Preliminary Chemistry: Marilyn Schell Kevin Molyneux

PRELIMINARY CHEMISTRY
Marilyn Schell
Kevin Molyneux
Science Press 2007
First published 2007
Reprinted 2007, 2008, 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
Science Press may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia or transmitted in any form or by any means,
Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915 electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
sales@sciencepress.com.au or otherwise, without the prior permission of
www.sciencepress.com.au Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861
Contents
Introduction v
Verbs to Watch vi
Dot Points
The Chemical Earth vii

Metals ix
Water xi
Energy xiii
Questions
The Chemical Earth 1

Metals 47
Water 87
Energy 117
Answers
The Chemical Earth 171

Metals 191
Water 203
Energy 215
Appendix
Data Sheet 237

Periodic Table 238
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry iii Contents

Notes
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Science Press
Contents iv Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Introduction
What the book includes
,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOOQGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQWKH%RDUGRI6WXGLHV
syllabus for the following topics in the Year 11 Chemistry course:
7KH&KHPLFDO(DUWK
0HWDOV
:DWHU
(QHUJ\
Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates
WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV
Format of the book
The book has been formatted in the following way:
1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)
1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.

1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRUVFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ
TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\
EXOOHWHGKHQFHRXUXVHRIGRWSRLQWVZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP
1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV
UHTXLUHPHQW
1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV
UHTXLUHPHQWHWF
7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH
worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in
PDQ\DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKH
chemistry involved is worth only one mark.
How to use the book
&RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV
You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered,
but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams.
:KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX
NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG
spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry v Introduction

Verbs to Watch
account/account for distinguish
State reasons for, report on, give an account of, Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or
narrate a series of events or transactions. different from, note difference between things.
analyse evaluate
Identify components and the relationships among Make a judgement based on criteria.
them, draw out and relate implications.
examine
apply ,QTXLUHLQWR
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
explain
appreciate Relate cause and effect, make the relationship
Make a judgement about the value of something. between things evident, provide why and/or how.
assess extract
0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
results or size. extrapolate
calculate Infer from what is known.
'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWVJXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ identify
clarify Recognise and name.
Make clear or plain. interpret
classify Draw meaning from.
Arrange into classes, groups or categories. investigate
compare 3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW
Show how things are similar or different. justify
construct Support an argument or conclusion.
Make, build, put together items or arguments. outline
contrast Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.
Show how things are different or opposite. predict
critically (analyse/evaluate) Suggest what may happen based on available data.
Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge propose
DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHHFWLRQDQG Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument,
TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ suggestion etc) for consideration or action.
deduce recall
Draw conclusions. Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
GHQH recommend
6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV Provide reasons in favour.
demonstrate recount
Show by example. Retell a series of events.
describe summarise
Provide characteristics and features. Express concisely the relevant details.
discuss synthesise
Identify issues and provide points for and against. Put together various elements to make a whole.
Science Press
Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

The Chemical Earth
Dot Point Page Dot Point Page
1. Mixtures of the Earth 2 3.11 Atoms share electrons in 23

