Notes 01 Introduction To Power Electronics PDF

Notes 01
Introduction to Power Electronics

Marc T. Thompson, Ph.D.
Thompson Consulting, Inc.
9 Jacob Gates Road
Harvard, MA 01451
Phone: (978) 456-7722
Fax: (240) 414-2655
Email: marctt@thompsonrd.com
marctt@thompsonrd com
Web: http://www.thompsonrd.com
Marc Thompson, 2005-2007

Power Electronics

Power electronics relates to the control and flow of
electrical energy
Control is done using electronic switches, capacitors,
magnetics, and control systems
Scope
S
off power electronics:
l t i
milliWatts
illiW tt gigaWatts
i W tt
Power electronics is a growing field due to the
improvement in switching technologies and the need for
more and more efficient switching circuits
Power Electronics
Summary
History/scope of power electronics

Some interesting PE-related
PE related projects
Circuit concepts important to power electronics
Some tools for approximate analysis of power
electronics
l t i systems
t
DC/DC converters --- first-cut analysis
Key design challenges in DC/DC converter design
Basic system concepts
Power Electronics
Scope of Power Electronics

Power Level (Watts) System
0.1-10
Battery-operated equipment
Flashes/strobes
10-100
Satellite power systems
Typical offline flyback supply
100 1kW
Computer power supply
Blender
1 10 kW
Hot tub
10 100 kW
Electric car
Eddy current braking
100 kW 1 MW
Bus
micro-SMES
1 MW 10 MW
SMES
10 MW 100 MW
Magnetic aircraft launch
Big locomotives
100 MW 1 GW
Power plant
> 1 GW
Sandy
S d P
Pond
d substation
b t ti (2.2
(2 2 GW)
Power Electronics
Scope of Power Electronics
Power Electronics
Areas of Application of Power Electronics

High frequency power
conversion
DC/DC, inverters
Low frequency power
conversion
Line rectifiers
Distributed p
power
systems
Power devices
Power Electronics
Power Transmission
HVDC
HVAC
Power quality
Power factor
correction
Harmonic reduction
Passive
P
i filt
filtering
i
Active filtering
Some Applications
Heating and lighting control

Induction heating
Fluorescent lamp ballasts
Passive
Active
Electronic ignitions
Alternators
Motor drives
Battery chargers
Electric vehicles
Switching power supplies

Spacecraft power systems
Battery powered
Flywheel powered
Power Electronics
Energy storage
Flywheels
y
Capacitors
SMES
Motors
Regenerative braking
Uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS)
Electric power transmission
Automotive electronics
Power conditioning for

alternative power sources
Solar cells
Fuel cells
Wind turbines
Some Power Electronics-Related Projects

Worked on at TCI (Harvard Labs)
High speed lens actuator

Laser diode pulsers
Levitated flywheel
Maglev
Permanent magnet brakes
Switching power supplies
Magnetic analysis
Laser driver pulsers
50 kW inverter switch
Transcutaneous (through-skin) non-contact power supply
Power Electronics
Lens Actuator
z
r
Iron
Coil
Back iron
Lens
Permanent
Nd-Fe-Bo
g
Magnet
Air gap
Power Electronics
High Power Laser Diode Driver Based on

gy
Power Converter Technology
Overdrive
duration set
OVERDRIVE
Switching
Array
Array
Driver
Laser Diode
Iod
THRESH. current
set
O.D. current
set
-12V
Drive
TTL
INPUT
Array
Driver
Drive*
Ith
PEAK
Switching
Array
-12
Is
PEAK current
set
Rsense
Diff. Amp.
Vsense
Power
Converter
-12
D
PWM
P.W.M.
Vc
Loop
Filter
See:
1.
B. Santarelli and M. Thompson, U.S. Patent #5,123,023, "Laser Driver with Plural Feedback Loops," issued June 16, 1992
2.
M. Thompson, U.S. Patent #5,444,728, "Laser Driver Circuit," issued August 22, 1995
3.
W. T. Plummer, M. Thompson, D. S. Goodman and P. P. Clark, U.S. Patent #6,061,372, Two-Level Semiconductor Laser
Driver, issued May 9, 2000
4.
Marc T. Thompson and Martin F. Schlecht, Laser Diode Driver Based on Power Converter Technology, IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 1997, pp. 46-52
Power Electronics
10
Magnetically-Levitated
Magnetically
Levitated Flywheel Energy Storage
For NASA; P = 100W, energy storage = 100 W-hrs
Guidance and Suspension
S
N
N
S
Flywheel (Rotating)
N
S
S
N
S
N
N
S
Stator Winding
N
S
S
N
N
S
S
N
z
N
S
S
N
r
Power Electronics
11
Electromagnetic Suspension --- Maglev
Power Electronics
12
Maglev - German Transrapid
Power Electronics
13
Maglev - Japanese EDS
Power Electronics
14
Japanese EDS Guideway
Power Electronics
15
MIT Maglev Suspension Magnet
Reference: M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon, Flux-canceling electrodynamic maglev

suspension: Part I.
I Test fixture design and modeling
modeling, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
Magnetics vol.
vol 35
35, no
no. 3
3, May 1999
pp. 1956-1963
Power Electronics
16
MIT Maglev Test Fixture
M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon,

