Chopper PDF

Chapter 3
DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
General
Buck converter
Boost converter
Buck-Boost converter
Switched-mode power supply
Bridge converter
Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.
Power Electronics and

Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.
General block diagram:
DC supply
(from rectifierfilter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)
DC output
LOAD
Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)
APPLICATIONS:
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
Linear regulator
Transistor is operated
in linear (active)
mode.
+ VCEce
IL
+
Output voltage
RL
Vin
Vo
Vo = Vin Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR
The transistor can be

conveniently
modelled by an
equivalent variable
resistor, as shown.
+ Vce
IL
RT
Vin
Power loss is high at

high current due to:
+
RL
Vo
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
Po = I L 2 RT
or
Po = Vce I L
Switching Regulator
Transistor is operated
in switched-mode:
Switch closed:
Fully on (saturated)
Switch opened:
Fully off (cut-off)
+ Vce
IL
+
RL
Vin
Vo
When switch is open,

no current flow in it
When switch is
closed no voltage
drop across it.
SWITCHING REGULATOR
IL
SWITCH
RL
Vin
Since P=V.I, no losses

occurs in the switch.
Power is 100%
transferred from
source to load.
Power loss is zero
(for ideal switch):
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Vo
Vin
(ON) (OFF) (ON)
closed open closed
DT
Switching regulator is
the basis of all DC-DC
converters
+
Vo
OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Buck (step-down) converter

L
S
Vd
RL
+
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
+ vL
S
Vd
RL
+
Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S
iL
+
Vd
vL
+
RL
Vo
CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Switch is turned on (closed)

Diode is reversed
biased.
Switch conducts
inductor current
This results in
positive inductor
voltage, i.e:
+ vL S
+
VD
Vd
iL
C
Vd Vo
opened
closed
opened
v L = Vd Vo
di
vL = L L
dt
1
iL =
v L dt
L
RL
vL
closed
It causes linear
increase in the
inductor current
+
Vo
Vo
iL
iLmax
IL
iLmin
DT
T
6
Switch turned off (opened)

Because of inductive
energy storage, iL
continues to flow.
+ vL S
iL
Vd
+
Vo
RL
Diode is forward
biased
vL
Current now flows

(freewheeling)
through the diode.
The inductor voltage

can be derived as:
vL = Vo
VdVo
opened
closed
closed
opened
Vo
iL
iLmax
IL
iLmin
(1-D)T
DT

Analysis
When the switch is closed (on) :
di
v L = Vd Vo = L L
dt
diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L
Derivative of i L is a positive
vL
Vd Vo
closed
t
constant.Therefore iL must
increased linearly.
iL
From Figure
diL iL iL Vd Vo
=
=
=
t DT
dt
L
V V
(iL )closed = d o DT
L
For switch opened,
di
v L = Vo = L L
dt
diL Vo
=
dt
L
Vo
di
i
iL
L= L=
=
dt
t (1 D)T
L
(iL )opened =
iL max
i L
IL
iL min
DT
Vo
(1 D)T
L
Steady-state operation
iL
Unstable current
t
Decaying current
iL
t
Steady-state current
iL
t
Steady - state operation requires that iL at the

end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of iL over one period is zero, i.e :
(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0
Vd Vo
Vo
DTs
(1 D)Ts = 0
L
L
Vo = DVd
Average, Maximum and

Minimum Inductor Current
iL
Imax
iL
IL
Imin
Average inductor current = Average current in R L

V
IL = IR = o
R
Maximum current :
I max = I L +
= Vo
iL Vo 1 Vo
=
+
(1 D )T
2
R 2 L
1 (1 D )
+
R
2 Lf
Minimum current :
I min = I L
i L
1 (1 D )
= Vo
2
R
2 Lf
Inductor current ripple :

iL = I max I min
10
Continuous Current Mode (CCM)

iL
Imax
Imin
From previous analysis,

I min = I L
1 (1 D )
i L
= Vo
2
R
2 Lf
For continuous operation, I min 0,

1 (1 D)
Vo
0
R
2 Lf
(1 D )
R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
L Lmin =
ensure continous mode of operation.