and their separation covalent molecules
1.1 Particle theory of matter 2 3.12 Formulas of ionic and 24
1.2 Mixtures in the biosphere, lithosphere, 3 molecular compounds
hydrosphere and atmosphere 3.13 Models of ionic and covalent compounds 25
1.3 Separation of naturally occuring mixtures 3 4. Energy in the extraction of elements 27
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
) 4.1 Physical and chemical changes 27
Separating a mixture
4.2 Boiling and electrolysis of water 28
$VVHVVLQJVHSDUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV
LUVWKDQGRUVHFRQGDU\LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
1.6 Uses of gravimetric analysis 6 Electrolysis of water
) 4.4 Boiling and electrolysis as physical and 30
Gravimetric analysis of a mixture chemical changes
1.8 Industrial separation of a mixture 9 LUVWKDQGRUVHFRQGDU\LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
1.9 Applied Question Section 1 10 Light on silver salts
2. Elements occurrence and properties 11 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
2.1 Reactivity and occurrence of elements 11 Heat on carbonates
OHPHQWVPHWDOVQRQPHWDOV
( 4.7 Energy changes in decomposition 32
DQGVHPLPHWDOV and synthesis reactions
2.3 Investigation: Physical properties 12 4.8 Energy needed to break 33
of elements bonds in compounds
2.4 Physical properties of 13 5. Bonding, structure and properties 35
PHWDOVDQGQRQPHWDOV 5.1 Physical and chemical properties 35
ODVVLFDWLRQRIHOHPHQWV
& LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ3URSHUWLHVRI
)
and the Periodic Table elements and the compounds they form
2.6 Uses and properties of metals 15 5.3 Physical properties of ionic, 37
2.7 Applied Question Section 2 16 covalent molecular and
covalent network compounds
3. Compounds, molecules and ions 17
, QYHVWLJDWLRQ&ODVVLFDWLRQRI
3.1 Matter is made of moving particles 17
metallic, ionic and covalent substances
3.2 Mass number and atomic number 17
0HWDOVDV'ODWWLFHVLQDVHDRIHOHFWURQV
3.3 Energy levels of electrons 18
,RQLFFRPSRXQGVDV'ODWWLFHV
3.4 Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions 19
5.7 Empirical formulas of ionic compounds 40
3.5 Ion formation and the Periodic Table 20
5.8 Elements as molecules or lattices 41
,RQIRUPDWLRQLRQLFHTXDWLRQV
5.9 Properties, structure and 42
3.7 Lewis electron dot structures 21 bonding of substances
3.8 Attraction of ions and ionic compounds 22 5.10 Metallic, ionic and covalent bonds 43
3.9 Molecules 22 5.11 Limitations of models 45
3.10 Atoms in molecules 23 Answers to The Chemical Earth 171
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry vii The Chemical Earth

Notes
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The Chemical Earth viii Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Metals
1. Uses of metals and alloys 48 3.4 Recognising patterns in properties 68

1.1 Uses of metals through history 48 of elements
1.2 Energy for metal extraction 48 VLQJFRPSXWHUEDVHGWHFKQRORJLHVWR
8
tabulate and graph
1.3 Availability of metals over time 49
3.6 Applied Question Section 3 70
1.4 Uses and properties of alloys 49
4. Measuring chemicals in reactions 71
1.5 Composition and uses of alloys 50
4.1 The mole concept 71
1.6 Bronze Age, Iron Age and 50
Modern Era of metals (TXDWLRQVDQGPROHUDWLRV
1.7 Applied Question Section 1 52 4.3 Mass changes in combustion of metals 72
2. Reactivity of metals 53 4.4 Empirical and molecular formulas 73
) LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Activity series of metals Chemical composition
2.2 Reactions of metals with dilute acids, 53 *D\/XVVDFJDVUHDFWLRQVDQGWKHPROH
water and oxygen $YRJDGURVODZDQGWKHPROH
(TXDWLRQVIRUUHDFWLRQVRIPHWDOV 4.8 Calculations of moles 76
2.4 Criteria for activity series of metals 56 4.9 Volume of gases and the mole 77
2.5 Transfer of electrons occurs when 57 5. Extraction and recycling of metals 79
metals react with acids 5.1 Minerals, ores and resources 79
DOIHTXDWLRQVIRUHOHFWURQ
+ 5.2 Predicting yield of ore deposits 79
transfer reactions
5.3 Extraction of copper from its ore 80
2.7 Uses and reactivity of metals 59
5.4 Commercial prices, cost of production 81
2.8 Reactivity of metals and the Periodic Table 59 and abundance of metals
2.9 Reactivity of metals and 60 2UHVDVQRQUHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFHV
UVWLRQLVDWLRQHQHUJ\
5.6 Recycling of metals 83
3. Properties of elements 61
5.7 Recycling aluminium 84
and the Periodic Table
5.8 Cost to extract and recycle aluminium 85
3.1 A model of atomic structure 61
Answers to Metals 191
3.2 Development of the Periodic Table 62
3.3 Trends in properties of elements and 64
their position in the Periodic Table
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry ix Metals

Notes
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Metals x Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Water
1. Distribution of water on Earth 88 4. Solutions, solubility and precipitation 105