Flux
Flux-canceling
canceling electrodynamic maglev suspension:
Part I. Test fixture design and modeling, IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 35, no. 3, May 1999 pp.
1956-1963
Power Electronics
17
MIT Maglev Test Fixture

2 meter diameter
test wheel
Max. speed 1000
RPM (84 m/s)
For
F testing
t ti flux
fl
canceling HTSC
Maglev
Sidewall levitation
electrodynamic maglev suspension: Part I. Test fixture

f
M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon, Flux-canceling
design and modeling, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 35, no. 3, May 1999 pp. 1956-1963
Power Electronics
18
Permanent Magnet Brakes

For roller coasters
10,000
000
Braking force > 10
Newtons per meter of brake
Reference: http://www.magnetarcorp.com
Power Electronics
19
Halbach Permanent Magnet Array

Special PM arrangement allows strong side (bottom)
and weak side (top) fields
Applicable to magnetic suspensions (Maglev), linear
motors, and induction brakes
Power Electronics
20
Halbach Permanent Magnet Array
Power Electronics
21
Linear Motor Design and Analysis
Power Electronics
22
Variac Failure Analysis
Power Electronics
23
Photovoltaics
Reference: S. Druyea, S. Islam and W. Lawrance, A battery management system for stand-alone photovoltaic energy
systems, IEEE Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 7, no. 3, May-June 2001, pp. 67-72
Power Electronics
24
Offline Flyback Power Supply
Reference: P
P. Maige
Maige, A
A universal power supply integrated circuit for TV and monitor applications
applications, IEEE Transactions
on Consumer Electronics, vol. 36, no. 1, Feb. 1990, pp. 10-17
Power Electronics
25
Transcutaneous Energy
gy Transmission
Reference: H
H. Matsuki
Matsuki, Y
Y. Yamakata
Yamakata, N
N. Chubachi
Chubachi, S
S.-I.
-I Nitta and H.
H Hashimoto,
Hashimoto Transcutaneous
Transcutaneous DC-DC
converter for totally implantable artificial heart using synchronous rectifier, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
vol. 32 , no. 5, Sept. 1996, pp. 5118 - 5120
Power Electronics
26
50 KW Inverter Switch
Power Electronics
27
Non Contact Battery Charger

Non-Contact
Power Electronics
28
High Voltage RF Supply
Power Electronics
29
60 Hz Transformer Shielding Study
Power Electronics
30
Intuitive Analog Circuit Design
Power Electronics
31
Power Quality in Electrical Systems
Power Electronics
32
Some Other Interesting Power-Electronics

Related Systems
Power Electronics
33
Conventional vs.
vs Electric Car
Power Electronics
34
High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission
Power Electronics
35
Mass Spectrometer
Reference: http://www.cameca.fr/doc_en_pdf/oral_sims14_schuhmacher_ims1270improvements.pdf
Power Electronics
36
Some Disciplines Encompassed in the

Field of Power Electronics
Analog circuits
High speed (MOSFET
switching, etc.)
High power
PC b
board
d llayoutt
Filters
EMI
Machines/motors
Simulation
SPICE, Matlab, etc.
Device physics
How to make a better
MOSFET, IGBT, etc.
Control theory
Magnetics
Inductor design
Transformer design
Thermal/cooling
How to design a heat sink
Thermal interfaces
Thermal modeling
Power systems
Transmission lines
Line filtering
Power Electronics
37
Selected History of Power Switching Devices

1831 --- Transformer action
demonstrated by Michael Faraday
1880s: modern transformer invented
Reference:
f
J. W. Coltman,
C
The Transformer
f
(historical
(
overview, IEEE
Industry Applications Magazine, vol. 8, no. 1, Jan.-Feb. 2002, pp. 8-15
Power Electronics
38
Selected History
y of Power Switching
g Devices
Early 1900s: vacuum tube
Lee DeForest --- triode, 1906
1920-1940:
1920 1940 mercury arc ttubes
b tto
convert 50Hz, 2000V to
3000VDC for railway
Reference: M. C. Duffy, The mercury-arc rectifier and supply

to electric railways, IEEE Engineering Science and
Education Journal, vol. 4, no. 4, August 1995, pp. 183-192
Power Electronics
39

