2.

(Transformer)
(Transformers)



(Faradays law)

Unit transformer
(110+ kV)
Substation transformer
(2.3 34.5 kV)

Distribution transformer (110V, 220V)

33


1. (Primary)
2. (Secondary)
3. (Core) Ferromagnetic

(No Load)

i
v1

R1

E1

E2

90

e1

N1

N2

e2

v2

1
1 ) Primary (N1) v1 Secondary (N2)
(N1) i
(Exciting Current) (Induced Voltage)

34

e1 N1

d
N1 m cos t Em1 cos t
dt

(31)

e2 N 2

d
N 2 m cos t Em 2 cos t
dt

(32)

m sint
m Maximum magnetic flux

E1 E2 (rms) e1
e2 2 f

E1

N1 m
2 f

N1 m 4.44 f N1 m
2
2

(33)

E2

N 2 m
2 f
N 2 m 4.44 f N 2 m

2
2

(34)

m Bm Ac
E1 4.44 f N1 Bm Ac

(35)

E2 4.44 f N 2 Bm Ac

(36)

(35) (36)
(Voltage ratio) (Turns ratio)
E1
N
1 a
E2
N2

(37)

35

i
v1

R1

E1

E2

90

e1

N1

N2

e2

v2

1
1 ) Primary Secondary
v1 R1 i e1

(38)

R1 i v1 e1
v2 e2

(39)

(37)
V1
E
N
1 1 a
V2
E2
N2

(40)

V1 V2 (rms) (Terminal Voltage)

Primary Secondary

36

 (No Load) I
1. I m (Magnetizing Current)
e1 e2
2. I c (Core loss Current)
Ic

V1

V2

Im

2
2
I I c I m

(41)

I c I cos c

(42)

I m I sin c

(43)

2 ( Pcore or Pc )
Pc V1 I cos c V1 I c

(44)

Sc V1 I
Power Factor (cos c ) =

Pc
I
c
Sc
I

(45)

37

 (Transformer Under Load)

I1
V1

N1

Ic

V2

2
1

I2

N2

V1

V2

ZL

Im

I2
I

N2
I 2 I 2
N1

I1

3
3 ) Z L Secondary I
( N1I ) ( N1I )
Secondary V2
V2 I 2 V2 / Z L ( N 2 I 2 ) 2
2 Primary I 2 I 2
( N1I 2 ) ( N 2 I 2 ) 2 2

N 2 I 2 N1I 2

(46)

(Current Ratio)
I 2
N
1
2
I2
N1
a

(47)
38


I1 I I 2

(48)

I ( 5% )
(Ideal Transformer)
I1 I 2

N2
I2
N1

(49)

Current Ratio
I1
N
1
2
I2
N1
a

(50)

1. I
(V1I )
( Pc V1 I cos c )
2. Z L Secondary V2 I 2
Pri
(Core loss) (Copper loss)
P1 V1 I1 cos1

(51)

P2 V2 I 2 cos 2

(52)

P1 P2
cos1

cos 2
Z L
39

 the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its

input power
POutput V2 I 2 cos

1 2

(53)

Ratio equations
V1
E
N
I
1 1 2 a
V2
E2
N2
I1

V2

V1
a

and

POutput

I 2 aI1

(53)

V1
(aI1 ) cos
a

1 2

POutput V1 I1 cos PInput

(54)

QInput V1 I1 sin V2 I 2 sin QOutput

(55)

S Input V1 I1 V2 I 2 SOutput

(56)

40


(Calculation of Transformer Efficiency)
2 Pc Pcu
Pri Sec

Pcu I12 R1 I 22 R2

(57)

Poutput
Poutput
P2

P1
Pinput
Poutput Pc Pcu

(58)

Pinput Pc Pcu
Pinput

(59)

Ferromagnetic
... Pcu
...

41

 6 20 kVA, 1000/200 V, 50 Hz
300 W 200 V 0.9 lagging pf.
350 W


Poutput V2 I 2 cos 2
20,000 0.9
18,000W

Poutput
Poutput Pc Pcu

100%

18000
100%
18000 300 350
96.5%
Ans

7 6 200 V
0.7 lagging pf. 350 W

Poutput
Poutput Pc Pcu

100%

V2 I 2 cos 2
100%
V2 I 2 cos 2 Pc Pcu

20000 0.7
100%
(20000 0.7) 300 350
Ans
95.56%

42

 8 1kVA, 50/200 V, 50 Hz 200 V

0.8 lagging pf.

Vinput 500V , Voutput 2000V Pri
I c 0.70 A, I m 2.7 90 A

P2 Poutput V2 I 2 cos 2

0.8 lagging pf. 2 cos 1 0.8 36.87

-> Sec.

