc

O legqoc

Miller-Rabin gia to an nac arijmc enai

prtoc qi apofegei ta meionektmata thc prohgomenhc mejdouc me tic akloujec allagc

Dokimzei diforec tuqaa epilegmnec timc gia thn bsh

Kajc upologzei tic uyseic se dnamh, exetzei an breje mia mh-tetrimmnh tetragwnik
rza tou

1 modulo n.

ant gia mno ma.

An nai, tte stamatei kai apofanetai pwc o arijmc enai snjetoc.

To prisma 36 exhge giat sumbanei aut.

Sthn sunqeia, parousizoume ton algrijmo pou exetzei an ma sugkekrimnh tim tou
mrturac gia to ti o

a enai

enai snjetoc arijmc, kajc kai kpoia sqlia gia thn leitourga tou.

WITNESS(a, n)
1

n 1 = 2t u

x0 MODULAR-EXPONENTIATION(a, u, n)

3 gia

i1

xi x2i1 mod n

an

mqri

xi = 1

kai

xi1 = 1

tte epstreye ALHJES

xi = 1

7 an
8

tte epstreye ALHJES

9 epstreye YEUDES

O algrijmoc

WITNESS

upologzei to

an1 mod n

upologzontac prta thn tim

x0 = au

mod n sthn gramm 2, uynontac met to apotlesma sto tetrgwno t forc sthn seir (grammc
3-6).

Me anagwg sto

sqsh

2i u

xi a

gia

i,

h akolouja

i = 0, 1, . . . , t,

x0 , x1 , . . . , xt

opte

twn timn pou upologzontai ikanopoie thn

xt an1 mod n.

'Opote ekteletai h gramm 4, o br-

qoc mpore na termatiste prwra an stic grammc 5-6 anakalufje mia mh-tetrimmnh tetragwnik
rza tou

1.

An aut sumbe, o algrijmoc termatzei kai epistrfei ALHJES. Oi grammc 7-8

epistrfoun  ALHJES an h tim pou upologsthke gia to

1,

xt an1 mod n

gia ton dio lgo pou epistrfei ALHJES kai o algrijmoc

diafrei ap to

PSEUDOPRIME.

Tloc, sthn

gramm 9 epistrfetai h tim YEUDES, an o algrijmoc den qei termatsei nwrtera.

Ja dexoume tra pwc an o

WITNESS(a, n)

epistryei ALHJES, tte o

enai snjetoc.

An o

WITNESS

mod n = 1.

An o

xt = an1

epistryei ALHJES sthn gramm 8, tte qei anakalyei ti

tan prtoc, tte ap to jerhma tou

mod n gia la ta a Zn+ .

Sunepc, o

Fermat

ja prpei na isqei

an1 1

n den mpore na enai prtoc kai h sqsh an1 mod n = 1

enai h apdeixh gi' aut.

An o

WITNESS

epistryei ALHJES sthn gramm 6, tte qei anakalyei ti to

mh-tetrimmnh tetragwnik rza tou

mod n).

1 modulo n,

To prisma 36 dhlnei pwc mno an o

tetragwnik rza tou

1 modulo n,

afo

xi1 = 1( mod n)

dedomna

kai

epomnwc katalgoume sto ti o

xi x2i1 1(

enai snjetoc.

WITNESS. An h klsh WITNESS(a, n)

enai sgoura snjetoc, ki aut mpore na apodeiqje gia ta

n.

Proqwrme tra sthn parousash tou algorjmou

NESS.

enai

enai snjetoc mpore na uprqei mh-tetrimmnh

'Etsi, oloklhrnetai h apdeixh gia thn orjthta tou

epistryei ALHJES, tte o

en

xi1

Upojtoume kai pli ti to

MILLER-RABIN

pou baszetai sto

enai perittc akraioc megalteroc ap

WIT-

2.

MILLER-RABIN(n, s)
1 gia

j1

a RANDOM(1, n 1)

mqri

an

WITNESS(a, n)

tte epstreye SUNJETOS

5 epstreye PRWTOS

O algrijmoc
snjetoc.