1930s: selenium rectifiers
1948 - Silicon Transistor
(BJT) introduced (Bell Labs)
1950s - semiconductor power
diodes begin replacing
vacuum tubes
1956 - GE introduces SiliconControlled Rectifier (SCR)
f
N. Holonyak, Jr., The
Silicon
S
p-n-p-n Switch
S
and Controlled
C
Rectifier
f (Thyristor),
(
) IEEE Transactions on
Reference:
Power Electronics, vol. 16, no. 1, January 2001, pp. 8-16
Power Electronics
40

1960s - switching speed of BJTs allow DC/DC converters
possible in 10-20 kHz range
1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Field Effect Transistor
(MOSFET) for integrated circuits
1976 - power MOSFET becomes commercially available,
allows > 100 kHz operation
Reference: B. J. Baliga, Trends in Power Semiconductor Devices, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. 43,
no. 10, October 1996, pp. 1717-1731
Power Electronics
41

1982 - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) introduced
Reference: B. J. Baliga, Trends in Power Semiconductor Devices, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. 43,
no. 10, October 1996, pp. 1717-1731
Power Electronics
42
Review of Basic Circuit Concepts

Some background in circuits
Laplace notation
First-order and secondorder systems
Resonant circuits,
damping
p g ratio,, Q
Reference for this material: M.
T. Thompson, Intuitive Analog
Circuit Design
Design, Elsevier,
Elsevier 2006
(course book for ECE529) and
Power Quality in Electrical
Systems, McGraw-Hill, 2007 by
A. Kusko and M. Thompson
Power Electronics
43
Laplace
p
Notation
Basic idea: Laplace transform converts differential
equation to algebraic equation
Generally,
G
ll method
th d iis used
d iin sinusoidal
i
id l steady
t d state
t t
after all startup transients have died out
Circuit domain
Resistance, R
Inductance L
C
Capacitance
i
C
R1
vi
+
-
R1
+
R2
C
Power Electronics
Laplace (s) domain

R
Ls
1
Cs
vo
-
vi (s)
+
-
R2
1/(Cs)
+
vo(s)
-
44
System Function
Find transfer function H(s) by solving Laplace transformed
circuit
R1
vi
+
-
R2
C
H ( s) =
Power Electronics
R1
+
vo
vi (s)
R2 +
+
-
R2
1/(Cs)
+
vo(s)
-
1
Cs
R2Cs + 1
vo ( s )
=
=
( R1 + R2 )Cs + 1
vi ( s ) R + R + 1
1
2
Cs
45
First-Order Systems
t
vo (t ) = V (1 e )
t
V
ir (t ) = e
R
= RC
Time constant
R = 2.2
h =
Risetime
h
fh =
2
Power Electronics
Bandwidth
0.35
R =
fh
46
First-Order Step
p and Frequency
q
y Response
p
Step Response
1
Amplitud
de
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Time (sec.)
Ph
hase (deg); Magnitude
e (dB)
Bode Diagrams
0
-10
-20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-1
10
Power Electronics
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10
47
Review of Second-Order
Second Order Systems
R
L
+
vi
+
-
vo
-
1
Cs
n2
vo ( s )
1
1
=
=
= 2
= 2
H ( s) =
2
2s
LCs + RCs + 1 s
s + 2 n s + n2
vi ( s ) R + Ls + 1
+
+1
2
Cs
n n
1
LC
RC 1 R
1 R
= n
=
=
2
2 L 2 Zo
C
Natural frequency
q
y n =
Damping ratio
Power Electronics
48
Second-Order System Frequency Response

H ( j ) =
H ( j ) =
1
2 j 2
+ 1 2
n
n
1
2
2 2
+ 1 2
n n
1 n
1 2 n
H ( j ) = tan
= tan 2
2
2
n

1 2
n
Power Electronics
49
Second-Order
Second
Order System Frequency Response
Plots show varying damping ratio
Frequency response for natural frequency = 1 and various damping ratios
30
20
10
Phase (deg); Ma
agnitude (dB)
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-100
-150
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Power Electronics
50
Second-Order System Frequency Response

at Natural Frequency
Now, what happens if we excite this system exactly at the
natural
t l frequency,
f
or = n? Th
The response iis:
H ( s ) =
1
=
2
H ( s ) =n =
Power Electronics
51
Relationship Between Damping Ratio and