I2

kVA 1000VA

5 36.87 A
V2
200V

-> Sec. P2 Poutput V2 I 2 cos 2

P2 Poutput V2 I 2 cos 2 200 5 0.8 800W

(47)

I 2
1

I2
a
I 2

(47)

I2
5 36.87

20 36.87 A
a
(50 / 200)

I I c I m 0.70 2.7 90 2.8 75.46 A

... ( Pcu ) Pc
Poutput 800W 2
1.

Pc V1 I cos c

2. Pinput , P1 V1 I1 cos 1

( I1 I I 2 )

43

Pc -->

Pc V1 I cos c

=V1*Ic=35W

Pc 50 2.8 cos 75.46 35.15W

Poutput
Poutput Pc Pcu

100%

800
100%
800 35.15 0
Ans
95.8%

Pri. --> Pinput V1 I1 cos 1

-> Pri.
I1 I I 2 2.8 75.46 20 36.87 22.25 41.35 A

-> I1 V1 Pri. 1 41.35

-> Pri.
Pinput V1 I1 cos 1 50 22.25 cos 41.35 835W

Poutput
Pinput

100%

800
100%
835
Ans
95.8%

Ideal Transformer
PInput V1 I1 cos 50 20 cos (36.87 36.87) 1000W

I1 I 2

POutput V2 I 2 cos 200 5 cos (36.87 36.87) 1000 W

44

 2 ()

(Impedance Transformation through a Transformer)

ZL

VL
V
V
2 s
IL
I2
Is

(60)

45

 Pri.
Z L

V1
V
P
I1
IP

(61)

Ratio equations
V1
a
V2

V1 aV2

I2
a
I1

I1

I2
a

Pri.
Z L

V1
aV2
V

a2 2
I1
I2 / a
I2

Z L a 2 Z L

(62)

46


(Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers)

()
() ( )
(Equivalent circuit)

47

Example 2-1 (page 73) A single-phase power system consists of a 480V, 60Hz
generator supplying a load Zload 4 j3 though a transmission line of impedance
Z line 0.18 j 0.24 . Answer the following questions about this system.
a) If the power system is exactly as described above (Fig 2-6a), what will the voltage
at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?
b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of
the line (Fig 2-6b). What will the load voltage be now? What will the transmission
line losses be now?

48

Solution
a) Figure 2-6a shows the power system without transformers. Here
The line current in this system is given by
I line

I G I line I load .

V
Z line Z load
4800V
(0.18 j 0.24) (4 j 3)

4800
4.18 j 3.24
4800

5.2937.8
90.8 37.8 A

Therefore the load voltage is

Vload I line Z load
(90.8 37.8)(4 j 3)
(90.8 37.8)(536.9)
454 0.9 V

and the line losses are

Ploss

2
I line
Rline

90.82 0.18
1,484 W

b) Figure 2-6b shows the power system with the transformers. To analyze this system,
it is necessary to convert it to a common voltage level. This is done in two steps:
1. Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the transmission
lines voltage level.
2. Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the transmission lines elements and
the equivalent load at the transmission lines voltage over to the source side.
49

The value of the loads impedance when reflected to the transmission systems voltage is
a 2 Z load
Z load
2

10
(4 j 3)
1
400 j 300

The total impedance at the transmissionline level is now

Z eq Z line Z load
(0.18 j 0.24) (400 j 300)
400.18 j 300.24
500.336.88

50

This equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2-7a. The total impedance at the
) is now reflected across T1 to the sources voltage level.
transmission line level ( Zline Zload
Z eq a 2 Z eq
)
a 2 ( Z line Z load
2

1
(0.18 j 0.24) (400 j 300)
10
(0.0018 j 0.0024) (4 j 3)
5.00336.88
0.0018 j 0.0024 and Z load
4 j 3 . The resulting
Notice that Zline
equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2-7b. The generators current is
4800
5.00336.88

IG

Knowing the current

back through T1 , we get

IG ,

95.94 36.88 A

we can now work back and find

I line

and

I load .