\\

elpzoume

sgoura

MILLER-RABIN

enai mia pijanotik anazthsh gia mia apdeixh ti o

O krioc brqoc dialgei

enai mrturac, tte o

\\

tuqaec timc tou

MILLER-RABIN

ap to

dokimc, tte o

sumbanei giat den uprqei kannac mrturac kai sunepc o

ti aut h apfash enai pijantata swst an to
pijanthta na maste tuqoi kat thn epilog twn
Gia pardeigma, stw
ti epilgoume

a = 7,

s
a

WITNESS

MILLER-RABIN
n enai prtoc.

upologzei thn akolouja

WITNESS

Mia ttoia

enai swstc.

An

upojtei pwc aut

Ja dexoume paraktw

enai arket meglo, all uprqei mia mikr

kai na uprqei kpoioc mrturac.

n o arijmc Carmichael 561, tsi ste n1 = 560 = 24 35.

xroume ti o

enai

An kpoio ap ta

apofanetai SUNJETOS sthn gramm 4.

apfash enai pntote swst, ap to gegonc ti o algrijmoc

den breje kannac mrturac se autc tic

Zn+ .

upologzei to

X =< 241, 298, 166, 67, 1 >.

Upojtontac

x0 a35 241 ( mod 561)

kai

'Ara, anakalyame mia mh-tetrimmnh

tetragwnik rza tou

1,

afo

enai mrturac gia to ti o

RABIN
O(s)

a280 67 ( mod n)

enai snjetoc, o

epistrfei SUNJETOS. An o

O(s 3 )

arijmhtikc prxeic kai

qreizetai gia

Anlush

RABIN

kai

a560 1 ( mod n).

WITNESS

epistrfei ALHJES kai o

apoteletai ap

prxeic me

bits,

Epomnwc, to

bits,

a=7

MILLER-

MILLER-RABIN

apaite

kajc asumptwtik apaitei sh doulei

uyseic se dnamh.

thc

pijanthtac

apofanje ti o

Se antjesh me ton

ljouc

tou

elgqou

Miller-Rabin

An o

MILLER-

enai prtoc, tte uprqei mia mikr pijanthta ti qei knei ljoc.

PSEUDOPRIME,

aut h pijanthta ljouc enai anexrthth ap to

uprqoun sqhmec esodoi gia ton algrijmo aut. Exarttai mwc ap to mgejoc tou
tuqaec epilogc gia ta difora

a.

n;

den

kai tic

Epiplon, epeid kje legqoc enai austhrteroc ap nan

apl legqo gia an isqei h sqsh (21), mporome na elpzoume ti h pijanthta ljouc enai mikr
gia nan tuqao akraio

Jerhma 43.

to gegonc enai

Jerhma

algrijmoc

44.

An to

n.
n

To aklouja jewrmata parqoun thn apnthsh.

enai perittc snjetoc akraioc, tte o arijmc twn martrwn gia aut

toulqiston

Gia

kje

3(n 1)/4

peritt

Miller-Rabin(n, s)

n > 2

akraio

knei ljoc

enai to

kai

kje

pol

4s

jetik

akraio

pijanthta

ti

s = 50

tte qoume na pol ikanopoihtik eppedo asfleiac gia tic

perissterec pijanc efarmogc.

An aut pou jloume enai na brome kpoion meglo prto

Sunepc, an jsoume

arijm kai efarmzoume ton algrijmo

tte akma kai mia mikr tim tou

Miller-Rabin

(stw

s = 3)

se

tuqaa

epilegmnouc meglouc akeraouc,

stic perissterec periptseic ja dsei kal

apotelsmata. Aut shmanei pwc gia nan tuqaa epilegmno peritt akraio
arijmc twn mh-martrwn enai arket mikrteroc tou

3.2

n,

o anamenmenoc

(n 1)/4.

O nteterministikc algrijmoc

Tloc, parousizoume ton prto nteterministik algrijmo pou apofanetai gia to an nac
dedomnoc arijmc enai prtoc qi qwrc na sthrzetai se kpoia anapdeikth upjesh (pwc
p.q. h Upjesh tou

Riemann).