Normally L is chosen b be >> Lmin
11
Output voltage ripple

KCL, Capacitor current :
ic = iL + iR
The charge can be witten as :
iL
iR
+
iC
Q = CVo
Vo
Q = CV
Q
C
Use triangle area formula :
o
Vo =
Q =
1 T
2 2
i L
2
i m ax
iL
i L= IR
V o/R
0
T i L
=
8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)0
i m in
iC
TiL (1 D )
=
8C
8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
Vo =
Vo (1 D )
=
Vo 8 LCf 2
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
r=
1) Increasing switching frequency

2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing capacitor size.
12
Basic design procedures

SWITCH
Vd
(input
spec.)
f=?
D=?
TYPE ?
Lmin= ?
L = 10Lmin
C
ripple ?
Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.
Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device
RL
Po = ?
Io = ?
preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise

higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can
reach MHz range.
Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin

Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
Wire size consideration:

Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as:
Capacitor ratings:
must withstand peak output voltage
must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given
by iL/2.
ECAPs can be used
i L 2
I L, RMS = I L +
3
2

13
Examples
A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given

L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4.
Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of

25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is
125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the
peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.
Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V

when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter
such that it will be in continuous current mode. The output
voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the
frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power
switch also.

14
Boost (step-up) converter

D
Vd
RL
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER

iL
+ vL
Vd
+
RL
Vo

L
+ vL Vd
+
S
RL
Vo

15
Boost analysis:switch closed

iL
+ vL
Vd
+
vo
v L = Vd
di
=L L
v
dt
diL Vd
=
dt
L
diL iL iL
i
=
=
dt
t DT
V
diL
= d
dt
L
V DT
(iL )closed = d
L
Vd
CLOSED
t
Vd Vo
iL
DT

16
Switch opened
iL
+ vL Vd
+
vo
-
v L = Vd Vo
diL
=L
dt
diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L
diL iL
=
dt
t
i L
=
(1 D )T
Vd
vL
OPENED
t
Vd Vo
iL
iL
( 1-D )T
diL Vd Vo
=
dt
L
(iL )opened =
DT
(Vd Vo )(1 DT )
L

17
Steady-state operation
(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0
Vd DT (Vd Vo )(1 D )T
L
=0
Vd
Vo =
1 D
Boost converter produces output voltage that is
greater or equal to the input voltage.
Alternative explanation:
when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.

18
Average, Maximum, Minimum

Inductor Current
Input power = Output power
Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
Vd
(1 D )
Vd I L =
R
Vd 2
(1 D ) 2 R
Average inductor current :
IL =
Vd
(1 D ) 2 R
Maximum inductor current :
Vd
Vd DT
i L
=
+
2
2L
(1 D) 2 R
Minimum inductor current :
I max = I L +
I min = I L
Vd
Vd DT
i L
=
2
2L
(1 D ) 2 R

19
L and C values
For CCM,
I min 0
Vd
Vd DT
0
2
2L
(1 D) R
vL
Vd
D(1 D )2 TR
Lmin =
2
V d V o
D(1 D )2 R
=
2f
iL
Ripple factor
iD
Imax
Imin
Vo
DT = CVo
R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo =
=
RCf
RCf
V
D
r= o =
Vo
RCf
Imax
Imin
Q =
Io=Vo / R
ic
Q
DT

20
Examples
The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,

D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V

from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching
frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