Working

N P1I G N S 1I line
I line

Working back through

N P1I G
N S1

1
(95.94 36.88)
10

T2

9.594 36.88 A

gives

N P 2 I line N S 2 I load
I load

N P 2 I line
NS 2

10
(9.594 36.88)
1

95.94 36.88 A

51

It is now possible to answer the questions originally asked. The load voltage is given
by
Vload I load Z load
(95.94 36.88)(536.87)
479.7 0.01 V

and the line losses are given by

Ploss

2
I line
Rline

9.5942 0.18
16.7 W

Ans

52

Exercises 1
1. 500/100V, 50Hz 15A

(75A, 7,500VA)
2. 1 Silicon steel
1.1 Teslas 2.73x10-3m2
(750 , 150 )
3. Silicon steel
1 Teslas 9x10-3m2
250 120A
1000 30A
(2000/500V, 60kVA)
4. 3 Armco iron
1.3 Teslas

(770 , 192 )
5. 3 Armco iron
1.3 Teslas

(6.93x10-3m2)

53

(The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer)

(Equivalent circuit)

4

I1

R1

I 2

jXl1

I2

R2

jXl2

I
Ic

V1

Rc

Im
jX m E1

E2

N1

N2

V2

ZL

Ideal Transformer

54



(Referred
to the primary side)

(Referred to the
primary side)
I1

R1

R2

I 2

jXl1

jX l2

I
Ic

V1

Rc

Im
jX m

E1 E2

V2

Z L

5
5 Kirchoffs law
V1 I1 R1 jXl1 E1

(63)

E1 E2 aE2

(64)

E2 I 2 R2 jX l2 V2

(65)

I c I cos c

(66)

I m I sin c

(67)
55


R2 a 2 R2
Z L a 2 Z L
Rc

E1
Ic

V2 aV2

X l2 a 2 Xl2

Z L RL jX L
Xm

E1
Im

I 2

I2
a

56


(Approximate Equivalent Circuit referred to the primary side)

(Core loss > 2-10%) R1

Req1

jX eq1

Req1 R1 R2 R1 a 2 R2

jX eq1 j Xl1 X l2 j Xl1 a 2 Xl2

V1 I 2 Req1 jX eq1 V2

I2
Req1 jX eq1 aV2
a

(68)
(69)
(70)

57




(Core loss > 2-10%)
7
Req1

jX eq1

Req1

jX eq1

I1 I 2

Req1 R1 R2 R1 a 2 R2

jX eq1 j Xl1 X l2 j Xl1 a 2 Xl2

V1 I1 Req1 jX eq1 aV2

(71)
(72)
(73)
58



(Referred
to the secondary side)

(Referred to the
secondary side)
I1

R1

jX l1

I2

R2

jXl2

I
I m

I c

V1

jX m

Rc

E1 E2

V2

ZL

8

R1
V1

R1
,
a2
V1
,
a

I c aI c ,

E1

E1
a

X l1

Xl1
,
a2

Rc

Rc
,
a2

X m

Xm
a2

I1 aI1
I m aI m

N1

N2
59


(Approximate Equivalent Circuit referred to the secondary side)

(Core loss > 2-10%) R1

Req 2

jX eq 2

Req 2 R1 R2

R1
R2
a2

Xl

jX eq 2 j X l1 Xl2 j 21 Xl2
a

V1 I 2 Req 2 jX eq 2 V2
V1
I 2 Req 2 jX eq 2 V2
a

(74)
(75)
(76)

60




(Core loss > 2-10%)
10
Req 2

jX eq 2

Req 2

jX eq 2

I1 I 2

10

Req 2 R1 R2

R1
R2
a2

Xl

jX eq 2 j X l1 Xl2 j 21 Xl2
a

V1 I 2 Req 2 jX eq 2 V2

(77)
(78)
(79)
61

(Determining the Values of Components in The Transformer Model)

(Equivalent Impedance - Z eq )

(Transfer)

(Open-circuit test)
(Short-circuit test)
(Open-circuit test) -
1. (Core loss) (/ )
2. Rc , X m
3. Rc , X m I I c I m
I1 I I 2

v(t )
VOC , I OC , POC
62


cos OC

POC
I OCVOC

OC cos 1 OC
I OCVOC

I c I OC cosOC
I m I OC sin OC
Rc _ L

VOC
Ic

I OC I

X m_ L

VOC
Im

Ye Gc jBm

1
1
j
Rc
Xm

Ye

I OC
I
OC cos 1 PF
VOC
VOC

63

 (Short-circuit test) -
1. (Copper loss)
2.

Req , X eq

Z eq

3. Z eq Voltage
Regulation

v(t ) ( 5-10% )

VSC , I SC , PSC
PSC (Copper loss)
Full Load (Core loss)

64


cos SC
Z SC

PSC
I SCVSC
VSC
I SC

X SC
Z SC

PSC

I SCVSC

SC cos 1
RSC

PSC
2
I SC

2
2
Z SC
RSC

VSC 0
I SC sc

Req

jX eq

VSC
sc
I SC

RSC jX SC

Z eq Req jX eq

65

Example 2-2 (page 92) The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240V,
60Hz transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit test and the short-circuit test
were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following data were
taken:
Open circuit test
(on primary )

Short circuit test

(on primary )

VOC 8000V

VSC 489V

I OC 0.214 A

I SC 2.5 A

POC 400W

PSC 240W

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary side,
and sketch that circuit.