O algrijmoc baszetai sto akloujo Lmma.

Lmma 45.

kai

'Estw

aZ nN
,

me

n2

kai

gcd(a, n) = 1

Tte

enai

prtoc

arijmc

an

mno an

(X + a)n X n + a ( mod n).

Apdeixh.

Gia

0 < i < n, o suntelestc tou xi

'Estw ti o

enai ntwc prtoc arijmc.

loi oi suntelestc enai soi me

'Estw ti o

kai stw ti

sthn kfrash
Tte, isqei

( )
((X + a)n (X n + a)) enai nk ani .
(n)
ti
k = 0 ( mod n) kai sunepc

0.

enai snjetoc kai ac jewrsoume nan prto

q k |n.

Tte, o

epomnwc o suntelestc tou

((X + a)n (X n + a))

Xq

qk

den diaire to

(n)
k

pou na enai pargontac tou

kai enai sqetik prtoc me to

modulo n).

den enai isodnamoc me mhdn (

modulo Zn )

den enai pntote isodnamh me mhdn (

enai ti qreizetai qrnoc

(n)

kai

Epomnwc, h kfrash
sto

Zn .

To parapnw Lmma enai sthn ousa nac aplc legqoc gia to an nac arijmc
Arke na dialxoume nan akraio

anq

kai na elgxoume an isqei h isodunama.

n enai prtoc.

To meionkthma

giat sthn qeirterh perptwsh qreizetai na upologsoume

suntelestc sto arister mloc thc isodunamac. Ma apl mjodoc gia na meisoume ton arijm
twn suntelestn enai na brome thn tim kai twn do meln thc isodunamac tan douleoume

modulo

na polunumo thc morfc

Xr 1

gia mia katllhla epilegmnh mikr tim tou

r.

Me

lla lgia, arke na elgxoume an isqei h akloujh isodunama

(X + a)n X n + a (

mod X r 1, n).

(22)

Ap to Lmma 45 prokptei ti loi oi prtoi arijmo ikanopoion thn isodunama 22 gia lec tic
timc twn

a, r.

Ap thn llh pleur, parousizetai to prblhma ti uprqoun plon kai snjetoi

arijmo pou ikanopoion thn isodunama 22 gia kpoiec timc twn

ti an epilxoume na katllhlo

Mporome mwc na dexoume

tte an ikanopoietai h 22 gia arket

enai dnamh kpoiou prtou arijmo. O arijmc twn

ap pnw ap na polunumo tou

a, r.

log n,

a,

tte o

kai h h katllhlh tim tou

prpei na

frssontai

opte katalgoume se nan nteterministik algrijmo

poluwnumiko qrnou pou apokrnetai gia to an nac dedomnoc arijmc enai prtoc.
Akolojwc parousizoume ton algrijmo.

'Estw ti sthn esodo qoume nan akraio

gia

ton opoo jloume na apofanjome an enai prtoc qi.

1. Arqik, o algrijmoc elgqei an isqei

n = ab

gia kpoion akraio

opte kai epistrfei thn apnthsh 'SUNJETOS'.

aN

kai gia

b > 1,

2. Sthn sunqeia brskei ton mikrtero akraio

pou jumzoume ti me
stoiqeo

3. Elgqei an

ordr (n)

tan douleoume

gia thn opoo isqei ti

ordr (n) > log2 n,

sumbolzoume thn txh thc upoomdac pou orzetai ap to

modulo r.

1 gcd(a, n) < n

gia kpoio

a r,

opte ki epistrfei thn apnthsh 'SUNJE-

TOS'.

4. Elgqei an isqei

5. Gia tic timc tou

mod X r 1, n)

nr

ap

opte ki epistrfei 'PRWTOS'.

wc

(r) log n

o algrijmoc elgqei an

(X + a)n = X n + a (

opte ki epistrfei 'SUNJETOS'.