1.1 Solute, solvent, solution 88 4.1 Solubility rules and precipitates 105
1.2 Water as a solvent 88 4.2 Modelling dissolution and precipitation 105
1.3 Distribution of water on Earth 88 4.3 Ion movement in saturated solutions 106
1.4 Roles of water 89 , RQLFHTXDWLRQVIRUGLVVROXWLRQ
1.5 Calculations of density 90 and precipitation
0RGHOVRIVROLGDQGOLTXLGZDWHU LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Solubility of salts
1.7 Investigation: Effect of antifreeze or salt 92
on boiling point of water 4.6 Describing molarity of solutions 107
2. Structure and bonding of water 93 4.7 Calculating concentration of solutions 108
2.1 Lewis electron dot structures 93 4.8 Measures of concentration 108
2.2 Structure and shape of water, 93 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
DPPRQLDDQGK\GURJHQVXOGH Making and diluting solutions
2.3 Polarity of water 94 4.10 Calculating mass and 110
concentration in precipitation reactions
'LSROHGLSROHIRUFHV
5. 6SHFLFKHDWFDSDFLW\RIZDWHU 111
2.5 Hydrogen bonding 96
6SHFLFKHDWFDSDFLW\
2.6 Modelling structure and bonding of water 96
SHFLFKHDWFDSDFLW\RIZDWHU
6
2.7 Water properties and 97
and other solvents
intermolecular forces
8VLQJWKHHTXDWLRQ
2.8 Boiling point of water and 98
H = mCT
other similar sized molecules
8VLQJWKHVSHFLFKHDWRIZDWHU
)
Properties of water LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Finding molar heat of solution
3. Water as a solvent 101
5.6 Exothermic dissolutions 114
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ6ROXELOLW\RI
)
substances in water 5.7 Endothermic dissolutions 114
3.2 Interactions of water with chemicals 102 5.8 Limitations of calorimetry experiments 115
3.3 Polarity of water and its solubility 104 ,PSRUWDQFHRIWKHVSHFLFKHDWRIZDWHU
3.4 Modelling dissolution 104 5.10 Thermal pollution 116
Answers to Water 203
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry xi Water

Notes
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Water xii Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Energy
1. Organic origins of energy 118 (TXDWLRQVIRUFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV

1.1 Photosynthesis raw materials 118 4.5 Combustion of a candle 146
and energy changes )LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ%XUQLQJZRRG
1.2 Photosynthesis and solar energy 118 RQGEUHDNLQJDQGERQGPDNLQJ
%
1.3 Photosynthesis and fossil fuels 119 in chemical reactions
1.4 Investigating a fossil fuel 120 QHUJ\FKDQJHVLQERQGPDNLQJ
(
reliability, validity, accuracy and breaking
2. Carbon and its compounds 123 4.9 Activation energy 149
2.1 Carbon 123 (
QHUJ\SUROHVIRUHQGRWKHUPLF
2.2 Allotropes of carbon 123 and exothermic reactions
2.3 Models of diamond, graphite 126 4.11 Ignition temperature and 151
and fullerenes activation energy
2.4 Properties and uses of diamond 126 4.12 Pollution from combustion 151
and graphite 5. Rates of reactions 153
2.5 Single, double and triple bonds 126 LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ(IIHFW
)
0RGHOVRI&&ERQGV of factors on reaction rates
2.7 Carbon compounds 128 5.2 Slow, spontaneous and 156
explosive combustion
3. Petroleum, alkanes and alkenes 129
5.3 Conditions for explosions 157
3.1 Modelling alkanes and alkenes 129
5.4 Reaction rates and particle collisions 158
3.2 Naming alkanes and alkenes 131
5.5 Explosions and work environments 159
3.3 Properties of alkanes and alkenes 133
5.6 Temperature and kinetic energy 160
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ)UDFWLRQDO
)
of particles
distillation of a mixture
5.7 Catalysts in chemical reactions 160
3.5 Fractional distillation of petroleum 136
5.8 Catalysts, activation energy 161
3.6 Properties and bonding of hydrocarbons 137
and rates of reactions
3.7 Storing alkanes safely 138
5.9 Modelling the role of a catalyst 161
3.8 Safety of alkanes and bonding 139
6. Chemical reactions in the 163
3.9 Applied Question Section 3 142 Preliminary course
4. Chemical reactions combustion 143 TXDWLRQVWRUHSUHVHQW
(
4.1 Indicators of chemical reactions 143 chemical reactions
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ(QGRWKHUPLF
) Answers to Energy 215
and exothermic reactions
4.3 Combustion as an exothermic 144
chemical reaction
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry xiii Energy