Quality Factor Q
A second order system can also be characterized by its
Q lit F
Quality
Factor
t or Q
H ( s ) =
Power Electronics
1
=
=Q
2
52
Second-Order System Step Response

Shown for varying values of damping ratio
Step Response
Step response for natural frequency = 1 and various damping ratios
2
1.8
1.6
14
1.4
Amplitude
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
Time (sec.)
Power Electronics
53
Second-Order Mechanical System

Electromechanical modeling
Reference: Leo Beranek, Acoustics, Acoustical Society of America, 1954

Power Electronics
54
Pole Location Variation with Damping
Very underdamped
Critically
damped
Overdamped
j
x + j n
n
x
2 poles
x j n
Power Electronics
55
Undamped Resonant Circuit

iL
+
vc
Now, we can find the resonant frequency by guessing that the voltage v(t) is
sinusoidal with v(t) = Vosint. Putting this into the equation for capacitor voltage
results in:
1
sin(t ) =
sin(t )
LC
2
This means that the resonant frequency is the standard (as expected) resonance:
r2 =
Power Electronics
1
LC
56
Energy Methods
iL
+
vc
By using energy methods we can find the ratio of maximum

capacitor voltage to maximum inductor current. Assuming that the
capacitor
it is
i iinitially
iti ll charged
h
d tto Vo volts,
lt and
d remembering
b i th
thatt
2
capacitor stored energy Ec = CV and inductor stored energy is
EL = LI2, we can write the following:
1
1 2
2
CVo = LI o
2
2
Power Electronics
57
Energy Methods
iL
+
vc
What does this mean about the magnitude of the inductor current ? Well,
we can solve for the ratio of Vo/Io resulting in:
Vo
L
=
Zo
C
Io
The term Z
Zo is defined as the characteristic impedance of a resonant
circuit. Lets assume that we have an inductor-capacitor circuit with C = 1
microFarad and L = 1 microHenry. This means that the resonant frequency
is 106 radians/second (or 166.7 kHz) and that the characteristic impedance
i 1 Oh
is
Ohm.
Power Electronics
58
Simulation
iL
+
vc
Power Electronics
59
Typical Resonant Circuit

Model of a MOSFET gate drive circuit
1
Cs
1
1
vo ( s )
H ( s) =
=
=
= 2
2
1
2s
vi ( s ) R + Ls +
LCs + RCs + 1 s
+
+1
2
Cs
n n
1
LC
RC 1 R
1 R
= n
=
=
2
2 L 2 Zo
C
n =
Power Electronics
60
Resonant Circuit --- Underdamped

With small
ll resistor,
i t circuit
i it iis underdamped
d d
d
n =
= 200 Mrad / sec
LC
f n 31.8 MHz
L
= 5
Zo =
C
n RC 1 R
1 R
=
=
=
= 0.001
2
2 L 2 Zo
C
Power Electronics
61
Resonant
eso a C
Circuit
cu --- U
Underdamped
de da ped Results
esu s
This circuit is very underdamped, so we expect step
p
to oscillate at around 31.8 MHz
response
Expect peaky frequency response with peak near 31.8 MHz
n =
= 200 Mrad / sec
LC
f n 31.8 MHz
L
= 5
C
n RC 1 R
1 R
=
=
= 0.001
=
2
2 L 2 Zo
C
Zo =
Power Electronics
62
Resonant
eso a C
Circuit
cu --- U
Underdamped
de da ped Results,
esu s,
Step Response
Rings at around 31.8 MHz
Power Electronics
63
Resonant
eso a C
Circuit
cu --- U
Underdamped
de da ped Results,
esu s,
Frequency Response
Frequency response peaks at 31.8 MHz
Power Electronics
64
Resonant
eso a C
Circuit
cu --- C
Critical
ca Damping
a p g
Now, lets employ critical damping by increasing value
of resistor to 10 Ohms
This is also a typical MOSFET gate drive damping
resistor value
Power Electronics
65
Critical
C
ca Damping,
a p g, S
Step
ep Response
espo se
Note that response is still relatively fast (< 100 ns
p
time)) but with no overshoot
response
If we make R larger, the risetime slows down
Power Electronics
66
Critical
C
ca Damping,
a p g, Frequency
eque cy Response
espo se
No overshoot in the transient response corresponds to
peaking
g in the frequency
q
y response
p
no p
Power Electronics
67
Circuit Concepts
Power
Reactive power
Power quality
Power factor
Root
R t Mean
M
S
Square
(RMS)
Harmonics
Harmonic distortion
Power Electronics
68
Sinewaves
A sinewave can be
expressed as v(t) =
Vpksin(t)
Vpk = peak voltage
= radian frequency
(rad/sec)
=2
2ff where f is in Hz
VRMS = Vpk/sqrt(2) =
120V for sinewave with
peaks at 170V
More on RMS later
Power Electronics
120V RMS 60 Hz sinewave