6. O algrijmoc epistrfei thn apnthsh 'PRWTOS'.

Jerhma 46.

parapnw algrijoc

epistrfei 'PRWTOS' an kai

mno

an

enai prtoc.

Gia thn apdeixh tou parapnw jewrmatoc, ja qreiaste na apodexoume ti an isqei to na

skloc thc prtashc, tte isqei opwsdpote kai to llo.

Lmma 47.

Apdeixh.

An o

An o

enai prtoc, tte

algrijmoc

enai prtoc, tte ta bmata

epistrfei 'PRWTOS'.

kai

den ja epistryoun se kama perptwsh

thn apnthsh 'SUNJETOS'. Ap to Lmma 45 o brqoc epshc den ja epistryei 'SUNJETOS'.

Epomnwc, o algrijmoc ja epistryei 'PRWTOS' ete sthn gramm

ete sthn gramm

6.

Gia thn oloklrwsh thc apdeixhc tou Jewrmatoc 46 arke na isqei to akloujo Lmma, to
opoo paratjetai qwrc apdeixh.

Lmma 48.

An o

algrijoc epistryei 'PRWTOS', tte o

enai

prtoc.

4 Efarmogc thc kruptografac

Sthn enthta aut ja exetsoume kpoiec perisstero praktikc efarmogc thc kruptografac
kai twn prwtokllwn pou parousisame sta prohgomena keflaia.

Ja parousisoume kpoia

prwtkolla pou epitrpoun thn diamorash kpoiou mustiko stouc qrstec me trpo pou den
ja blptei thn idiwtikthta tou mustiko, pwc kai prwtkolla pou epitrpoun thn dsmeush
twn qrhstn se sugkekrimnec apofseic kai ja apotrpoun thn usterboulh allag touc. Tloc, ja perigryoume kpoiec efarmogc touc se eklogc, dhmoprasec kai mikrosunallagc sto
Diadktuo.

4.1

Sqmata diamorashc mustiko kai prwtkolla dsmeushc

Diamorash

mustiko

'Estw ti kpoioc kentrikc qrsthc qei sthn dijes tou mia

mustik plhrofora, thc opoac thn duadik anaparstash thn sumbolzoume me

S.

c ja jele na moirsei thn mustik plhrofora se kpoiouc llouc qrstec (stw

touc) me ttoio trpo ste an sunergaston toulqiston

O qrsthto pljoc

ap autoc na mporon na epanasun-

jsoun thn plhrofora. Sthn antjeth perptwsh, o qrsthc ja jele qi mno na mhn mporon na
broun to

S,

all kai na mhn qoun mjei kti perisstero gia to

ap ti xeran prin kan gnei h

password'

diamoras tou. Gia pardeigma, stw ti o kentrikc qrsthc qei wc mustik thn lxh '
kai thn moirzei se
oi

4 qrstec dnontac do grmmata ston kajna touc.

Tte, an sunergaston kai

4 mporon na anaktsoun to S , an mwc enai ligteroi tte nai men den mporon na anaktsoun

kateujean thn plhrofora, qoun mwc perissterh plhrofora gi' aut kai epomnwc touc enai
eukoltero na to broun dokimzontac lec tic pijanc lseic (upojtoume ti gnwrzoun to mkoc
thc lxhc).
Exetzoume arqik thn perptwsh pou prpei na sunergaston loi oi qrstec prokeimnou na
epanasunjsoun to mustik, me lla lgia tan

k = n.

O kentrikc qrsthc ektele ta aklouja

bmata.

1. Arqik, dialgei nan meglo prto arijm

p,

ttoion ste

S <p

ki epomnwc isqei ti

S Zp .
2. Dialgei tuqaa

3. Upologzei to

ai Zp

an = S

gia

i = 1, . . . , n 1

n1
i=1

ai ( mod n)

kai dnei to

ai

ston

kai to dnei ston

i-ost

n-ost

qrsth.

qrsth.

An ntwc sunergaston kai oi

na epanasunjsoun to
stw ti den dqetai o
na broun to

ja prokyei.