Notes
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Energy xiv Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

DOT POINT
The Chemical Earth
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 1 The Chemical Earth

1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures.
1.1 Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory.
1.1.1 State the particle theory.
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1.1.2 'HQHWKHIROORZLQJLQWHUPVRISDUWLFOHV
(a) element
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(b) compound
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(c) mixture
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1.1.3 Identify each of the following diagrams as representing an element, mixture or compound.
(a) ........................................................ (b) ....................................................... (c) ........................................................
(d) ....................................................... (e) ........................................................ (f) .........................................................
Science Press
The Chemical Earth 2 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

1.2 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixtures of elements and compounds.
1.2.1 Complete the following table to show the zones in which each of the following mixtures is
XVXDOO\SUHVHQWDQGWKHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKRVHPL[WXUHV7KHUVWRQHLVGRQHIRU\RX
Zone Mixture present Components of mixture
Biosphere Wood Mixture of compounds such as water, carbohydrates, oils.
Copper
carbonate ore
Salt water
Air
1.3 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
VROLGVRIGLIIHUHQWVL]HV
VROLGVDQGOLTXLGV
GLVVROYHGVROLGVLQOLTXLGV
OLTXLGV
JDVHV
1.3.1 Use diagrams to describe the following processes:

(a) Filtration (b) Sedimentation and decanting
(c) Evaporation and crystallisation (d) Fractional distillation of a mixture of liquids
(e) Sieving (f) Using a separating funnel to separate two liquids
Science Press

1.3.2 Complete the following table to relate some mixtures and methods of separating their
FRPSRQHQWV7KHUVWOLQHKDVEHHQFRPSOHWHGIRU\RX
Type of mixture Example Suitable process
to separate components
Solids of different sizes. A mixture of partly crushed rock Sieving particles smaller than
particles and silt. the hole in the sieve pass through,
large particles stay in the sieve.
A liquid and a solid that will not
dissolve in that liquid.
A solid dissolved in a liquid.
Miscible liquids with different

boiling points.
Immiscible liquids with different

densities.
Gases.
1.3.3
(a) Air is a mixture. Identify the main gases present.
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(b) Identify the steps in the separation of gases such as oxygen and nitrogen from a mixture such
as air.
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, GHQWLI\GDWDVRXUFHVSODQFKRRVHHTXLSPHQWDQGSHUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRVHSDUDWH
the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as sand, salt and water.
1.4.1 Identify the components of the mixture that you separated in the laboratory.
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Science Press

1.4.2 Describe the method you used.
(Note: You should list the steps in order and include a diagram. Your method should be so
clear that anyone else could repeat your experiment exactly as you did it.)
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1.5 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of Earth materials,
identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations.
1.5.1 Assess the use of fractional distillation to separate oxygen and nitrogen from air.
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1.5.3 Use the following table to summarise the differences in properties that allow the listed
mixtures to be separated.
Components of mixture Process used to Property that makes
separate components this use possible
Oil and water.
Solid wastes from sewage.
Sand and gravel.
Nitrogen and oxygen from air.
1.6 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists
and other scientists.
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mercury in a sample of mercury oxide.
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1.6.2 Identify three other situations in which scientists might use gravimetric analysis to provide
useful data about mixtures.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

1.6.3 The label on a packet of oats contains the following information:
Contents Per 100 g Contents Per 100 g
Energy 1600 kJ Dietary bre 6.9 g
Protein 9.4 g Sodium 20 mg
Fat 5.9 g Potassium 265 mg
Carbohydrate 68.6 g
(a) Describe how the manufacturer could have determined such information.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b) Describe the purpose of providing such information on food packaging.
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percentage composition.
1.7.1
(a) Identify the mixture that you analysed in the laboratory, by means of gravimetric analysis.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Assess the reliability of your results.
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(c) Discuss the need for safety precautions while carrying out this experiment.
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Science Press