Solution
The power factor during the open-circuit test is
PF

cos OC

POC
I OCVOC

400W
8000V 0.214 A
0.234 lagging

The excitation admittance is given by

66

Ye

I OC
I
OC cos 1PF
VOC
VOC
0.214 A
cos 1 0.234
8000V
0.0000268 76.5

1
1
0.0000063 j 0.0000261 j

Xm
Rc

Therefore,
1
159 k
0.0000063
1

38.4 k
0.0000261

Rc _ P
Xm_ P

The power factor during the short-circuit test is

PF

cos SC

PSC
I SCVSC

240W
489V 2.5 A
0.196 lagging

The series impedance is given by

Z SC

VSC
V
SC cos 1PF
I SC
I SC
489V
cos 1 0.196
2.5 A
195.678.7

38.4 j192

( Z eq Req jX eq )

Therefore, the equivalent resistance and reactance are

67

Req _ P

38.4

X eq _ P 192
Req _ S

38.4 / a 2 38.4 /(8000 / 240)2

X eq _ S 192 / a 2 192 /(8000 / 240)2

The resulting simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2-21

159 k

Req

jX eq

38.4

j192

j 38.4 k

Figure 2 21

(Voltage Regulation)
VR

V1 V2
100%
V2

referred to primary

VR

V1 V2
100%
V2

referred to secondary

(The Transformer Phasor Diagram)

(Equivalent Circuit referred

to the secondary side)

68

Req1

jX eq1

(76)
V1 I 2 Req 2 jX eq 2 V2
V1
I 2 Req 2 jX eq 2 V2
a

(76)
) Power factor
lagging

) Unity power
factor

69

) Power factor
leading

70

71

72

73

74

75

 2 ( + )

- (Per-Unit System)


-

(Base value)
- (Per-Unit) (Actual value)
(Base value of quantity)

76

Quantity per unit

Actual
Basevalueof quantity

(Base value of quantity) Base power

(kVA,MVA) Base voltage (kV) Base power
Base voltage

1 (Single-phase system)
Pbase , Qbase or Sbase Vbase I base

I base
Z base

Sbase
Vbase

(Vbase ) 2

Sbase

Ybase

Vbase
I base

I base
Vbase

77

78

79

80

 3 (Three-phase system)
Pbase _ 3 , Qbase _ 3 or Sbase _ 3 VL _ base I L _ base

I L _ base
Z base _ 3
Ybase _ 3

Sbase _ 3
3 VL _ base
(VL _ base ) 2
Sbase _ 3

VL _ base
3 I L _ base

I L _ base
VL _ base

81

Exercises 2
1. Single phase Transformer 10 KVA 450/120 V, 50 Hz
Open circuit test
(onthelow voltage side)

Short circuit test

(onthe high voltage side)

VOC 120V

VSC 9.65V

I OC 4.2 A

I SC 22.2 A

POC 80W

PSC 120W

) Parameter Transformer equivalent circuit Referred to the

primary and secondary side
) Secondary 0.8 p.f. leading
Input voltage, Input current Input power factor
) Efficiency Voltage Regulation

) Open circuit test

Secondary
oc cos 1

Poc
80
cos 1
80.9
I ocVoc
4.2 120

I m I oc sin oc 4.2 sin 80.9 4.15 A

I c I oc cos oc 4.2 cos80.9 0.66 A

82

Low-side
Rc ,L
X m,L

Voc
120

182
0.66
I c ,L

V
120
oc
29
4.15
I m,L

High-side
V1
V2

450
3.75
120

Rc ,H a 2 Rc ,L 3.752 182 2560

X m ,H a 2 X m ,L 3.752 29 408

) Short circuit test

sc cos 1
Z eq Z sc

Psc
120
cos 1
56 lagging
22.2 9.65
I scVsc

Vsc
9.650

0.43456 0.243 j 0.36

22.2 56
I sc

High-side
Req , H 0.243 ,

X eq , H 0.36

Low-side
Req , L

Req , H
a2

0.24
0.017
3.752

83

X eq , L

X eq , H
a2

0.36
0.026
3.752
I 2 Req 0.243 jX m

I1

j 0.36

I
Ic

V1

Im
jX m j 408

Rc 2560

V2 450V

# Referred to the Primary

I 2 Req 0.017 jX m j 0.026

I1

V1

Ic
Rc 182

Im
jX m j 29

V2 120V

# Referred to the Secondary

84

I 2

I1

Req

jX eq

I
Ic

V1

Rc

Im
jX m

V1
V2

V2

85