S,

qrstec, tte arke na ajrosoun ta

afo isqei

n-ostc

S =

i=1 ai .

qrsthc na dsei to

ai

pou katqoun gia

'Estw ti sunergzontai

an .

n1

qrstec ki

Tte, oi uploipoi qrstec prokeimnou

an Zp

mporon na dokimsoun na mantyoun to

kai na exetsoun to

pou

Aut mwc enai isodnamo me to na mantyei kpoioc qrsthc ap mnoc tou na

S Zp , epomnwc oi sunergazmenoi qrstec den qoun apoktsei kpoia epiprsjeth plhrofora

ap thn sunergasa.
'Estw tra h perptwsh pou arke na sunergaston

qrstec, me

k < n.

Enai profanc ti

to prohgomeno sqma den douleei kai qreizetai na skeftome kti perisstero ekleptusmno.
O kentrikc qrsthc ektele ta aklouja bmata.

1. Arqik, dialgei nan meglo prto arijm

p,

ttoion ste

S <p

ki epomnwc isqei ti

S Zp .
2. Dialgei tuqaa

ai Zp

3. Orzei thn sunrthsh

4. Tloc, dnei to

f (i)

gia

i = 1, . . . , k 1.

f (x) = S + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + ak1 xk1 ( mod p).

ston

i-ost

qrsth.

Parathrome ti sthn ousa qoume

An sunergaston toulqiston

exisseic me

agnstouc, touc

qrstec, tte arke na lsoun na ssthma

agnstouc kai na upologsoun to

exissewn me

S.

S, a1 , a2 , . . . , ak1 .
k

exissewn me

Sthn antjeth perptwsh, prokptei na ssthma

k1

agnstouc, opte oi sunergazmenoi qrstec den mporon na upologsoun to

S,

ote qoun apokomsei kpoia epiprsjeth plhrofora pou touc dieukolnei ston upologism tou.

Prwtkolla

dsmeushc

Sthn sunqeia ja asqolhjome me prwtkolla dsmeushc kai

exetzoume to akloujo pardeigma. Ac upojsoume ti h

Alice

kai o

Bob

qoun prei diazgio,

mnoun plon se diaforetikc pleic kai yqnoun nan trpo na apofassoun poioc ja prei to
autoknhto.

Sumfwnon sto na stryoun na krma, all o

ja rjei 'korna' kai na akosei thn

Alice

Alice

den ja jele na dialxei ti

na tou anakoinnei ap to thlfwno ti telik to

apotlesma enai 'grmmata'. Ja jlame loipn na mpore o

na to anakoinsei sthn

Bob

kai aut na rxei to krma.

Bob

na dialxei na apotlesma qwrc

To epijumht enai to apotlesma pou

dilexe o

Bob

Alice

kai to apotlesma pou tou anakonwse h

na mhn mporon na allxoun kat

thn dirkeia ektleshc tou prwtokllou.

Uprqoun arket prwtkolla pou mpore na qrhsimopoisei kanec se ttoiec periptseic, emec
ja arkestome sthn perigraf kpoiwn apln mejdwn. H ma ap autc baszetai sto prblhma
tou diakrito logarjmou kai h llh sto prblhma thc paragontopohshc.
kai o

Bob

sunqeia, h
wc exc: o

Alice
Bob

epilgei tuqaa nan akraio

kaletai na mantyei an o

miso akraioi sto

Zp

b = g a ( mod p)

kai to metaddei ston

Tte, h

Alice

a Zp .

Alice

g Zp .

Sthn

kai na dhmiourg stoiqeo

Mpore plon na dei kanec to prblhma

enai perittc rtioc arijmc.

enai peritto kai oi lloi miso enai rtioi. Epomnwc, h

Bob,

kaletai na apokalyei to

ymata gia thn tim tou

Epiplon, o

Alice upologzei to
a

kai an enai perittc tte kerdzei o

Alice.