1.7.2 Two Year 11 students, Karen and Robert, are provided with a mixture of sand and salt and asked
to carry out a gravimetric analysis of this mixture to determine the percentage of salt present.
The total mass of the mixture is 4.90 grams. The students add water and stir to dissolve the salt.
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evaporating it to dryness. The results Karen and Robert obtain are:
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Weight of evaporating basin (empty) = 23.43 g
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(a) Calculate the following:
(i) the mass of the residue
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(ii) the mass of the solid in the evaporating dish
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(iii) the percentage composition of salt in the original mixture
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(iv) the total mass of chemicals recovered after separation
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improvements.
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Science Press

1.8 Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the biosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the evidence available to:
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1.8.1 During this course you researched an industrial separation process (e.g. gravimetric analysis
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Name of industrial separation
process researched
Components of mixture
separated by this process.
Properties of components that

allow them to be separated by
this process.
Uses of components when they

have been separated.
Issues associated with any

wastes produced during this
process.
1.8.2 Explain how you assessed the reliability of the reference sources you chose.
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Science Press

1.9 Applied Question Section 1
Some junior students were arguing about whether air is a mixture or a compound. You are called in, as
an expert, to help settle the argument.
Identify arguments you could use to convince them that air is a mixture.
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Science Press

2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are
found uncombined.
2.1 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as
an uncombined element.
2.1.1 Identify whether each of the following elements would be more likely to exist naturally as an
uncombined element or as a compound
(a) magnesium (b) gold
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.1.2 Compare the reactivity of the metals magnesium and gold.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.1.3 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing
as an uncombined element.
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&ODVVLI\HOHPHQWVDVPHWDOVQRQPHWDOVDQGVHPLPHWDOVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHV
2.2.1 Distinguish between the terms physical property and chemical property.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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2.2.2 Identify the following properties as either physical or chemical.

(a) melting point ........................................................................................................................................
(b) hardness ..................................................................................................................................................
(c) malleability ...........................................................................................................................................
(d) decomposition .....................................................................................................................................
(e) reaction with acid ..............................................................................................................................
(f) density .....................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

2.2.3 Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the physical properties of
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Physical property Metals Non-metals
Melting and boiling points.
Conductivity of heat.
Conductivity of electricity.
Malleability (able to be bent and
hammered into shapes).
Ductility (able to be stretched into wires).
Lustre.
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the brackets.
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and they have (high/low) melting and boiling points.
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6
than metals.
2.3 Plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including malleability,
hardness and electrical conductivity, and some uses of a range of common elements to present
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2.3.1 During your studies you investigated the physical properties of some elements.
(a) Identify three elements you studied.
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(c) Use a labelled diagram to show how you tested the electrical conductivity of these elements.
Science Press

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2.4 Analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of metals
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2.4.1 Analyse the following information to classify each of the elements described below as a
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(b) A yellow powder which is a poor conductor of electricity.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) A colourless gas at room temperature.
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Element Melting point (C) Melting point (C) Conductivity Metal or non-metal
A 1083 2600 Good
B 157 152 Poor
C 44 280 Poor
D 1770 4530 Good
E 210 196 Poor
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VXEVWDQFHVDVQRQPHWDOVDPPRQLD1+3), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and carbon dioxide
(CO2([SODLQZK\LWLVQRWFRUUHFWWRFODVVLI\DQ\RIWKHVHVXEVWDQFHVDVDQRQPHWDO
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2.4.4 Identify the following elements:

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(c) an inert gas used in advertising signs ...........................................................................................................................
G DQRQPHWDOZKLFKLVOLTXLGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH..................................................................................................
Science Press

2.5 Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present information
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8
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Period
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
non-metals
semi-metals
metals
2.5.2 Using a key, shade the following Periodic Table to identify which elements occur as solids,
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H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Ru Db
gases liquids solids
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Element Melting point (C) Melting point (C) Solid/liquid/gas at room
temperature
A 1490 2900
B 7 58
C 114 183
D 39 357
E 210 196
Science Press