200
150
100
50
-50
-100
-150
-200
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
Time[sec
Time
[sec.]]
0.012
0.014
0.016
69
0.018
Sinewave with Resistive Load

v(t) and i(t) are in phase and have the same shape;
i.e. no harmonics in current
- Time representation
-Phasor
Ph
representation
t ti
-In this case, V and I
have the same phase
p
Power Electronics
70
Sinewave with Inductive Load

For an inductor, remember that v = Ldi/dt
So, i(t) lags v(t) by 90o in an inductor
Power Electronics
71
Sinewave with Inductive Load --- PSIM
Power Electronics
72
Sinewave with L/R Load

Phase shift (also called angle) between v and i is somewhere
between 0o and -90o
L
= tan
R
1
Power Electronics
73
Sinewave with Capacitive Load

Remember that i = Cdv/dt for a capacitor
Current leads voltage by +90o
- Phasor representation
Power Electronics
74
Phasor Representation of L and C
In inductor, current lags

g by
y 90 degrees
g
voltage
Power Electronics
In capacitor, voltage lags

current by 90 degrees
75
Response of L and C to pulses
Power Electronics
76
Review of Complex Numbers

In rectangular form, a complex number is written in terms of
real and imaginary components
A = Re(A) + jIm(A)
- Angle
Im( A)
= tan
Re( A)
1
- Magnitude of A
A=
Power Electronics
(Re(( A) )2 + (Im(( A) )2
77
Find Polar Form

Assume that current I = -3.5
3 5 + j(4
j(4.2)
2)
I = ( 3.5) 2 + ( 4.2) 2 = 5.5 A
= 180o
4.2
o
= tan
=
50
.
2
3.5
= 180o 50.2 o = 129.8o
1
5.5 A129.8o
Power Electronics
78
Converting from Polar to Rectangular Form
Re{A} = A cos( )
Im{A} = A sin( )
Power Electronics
79
Power
Power has many shapes and forms
Real power
p
Reactive power
Reactive power does not do real work
Instantaneous power
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
Peak
P k instantaneous
i t t
power
Average power
1
p (t ) =
T
Power Electronics
v(t )i (t )dt
80
Power Factor
Ratio of delivered power to the product of RMS voltage and
RMS current
<P>
PF =
VRMS I RMS
Power factor always <= 1

With pure sine wave and resistive load, PF = 1
With p
pure sine wave and p
purely
y reactive load,, PF = 0
Whenever PF < 1 the circuit carries currents or voltages
that do not perform useful work
The more spikey
spikey a waveform is the worse is its PF
Diode rectifiers have poor power factor
Power factor can be helped by power factor correction

Power Electronics
81
Causes of Low Power Factor

Factor--- L/R Load
Power angle is = tan-1(L/R)
For L = 1H
1H, R = 377 Ohms
Ohms, = 45o and PF = cos(45o) =
0.707
Power Electronics
82
Causes of Low Power Factor --- Non-linear Load

Nonlinear loads include:
Variable-speed drives
Frequency converters
Uninterruptable power
supplies (UPS)
Saturated magnetic
circuits
Dimmer switches
Televisions
Fluorescent lamps
Welding sets
Arc furnaces
Semiconductors
Battery
B tt
chargers
h
Power Electronics
83
Half Wave Rectifier with RC Load

In applications where cost is a major consideration, a
capacitive filter may be used.
If RC >> 1/f then this operates like a peak detector and the
output voltage <vout> is approximately the peak of the input
voltage
Diode is only ON for a short time near the sinewave peaks
Power Electronics
84

Note poor power factor due to peaky input line current
Power Electronics
85
Unity Power Factor --- Resistive Load

Example: purely resistive load
Voltage and currents in phase
v(t ) = V sin t
V
i (t ) = sin t
R
V2
sin 2 t
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) =
R
V2
< p(t ) >=
2R
V
VRMS =
2
V
I RMS =
R 2
V2
< p(t ) >
2R
PF =
=
=1
VRMS I RMS V V
2 R 2
Power Electronics
86
Causes of Low Power Factor --- Reactive Load

Example: purely inductive load
Voltage and currents 90o out of phase
v(t ) = V sin t
V
i (t ) =
cos t
L
V2
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) =
sin t cos t
L
< p (t ) >
>= 0
For purely reactive

load PF=0
load,
PF 0
Power Electronics
87
Why is Power Factor Important?