Parathrome ti h

pou qei epilxei, kajc mno na

Bob

Shmeinoume ti oi

o opooc stw ti apofaszei ti o

antjeth perptwsh to autoknhto to parnei h

( mod p).

sumfwnon se nan meglo prto arijm

Sthn prth, h

a Zp

Bob,

en sthn

den mpore na pei

qei thn idithta ti

den mpore na qrhsimopoisei thn gnsh tou

na logik (poluwnumik) qronik disthma an o

Alice

enai perittc.

b = ga

gia na apofassei se

a enai perittc qi, kajc aut ja smaine ti

qei kpoion poluwnumik algrijmo gia to prblhma tou diakrito logarjmou.

H deterh mjodoc baszetai, pwc proanaframe, sto prblhma thc paragontopohshc kai
enai h akloujh. Arqik, h

Alice

epilgei do meglouc prtouc arijmoc

kai oi do na enai isodnamoi ete me

to anakoinnei ston

( mod 4).
kai

Bob

Bob.

3 modulo 4

ete me

kai

ttoiouc ste

Upologzei to

Shmeinoume ti pwc kai na epilqjhkan oi

kai

q,

n = pq

isqei ti

kai

n=1

kaletai plon na apofassei (msa se na sntomo qronik disthma) an oi

enai isodnamoi me

me

kai sthn sunqeia h

qei epilxei swst tte kerdzei, allic kerdzei h

Alice

den mpore na ekmetalleute thn gnsh tou

tou anakoinnei ta

Alice.

na pei ymata, kajc h mnh dunat paragontopohsh tou

Bob

1 modulo 4.

Shmeinoume pwc h

kai

Alice

enai oi prtoi arijmo

gia na brei ta

kai

q,

q.

An o

Bob

den mpore

kai

q,

en o

kajc aut ja smaine

ti uprqei poluwnumikc algrijmoc paragontopohshc.

4.2

Eklogc, dhmoprasec kai oikonomikc sunallagc

Se aut thn enthta parousizoume merikc efarmogc thc kruptografac pou mac epitrpoun orismnec drasthrithtec thc kajhmerinc,
pragmatopoisoume kai sto Diadktuo.

ektc Diadiktou,

zwc na mporome na tic

Ja parousisoume tic basikc idithtec pou prpei na

ikanopoion ta difora prwtkolla, qwrc mwc na upeisljoume se analutik parousash prwtokllwn.

Eklogc - hlektronikc yhfoforec

Me ton ro hlektronik yhfofora ennoome thn

skhsh tou eklogiko dikaimatoc me th qrsh hlektronikn mejdwn.

Ta jemelidh stoiqea

pou sunjtoun thn idiaterh fsh thc hlektronikc yfou kai th diaforopoion se meglo bajm
ap ta uprqonta sustmata thc eklogikc diadikasac enai h dunatthta skhshc tou eklogiko
dikaimatoc ap apstash, qwrc thn autoprswph parousa tou yhfofrou sto eklogik tmma
kai h qrsh upologistiko sustmatoc kai kat sunpeia automatopoihmnwn mejdwn, gia thn
orgnwsh kai diexagwg thc lhc eklogikc diadikasac.

H ryh mac hlektronikc yfou msw

tou Diadiktou prpei na sunodeetai ap eparkec egguseic asfleiac ti h tautthta tou

yhfofrou den ja apokalufje kat th dirkeia thc metaforc kai thc epexergasac thc yfou,
pwc epshc kai ti to perieqmen thc den ja metablhje, lgw mh apotelesmatikc leitourgac
tou sustmatoc exaitac eklogikc lajroqeirac. Me bsh ta parapnw, hlektronik eklogik
ssthma orzetai to ssthma ekeno pou enai proorismno na exuphretsei tic angkec diexagwgc
miac hlektronikc yhfoforac.
Prokeimnou na sqediaste na ssthma hlektronikc yhfoforac to opoo ja qrhsimopoihje
gia eklogc eureac klmakac enai aparathto na plhrontai merikc basikc propojseic:

Dhmokratik:

Mno oi yhfofroi pou qoun dikawma yfou mporon na yhfsoun, en

kannac yhfofroc den qei to dikawma na yhfsei pnw apo ma forc

Mustik:

lec yfoi paramnoun mustikc kat th dirkeia upobolc yfwn kai kannac

den enai se jsh na sundsei thn tautthta enc yhfofrou me thn ekstote yfo tou

Akribc:

kama yfoc den mpore na alloiwje na katametrhje perissterec apo ma

forc. Epshc, kama yfoc den mpore na diagrafe ap tic eklogikc arqc all ote kai
ap opoiousdpote llouc pargontec

Prostateumeno apo katanagkasm: o yhfofroc den katqei ote mpore na dhmiourgsei

mia apdeixh pou na deqnei to perieqmeno thc yfou

Anjektik: kje kakboulh sumperifor apo opoiondpote pargonta mpore na antimetwpiste

Amerlhpto:

kannac den enai se jsh na mjei to apotlesma thc eklogikc diadikasac

prin thn telik katamtrhsh twn yfwn. Sunepc, diasfalzetai ti den ja ephreaston oi
teleutaoi qronik yhfofroi msw thc anakonwshc miac ektmhshc tou apotelsmatoc kai
ti den parqetai na pleonkthma se na sugkekrimno snolo ontottwn

Eukola summetoqc twn yhfofrwn

Oikoumenik epalhjesimo: kje exwterikc parathrhtc mpore na peiste gia thn orjthta
twn eklogikn apotelesmtwn

Enai dskolo na kajorsei kanec pte akribc gine h prth dhmoprasa

Dhmoprasec

sto Diadktuo, enai gnwst mwc pwc autc eqan arqsei na diexgontai msw hlektroniko

newsgroups

taqudromeou kai
thn dekaeta tou
pou diexgontan

90,

dh ap to

1988.

Me thn ragdaa anptuxh tou Diadiktou kat

tan anapfeukto na qrhsimopoihje aut h na teqnologa stic dhmoprasec

online,

opte kai prokuye h angkh gia kruptografik asfal prwtkolla

dhmoprasac.
Gia na enai asfal ta prwtkolla pou qrhsimopoiontai gia dhmoprasec sto Diadktuo,
qreizetai na ikanopoiontai orismnec idithtec pou merikc forc enai allhlosugkroumenec,
me apotlesma na mhn uprqei kpoio prwtkollo pou na tic ikanopoie lec tautqrona.

Sth

sunqeia anafrontai orismnec ap autc tic idithtec.

Orjthta:

An soi summetqoun sth dhmoprasa ferjon dkaia tte h swst nikhtria

tim kai o swstc nikhtc ja anagnwriston kai ja anadeiqjon smfwna pnta me touc
kannec thc dhmoprasac

Dikaiosnh:

H dikaiosnh perilambnei ti kannac pleiodthc den qei kami plhrofora

gia tic llec prosforc prin upobllei thn dik tou. H idithta aut perilambnetai epshc
kai sthn empisteutikthta. Epiplon, h dikaiosnh sunepgetai ti afo kpoioc pleiodthc
upobllei thn prosfor tou, tte h prosfor aut den mpore na metablhje kai pwc kannac
pleiodthc den mpore na arnhje thn prosfor tou afo thn qei upobllei.

To gegonc

aut kaletai pollc forc kai mh-aprnhsh thc prosforc

Eurwsta: H kakboulh sumperifor opoioudpote summetqei sth dhmoprasa den ja prpei

na jtei se knduno to ssthma na odhge se ljoc apotelsmata.

H eurwsta enai

sumplhrwmatik idithta thc orjthtac kai eggutai ti an uprqei kpoio telik apotlesma, tte to apotlesma aut enai to swst opoiadpote apotuqa epjesh kai na qei
sumbe sto ssthma

Empisteutikthta: Oi dhmoprtec den ja prpei na gnwrzoun thn axa twn prosforn mqri
th fsh tou anogmatc touc.