2.5.4 :ULWHV\PEROVRUQDPHVIRUWKHIROORZLQJPHWDOVDQGQRQPHWDOV
Metals Non-metals
Potassium Phosphorus
Copper Carbon
Calcium Ar
Na H
Al S
Mercury I
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2.6.1 For each of the elements listed in the table below, describe one use and the physical
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Element Use Properties
Gold Jewellery Shiny lustre, malleable
Carbon
Aluminium
Helium
Iron
2.6.2 Complete the table by matching the properties listed in the table with the names and uses of
the elements shown below.
Names of elements described Uses
Neon Building construction
Selenium Light sensitive switches
Helium Jewellery
Aluminium Filling balloons
Carbon (diamond) Advertising signs
Iron Wrapping food
Name of element Properties Use

Conductor of electricity in the light,
non-conductor in the dark.
Durable, clear, shiny solid.
Gas which is inert and has a very

low density.
Strong, solid, malleable metal.
Durable metal, very malleable, can

be rolled into thin sheets, insoluble
in water.
Unreactive gas which emits red
light when electricity is passed
through.
Science Press

The physical properties of a metal are usually given as:
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properties mentioned above, what makes each of the following elements unusual?
(a) the metal lead
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(d) the metal mercury
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(e) the metal copper
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Science Press

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the
atomic level.
3.1 Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting.
3.1.1 Identify the three types of particles that make up matter.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.1.2 Matter can occur as three states, depending on the energy of the particles. The states of matter
are ........................................ , ................................................. and ................................................................ .
3.1.3 Complete the table below to summarise the properties of the three states of matter.
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of particles. Particles are close
together and moving
more freely.
Diagram.
Shape. Depends on container.

Volume (space occupied). Denite volume.
Ability to be compressed Can be compressed.
(be pushed into a smaller
volume).
Ability to diffuse (spread Cannot diffuse.
through another substance).
Kinetic energy of particles.
3.2 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number.

3.2.1 'HQHDQDWRP
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3.2.2 Complete the following table to show the particles present in atoms.
Particle Where found Symbol Relative charge Relative mass
Proton Nucleus of atom +1 1
Neutron

Electron e
3.2.3 Compare the mass number and the atomic number of an element.
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Science Press

3.2.4 Complete the following table to show the particles in the atoms of some elements.
Name Atomic Mass Number Number Number
of element number number of protons of neutrons of electrons
Hydrogen 1 0
Beryllium 4 9
10 20
13 14
80 121
3.2.5 Use your Periodic Table and atomic numbers provided to identify the names and symbols for
each of the following elements.
Atomic number Name of element Symbol
5
7
19
92
3.2.6 Identify which two of the following species are both the same element. ................................................
Number of neutrons Number of protons Number of electrons
A 13 12 12
B 13 13 10
C 12 12 10
D 12 11 10
3.3 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms.

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each energy level.
Energy level Maximum number
of electrons
K (1st shell)
8
M (3rd shell)
32
3.3.2 Which electrons have the most energy, those in level K, L, M or N? ........................................................
Science Press

3.3.3 RUHDFKRIWKHIROORZLQJHOHPHQWVXVHDGLDJUDPDQGHOHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQWRGHVFULEHWKH
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structure of its atoms:
(a) Lithium atomic number 3, mass number 7
Diagram: (OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
...................................................................................
(b) Calcium atomic number 20, mass number 40

Diagram: (OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
...................................................................................
3.4 Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons.
3.4.1 'HQHDQLRQ
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3.4.2 Complete the following table to show whether each of the following atoms gains or loses one
or more electrons when it forms an ion.
Name of atom Gains or loses Number of electrons Symbol of ion formed
electron(s) gained or lost
+
Sodium loses Na
Chlorine 1
Magnesium loses
Oxygen 2
Neon 0
Aluminium
3.4.3 Complete the following rules for the formation of ions:

(a) Metal atoms tend to ................................................ electrons and form ........................................................ ions.
E 1RQPHWDOVWHQGWR ................................................... electrons and form ....................................................... ions.
Science Press