Consider peak-detector full-wave rectifier
Typical power factor kp = 0.6

What is maximum power you can deliver to load ?
VAC x current x kp x rectifier efficiency
(120)(15)(0.6)(0.98) = 1058 Watts
Assume you replace this simple rectifier by power
electronics module with 99% power factor and 93%
y
efficiency:
(120)(15)(0.99)(0.93) = 1657 Watts
Power Electronics
88
Power Factor Correction

Typical toaster can draw 1400W from a 120VAC/15A line
Typical offline switching converter can draw <1000W
because it has poor power factor
High power factor results in:
Reduced electric utility bills
Increased system capacity
Improved voltage
Reduced heat losses
Methods of power factor correction
Passive
Add capacitors across an inductive load to resonate
Add inductance in a capacitor circuit
Active
Power Electronics
89
Power Factor Correction --- Passive

Switch capacitors in and out as needed as load changes
Power Electronics
90
Power Factor Correction --- Active

Fluorescent lamp ballast application
Power Electronics
91
Root Mean Square (RMS)

Used for description of periodic, often multi-harmonic,
waveforms
Square root of the average over a cycle (mean) of the
square of a waveform
T
I RMS =
1 2
i (t )dt
T 0
RMS current of any waveshape will dissipate the same

amount of heat in a resistor as a DC current of the same
value
DC waveform: Vrms = VDC
Symmetrical square wave:
IRMS = Ipk
Pure sine wave
0 0 pk
IRMS=0.707I
Example: 120 VRMS line voltage has peaks of 169.7 V
Power Electronics
92
Intuitive Description of RMS

The RMS value of
a sinusoidal or
other periodic
waveform
dissipates the
same amount of
power in a resistive
load as does a
batteryy of the same
RMS value
So, 120VRMS into
a resistive load
dissipates as much
power in the load
as does a 120V
battery
Power Electronics
93
RMS Value of Various Waveforms

Following are a bunch of waveforms typically found in power
electronics, power systems, and motors, and their
corresponding RMS values
Reference: R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic,
Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd edition, Kluwer, 2001
Power Electronics
94
DC Voltage
Battery
Power Electronics
95
Sinewave
AC line
Power Electronics
96
Square Wave
This type of waveform can be put out by a square wave
converter or full-bridge converter
Power Electronics
97
DC with Ripple
Buck converter inductor current (DC value + ripple)
Power Electronics
98
Triangular Ripple
Capacitor ripple current in some converters (no DC value)
Power Electronics
99
Pulsating Waveform
Buck converter input switch current (assuming small ripple)
Power Electronics
100
Pulsating with Ripple

i.e. buck
converter switch
current
We can use
this result to get
RMS value of
buck diode
current
Power Electronics
101
Triangular
Power Electronics
102
Piecewise Calculation
This works if the different components are at different
frequencies
Power Electronics
103
Piecewise Calculation --- Example

What
Wh t is
i RMS value
l off DC + ripple
i l ((shown
h
b
before)?
f )?
Power Electronics
104
Harmonics
Harmonics are created by nonlinear circuits
Rectifiers
Half-wave rectifier has first harmonic at 60 Hz
Full-wave has first harmonic at 120 Hz
Switching DC/DC converters
DC/DC operating at 100 kHz generally creates
harmonics at DC, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, etc.
Line
Li harmonics
h
i can be
b ttreated
t d by
b liline filt
filters
Passive
Active
Power Electronics
105
Total Harmonic Distortion

Total harmonic distortion (THD)
Ratio of the RMS value of all the nonfundamental
frequency terms to the RMS value of the
2
fundamental
I
2
2
THD =
n 1
n , RMS
I1, RMS
I RMS I1, RMS

I12, RMS
Symmetrical square wave: THD = 48.3%

I RMS = 1
I1 =
4
2
2
4
1
= 0.483
THD =
2
4
Symmetrical triangle wave: THD = 12.1%

Power Electronics
106
Half-Wave Rectifier, Resistive Load

Simplest, cheapest rectifier
Line current has DC component; this current appears in
neutral
High harmonic content, Power factor = 0.7
P.F . =
Power Electronics
Pavg
VRMS I RMS
107
Half Wave Rectifier with Resistive Load --- Power

F t and
Factor
d Average
A
Output
O t t Voltage
V lt
Average output voltage:
1
< v d >=
2
V pk sin(
i (t )d (t ) =
V pk
2
[ cos((t )]
t =
t = 0
V pk
Power factor calculation:

2
2
I pk
1 I pk
R =
< P > =
R
2 2
4
VRMS =
V pk
I RMS =
I pk 1
2 2
RI pk
2
2
I pk
R
<P>
4
= 0.707
=
PF =
I
I
VRMS I RMS pk pk 1
R 2 2 2
Power Electronics
108
Half-Wave Rectifier, Resistive Load --- Spectrum

off L
Load
dV
Voltage
lt
Power Electronics
109

More practical rectifier
For large RC, this behaves like a peak detector
Power Electronics
110

Note poor power factor due to peaky line current
Note DC component of line current
Power Electronics
111
Half Wave Rectifier with RC Load --S

Spectrum
t
off Line
Li Current
C
t
Power Electronics
112
Crest Factor
Another term sometimes used in power engineering
Ratio of peak value to RMS value
For
F a sinewave,
i
crestt factor
f t = 1.4
14
Peak = 1; RMS = 0.707
For a square wave, crest factor = 1
Peak = 1; RMS = 1
Power Electronics
113
Harmonics and THD - Sinewave

THD = 0%
Number of harmonics N = 1 THD = 0 %
15
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
1.5
5
Power Electronics
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
114
Harmonics and THD - Sinewave + 3rd Harmonic
Power Electronics
115
Harmonics and THD --- Sinewave + 3rd + 5th

Harmonic
THD = 38.9%
Power Electronics
116
Harmonics --- Up to N = 103

THD = 48%
Power Electronics
117
Full Wave Rectifier (Single Phase)

Full-Wave
Power Electronics
118
Full-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
Power Electronics
119
6-Pulse (3-Phase) Rectifier

Typically used for higher-power applications where 3phase power is available
Power Electronics
120
12-Pulse Rectifier
T
Two paralleled
ll l d 6
6-pulse
l rectifiers
tifi
5th and 7th harmonics are eliminated
Onlyy harmonics are the 11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th
Reference: R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2d edition

Power Electronics
121
Techniques for Analysis of Power Electronics

Circuits
Power electronics systems are often switching,
nonlinear,
li
and
d with
ith other
th ttransients.
i t A variety
i t off
techniques have been developed to help
approximately
pp
y analyze
y these circuits
Assumed states
Small ripple assumption
Periodic steady state
After getting approximate answers, often circuit
simulation is used
Power Electronics
122
Assumed States
In a circuit with diodes, etc. or other nonlinear
elements, how do you figure out what is happening ?
Guess.and
G
d th
then check
h k your guess
1 10
1:10
Vout
120 VAC
Power Electronics
123
Small Ripple Assumption

In power electronic circuits, generally our interest is in
the average value of voltages and current if the ripple
is small compared to the nominal operating point.
In DC/DC converters, often our goal is to regulate the
average value of the output voltage vo. State-space
averaging is a circuit approach to analyzing the local
average
g behavior of circuit elements. In this method,,
we make use of a running average, or:
t
1
v (t ) = v( )d
T t T
Power Electronics
124
Periodic Steady State

In the periodic steady state assumption, we assume that
p transients have died out and that from p
periodall startup
to-period the inductor currents and capacitor voltages
return to the same value.
In other words
words, for one part of the cycle the inductor
current ripples UP; for the second part of the cycle, the
inductor current ripples DOWN.
Can
C calculate
l l t converter
t d
dependence
d
on switching
it hi b
by
using volt-second balance.
Power Electronics
125
Motivation for DC/DC Converter: Offline Linear

+5V, 50 Watt Regulator
AC
Vbus
Linear
Reg.
Vo
Cbus
Must accommodate:
Variation in line voltage
IIn order
d to
t maintain
i t i
regulation:
Vbus > 5V + Vdropout
Typically 10%
Drop in rectifier
rectifier, transformer
Rectifier 1-2V total
Transformer drop depends on
load current
Regulator power dissipation:
For <Vbus> = 7V and Io = 10A,

P = 20 Watts !
P [< Vbus
> Vo ]I o
b
Ripple in bus voltage
Vbus
IL
120Cbus
Dropout
D
t voltage
lt
off regulator
l t
Typically 0.25-1V
Power Electronics
126
Offline Switching +5V

+5V, 50 Watt Regulator
AC
If switching regulator is 90% efficient, Preg = 5.6 Watts

(ignoring losses in diode bridge and transformer)
Other switching topologies can do better
Vbus
Switching
Reg.
Vo
Cbus
Power Electronics
127
PSIM Simulation
Power Electronics
128
PSIM Simulation
Power Electronics
129
Switcher Implementation
D
+
Vi
vo(t)
RL
Switch turns on and off with switching frequency fsw