21
Buck-Boost converter
S
Vd
+
C
RL
Vo
CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S
D
iL
Vd
vL
Vo

S
Vd
D
iL
vL
Vo

22
Buck-boost analysis
Switch closed
di
v L = Vd = L L
dt
diL Vd
=
dt
L
iL iL Vd
=
=
t DT
L
vL
Vd
VdVo
Imax
iL
V DT
(iL ) closed = d
L
iD
Switch opened
di
v L = Vo = L L
dt
diL Vo
i
=
dt
L
Vo
iL
iL
=
=
t (1 D )T L
Vo (1 D)T
(iL ) opened =
L
Imin
Imax
Imin
Io=Vo / R

DT
23
Output voltage
Steady state operation :
iL (closed ) + iL (opened ) = 0
Vd DT Vo (1 D)T
+
=0
L
L
Output voltage :
D
Vo = Vs
1 D
NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be
higher or lower than input.
If D>0.5, output is higher than input
If D<0.5, output is lower input
Output voltage is always negative.
Note that output is never directly connected to load.
Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed
and transferred to load when switch is opened.
24
Average inductor current

Assuming no power loss in the converter,
power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2
= Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,
Vo2
Po
Vd D
IL =
=
=
Vd RD Vd D R(1 D ) 2

25
L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
Vd D
Vd DT
i L
I max = I L +
=
+
2
2
2L
R (1 D )
I min = I L
Vd D
Vd DT
i L
=
2
2L
R (1 D ) 2
For CCM
Vd D
Vd DT
+
=0
2
2L
R(1 D )
(1 D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
Vo
Q =
DT = CVo
R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo =
=
RC
RCf
V
D
r= o =
Vo
RCf

26
Converters in CCM: Summary

S
RL
+
Vo
L
V
Vo 1 D
=
Vo
8 LCf 2
(1 D ) R
Lmin =
2f
Boost
D
C
Buck
Vo
=D
Vd
RL
+
Vo
Vo
1
=
Vd 1 D
Vo
D
=
Vo
RCf
D(1 D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
S
V
d
D
L
RL
+
Vo
Buck Boost
Vo
D
=
Vd
1 D
Vo
D
=
Vo
RCf
(1 D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f

27
Control of DC-DC converter:

pulse width modulation (PWM)
Vo (desired)
Vo (actual)
Vcontrol
Comparator
Sawtooth
Waveform
Switch control
signal
Sawtooth
Waveform
Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2
Switch
control
signal
ton 2
ton 1
T

28
Isolated DC-DC Converter

Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
Two types: Linear and Switched-mode
Advantages of switched mode over linear power
supply
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction
Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
However above certain ratings,
SMPS is the only feasible choice
Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

29
Linear and SMPS block diagram

Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
Vce=Vd-Vo
DC Unregulated
Base/gate
Drive
Vd
50/60 Hz
Isolation
Transformer
+Vo DC Regulated
+
Line
Input
1 / 3
Rectifier/
Filter
RL
Vo
Error
Amp.
Vo
-
Vref
Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC
Unregulated
EMI
FILTER
DC-DC CONVERSITION AND

ISOLATION
High
Frequency
rectifier
and
filter
RECTIFIER
AND
FILTER
DC
Regulated
Vo
Vref
Base/
gate
drive
PWM
Controller

error
Amp
30
High frequency transformer

Basic function :
1) Input - output electrical isolation
2) step up/down time - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
=
;
v2 N 2
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
Models :
i1
N1
N2
i2
V1
V2
i1
V1
Ideal model
N1
N2
i2
+
Lm
V2
Model used for

most PE application

31
Flyback Converter
C
LM
Vd
+
Vo
Flyback converter circuit
iS
i 1 N1
iLM
Vd
+ vSW
+
v1
N2
iD
+ vD
v2
+
i2
+
iC
iR
Vo
Model with magnetising

inductance

32
Operation: switch closed

0
is=iLM
iLM
Vd
N1
+
v1
N2
v2
+
v1=Vs
Vo
diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm iLm iLm Vd
=
=
=
dt
dt
DT
Lm
Vd DT
iLm
=
closed
Lm
On the load side of the transformer,

v2 = v1
N2
N2
= Vd
N1
N1
v D = Vo Vd
N2
< 0, i.e. diode turned off
N1
Therefore,
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0