Gia to lgo ti an den sumbanei aut mporon na gnoun

kpoiec sunergasec me stqo ta proswpik sumfronta kpoiwn (anloga kai me to edoc kai touc kannec thc dhmoprasac pou diexgetai) kai thn telik exapthsh twn tmiwn
summeteqntwn

Anwnuma:

Oi tautthtec twn pleiodotn pou qoun qsei paramnoun empisteutikc met

thn apokluyh tou teliko nikht, tsi ste na mhn mporon na ekmetalleuton kpoioi thn
mh anwnuma me touc trpouc pou exhgontai sthn epmenh idithta

Mustikthta twn prosforn pou qasan: Oi prosforc pou den krdisan telik th dhmoprasa paramnoun mustikc, akmh kai ap ton dio to dhmoprth, met thn apokluyh tou
teliko nikht.

Ki aut giat oi pleiodtec pou qasan enai logik na mhn epijumon na

sullgoun lloi tic ektimseic touc gia ta pronta, kti pou mpore na jewrhje parabash
twn dikaiwmtwn touc, kai mpore na touc frnei se meionektikterh jsh se kpoia llh
dhmoprasa. Epiplon kpoioc pwlhtc mpore na apoktsei kpoia pleonektmata tan se
kpoia mellontik dhmoprasa jelsei na poulsei na dio parmoio antikemeno

Dhmsia epaljeush: Prpei loi oi summetqontec sth diadikasa thc dhmoprasac, kajc
epshc kai nac oudteroc parathrhtc, na enai ikano na epibebaisoun thn egkurthta twn
krsimwn diadikasin.

Krsimec diadikasec jewrontai autc pou enai ikanc na allxoun

to apotlesma thc dhmoprasac

Eukola - apotelesmatikthta :

H dhmoprasa gnetai me allhlepdrash anjrpwn.

Oi

kannec tou prwtokllou pou qrhsimopoietai gia th diekperaws thc ja prpei na enai
arket aplo tsi ste soi lambnoun mroc na mporon na touc katanosoun kai na touc
akoloujsoun se logik qrno

Oikonomikc sunallagc

Me parmoio trpo pwc kai stic prohgomenec do efarmogc,

ta kruptografik prwtkolla brkan meglh efarmog gia thn ulopohsh mejdwn pou epitrpoun

thn asfal diexagwg oikonomikn sunallagn msw tou Diadiktou.

Sthn sunqeia anafroume orismnec ap tic idithtec pou prpei na plhro na prwtkollo
oikonomikn sunallagn.

Qamhl kstoc sunallagc: to kstoc dienrgeiac miac sunallagc ja prpei na enai so

qamhl gnetai. Eidiktera, se periptseic pou diakinontai mikr pos (mikrosunallagc),
autc o pargontac enai o shmantikteroc, kajc den enai epijumht p.q. gia mia sunallag
tou

eur na uprqei prsjeth epibrunsh

0, 5

eur

Asfleia: ta prwtkolla prpei na enai anjektik se epijseic me stqo tso to na diasfalzetai ti h pistopohsh tou qrsth - apostola so kai h akeraithta tou mhnmatoc.
Epiplon, to prwtkollo prpei na exasfalzei ti na mnuma (pou antistoiqe se hlektronik nmisma) den mpore na qrhsimopoihje pnw ap ma for

Idiwtikthta: prpei na diasfalzetai ti mno oi exousiodothmnoi qrstec qoun prsbash

se plhrofora sqetik me thn tautthta tou agorast.

Shmeinoume ti sta perisstera

prwtkolla, oi agorastc summetqoun me yeudnuma.

Epiplon, ap thn stigm pou ja

oloklhrwje h sunallag, den prpei na uprqei h dunatthta na sundeje kpoia amoib me

ton agorast (pwc p.q. den jloume na mpore kpoioc qontac na qartonmisma na xrei
poioi lloi to qrhsimopohsan kat to pareljn)

Dunatthta meshc epibebawshc

Anaforc
[1] T.H. Cormen, C.E. Leiserson, R.L. Rivest and C. Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second
Edition. MIT Press, 2001
[2] D. Welsh. Codes and Cryptography. Carlendon Press, Oxford. 1995
[3] A.J. Menezes, P.C. van Oorschot and S.A. Vanstone. Handbook of Applied Cryptography.
CRC Press, 2001.