D is duty
duty cycle,
cycle or fraction of switching cycle that
v (t)
switch is closed
o
Vi
<vvo(t)
(t)>
t
DT
T+DT
Average value of output <vvo(t)

(t)> = Dvi
Can provide real-time control of <vo(t)> by varying duty cycle
Unfortunately, output is has very high ripple at

switching frequency fsw
Power Electronics
130
Switcher Design Issues

Lowpass filter provides effective ripple reduction in vo(t) if
LC >> 1/fsw
Unfortunately, this circuit has a fatal flaw..
D
L
+
Vi
RL
vo((t))
-
Power Electronics
131
Buck Converter
Add diode to allow continuous inductor current flow
when switch is open
D
L
+
Vi
RL
vo(t)
-
This is a common circuit for voltage step-down

applications
Examples
E
l off buck
b k converter
t given
i
llater
t
Power Electronics
132
Types of Converters
Can have DC or AC inputs and outputs
AC DC
Rectifier
DC DC
Designed to convert one DC voltage to another DC
voltage
Buck, boost, flyback, buck/boost, SEPIC, Cuk, etc.
DC AC
Inverter
AC AC
Light dimmers
Cycloconverters
Power Electronics
133
Ideal Power Converter

Converts voltages and currents without dissipating
power
p
Pout
Pout
Efficiency = 100%
=
=
Pin Pout + Ploss
Efficiency is very important, especially at high power
levels
High
Hi h efficiency
ffi i
results
lt iin smaller
ll size
i (d
(due tto cooling
li
requirements)
Example:
p 100 kW converter
90% efficient dissipates 11.1 kW
1
Pdiss = Pout 1
99% efficient dissipates 1010 W

99.9%
99 9% efficient dissipates 100 W
Power Electronics
134
Buck Converter
Also called down converter
Designed to convert a higher DC voltage to a lower DC
voltage
Output voltage controlled by modifying switching duty
i
ratio D
ratio
D
L
Vcc
Vo
+
R
C
vc
-
Well figure out the details of how this works in later

weeks
Power Electronics
135
Possible Implementations
Many companies make buck controller chips (where
you supply
y
pp y external components)
p
) as well as complete
p
modules
Power Electronics
136
Real World Buck Converter Issues

Real-World
Real-world buck converter has losses in:
MOSFET
Conduction loss
Switching loss
Inductor
I d t
ESR
Capacitor
ESR
Diode
Diode ON voltage
Power Electronics
137
Converter Loss Mechanisms

Input rectifier
Input filtering
EMI filtering
Capacitor ESR
Transformer
DC winding loss
AC winding loss
Skin effect
Proximity effect
Core loss
Hysteresis
Eddy currents
Ou
Output
pu filter
e
Capacitor ESR
Power Electronics
Control system
Controller
Current
C
t sensing
i d
device
i
Switch
MOSFET conduction
loss
MOSFET switching loss
Avalanche loss
Gate driving loss
Clamp/snubber
Diode
Di d
Conduction loss
Reverse recovery
Reverse current
138

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Notes 01

Introduction to Power Electronics

Marc Thompson, 2005-2007

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

History/scope of power electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Scope of Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Scope of Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Areas of Application of Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Heating and lighting control

Switching power supplies

Power conditioning for

Introduction to Power Electronics

Some Power Electronics-Related Projects

High speed lens actuator

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

High Power Laser Diode Driver Based on

Introduction to Power Electronics

Electromagnetic Suspension --- Maglev

Introduction to Power Electronics

Maglev - German Transrapid

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Maglev - Japanese EDS

Introduction to Power Electronics

Japanese EDS Guideway

Introduction to Power Electronics

MIT Maglev Suspension Magnet

Reference: M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon, Flux-canceling electrodynamic maglev

Introduction to Power Electronics

MIT Maglev Test Fixture

M. T. Thompson, R. D. Thornton and A. Kondoleon,

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MIT Maglev Test Fixture

electrodynamic maglev suspension: Part I. Test fixture

Introduction to Power Electronics

Permanent Magnet Brakes

Introduction to Power Electronics

Halbach Permanent Magnet Array

Introduction to Power Electronics

Halbach Permanent Magnet Array

Introduction to Power Electronics

Linear Motor Design and Analysis

Introduction to Power Electronics

Variac Failure Analysis

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Offline Flyback Power Supply

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Introduction to Power Electronics

Non Contact Battery Charger

Introduction to Power Electronics

High Voltage RF Supply

Introduction to Power Electronics

60 Hz Transformer Shielding Study

Introduction to Power Electronics

Intuitive Analog Circuit Design