33
Switch opened
iLM
Vs
N2
N1
+
v1
v 2 = VS
+
v1 = Vo
N1
N2
But
v2 = Vo
v1 = Lm
diL m
dt
+
Vo
+ vSW
v1 = v2
iD
N
N1
= Vo 1
N2
N2
diL m
dt
i L m
dt
= Vo
=
N1
N2
iL m
(1 D )T
Vo N1
Lm N 2
(iL m )open = Vo (1 D)T

Lm
N1
N2
Voltage across the switch :

vSW = Vd + Vo
N1
N2

34
Output voltage
For steady - state operation,
iLm
+ iLm
=0
)closed (
)opened
Vd DT Vo (1 D )T N1
=0
Lm
Lm
N2
D
Vo = Vd
1 D
N2
N1
Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost

converter.
Output can be greater of less than input,depending
upon D.
Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.

35
Flyback waveforms
Ps = P0
Vs
V0 2
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as :
I Lm DT
Is =
= I Lm D
T
Solving for I Lm
( )
-V(N 1 /N 2 )
i Lm
iLM
is
V02
Vd I Lm D =
R
( )
I Lm =
v1
V0
Vd DR
iD
I Lm can written as :
Vd D
N2
I Lm =
(1 D ) 2 R N1
V0
N2
=
(1 D ) R N1
iC
DT

V o/ R
36
Max, Min inductor current

I Lm
,max
= I Lm +
iLm
2
2
V d DT
N2
+
2 Lm
(1 D ) 2 R N1
iLm
I Lm ,min = I Lm
2
Vd D
Vd D
Vd DT
N2
=
2
2 Lm
(1 D ) R N1
For CCM, I Lm , min = 0
Vd D
N2
(1 D ) 2 R N1
Vd DT Vd D
=
=
2 Lm
2 Lm f
2
Vd (1 D) R N1
2f
N2
Ripple calculation is similar to boost,
(Lm )min =
V0
D
r=
=
V0
RCf
37
Example
The Flyback converter has these specifications:
DC input voltage: 40V
Output voltage: 25V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25% of the average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
Switching frequency: 75kHz
Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine
a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.

38
Full-bridge converter
SW1
SW3
Lx
NS
vp
VS
+
Vo
NS
SW4
+
vx
SW2
SW1,SW2
SW3,SW4
DT
VP
VS
T
2
T
+ DT
2
T
2
T
+ DT
2
-VS
Vx
VS
NS
NP
DT

39
Full bridge: basic operation

Switch pair: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].
Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The
other pair is off.
AC voltage is developed across the primary.
Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
transformers.
On secondary side, diode pair is high frequency
full wave rectification.
The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the buck
converter circuit.
Output Voltage
Ns
Vo = 2Vs
D
Np
40

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Chapter 3

Power Electronics and

The transistor can be

Power loss is high at

When switch is open,

Since P=V.I, no losses

Power Electronics and

Buck (step-down) converter

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Switch is turned on (closed)

Switch turned off (opened)

Current now flows

The inductor voltage

Power Electronics and

Steady - state operation requires that iL at the

Average, Maximum and

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

Inductor current ripple :

Continuous Current Mode (CCM)

From previous analysis,

For continuous operation, I min 0,

ensure continous mode of operation.

Output voltage ripple

The charge can be witten as :

1) Increasing switching frequency

Basic design procedures

Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise

Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin

Wire size consideration:

Power Electronics and

A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given

A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of

Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V

Power Electronics and

Boost (step-up) converter

CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and

Boost analysis:switch closed

Power Electronics and

Power Electronics and

Power Electronics and

Average, Maximum, Minimum

Power Electronics and

Power Electronics and

The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,

Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V

Power Electronics and

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and

Power Electronics and

Average inductor current

Power Electronics and

Power Electronics and

Converters in CCM: Summary

Power Electronics and