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3.5.1 Write symbols for the following ions.
(a) potassium ion ........................................................... (b) calcium ion ............................................................
(c) bromide ion ............................................................... (d) silver ion .................................................................
(e) hydrogen ion ............................................................ (f) lead(II) ion .............................................................
3.5.2 Complete the summary below to show the relationship between the group of the Periodic
Table to which an element belongs and the ions it can form.
Group of Periodic Table Electrons lost or gained Charge on ion formed
I 1 lost +1
II
III
VI
VII 1 gained 1
3.5.3 6RPHQRQPHWDOVIRUPSRO\DWRPLFLRQV:ULWHV\PEROVDQGYDOHQFLHVFRPELQLQJSRZHUIRU

the following polyatomic ions:
Ion Symbol Valency
Sulfate ion
Nitrate ion
Carbonate ion
Phosphate ion
Hydroxide ion
Ammonium ion
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(a) sodium
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) magnesium
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) chlorine
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

3.7 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:
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3.7.1 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to the formation of:

(a) sodium ions
(b) chloride ions
3.7.2 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to electron sharing between:

(a) Two atoms of chlorine sharing electrons to form a molecule of chlorine.
(b) An atom of oxygen sharing electrons with two atoms of hydrogen to form a molecule of water.
3.7.3
(a) Complete the following:
When elements form ........................................ , their atoms gain, lose or share ........................................
with atoms of other elements. Their ability to do this is called their combining power or
.......................................... . Gaining, losing or sharing one or more electrons allows an atom to
obtain a complete, .......................................... outer shell of electrons.
Science Press

(b) Complete the following table to show the name, symbol and valency of the elements listed.
Name Symbol Valency Name Symbol Valency
Strontium N
Cu 1 or 2 Carbon
Ca Bromine
Nickel Iodine
Magnesium Zn
Fe 2 or 3 Hg
(c) Should valency (combining power) be shown as a positive or negative value or simply a
number?
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.8 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge.
3.8.1 'HQHWKHWHUPLRQLFFRPSRXQGDQGLGHQWLI\WKUHHH[DPSOHVRILRQLFFRPSRXQGV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.8.2 To which of the following ions would magnesium ions be attracted:

sodium ions, calcium ions, chloride ions, ammonium ions, zinc ions.
Explain your answer.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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3.8.3 Identify the term used to describe the force between sodium ions and chloride ions in the
compound sodium chloride.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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3.9 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other.
3.9.1 'HQHWKHWHUPPROHFXOH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.9.2 Distinguish between an atom of hydrogen and a molecule of hydrogen.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Science Press

3.10 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more
than one atom.
3.10.1 Identify the following:
(a) three elements with molecules composed of only one atom
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) three examples of molecules composed of two identical atoms
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) the term used to describe molecules composed of two atoms
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d) three examples of compounds that exist as molecules
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.10.2 Show symbolically the structure of:

(a) an atom of hydrogen ..................................... (b) a molecule of hydrogen .........................................
(c) an atom of chlorine ........................................ (d) a molecule of chlorine ............................................
(e) a molecule of neon ......................................... (f) a molecule of carbon dioxide .............................
(g) a molecule of water .......................................
3.11 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons.

3.11.1 Compounds with formula HCl(g) and HCl(l) are covalent molecular, whereas the compound
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Science Press

3.11.2 Covalent molecules are ones in which electrons are shared. Use Lewis electron dot diagrams
to show molecules of:
(a) water (b) methane
(c) oxygen (d) ammonia
3.12 Construct formulas for compounds formed from:

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DWRPVVKDULQJHOHFWURQV
3.12.1 Write formulas for the following ionic compounds:

(a) potassium chloride ......................................... (b) sodium nitrate .............................................................
(c) magnesium carbonate ................................... (d) lithium phosphate ......................................................
(e) aluminium sulfate ............................................ (f) iron(II) hydroxide .....................................................
3.12.2 Write formulas for the following molecular compounds:

(a) ammonia .............................................................. (b) dinitrogen oxide .........................................................
(c) sulfur dioxide ..................................... (d) sulfur trioxide ..............................................................
(e) dinitrogen tetraoxide ..................................... (f) silicon dioxide .............................................................
Science Press

3.13 Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of metals,
ionic compounds and covalent compounds.
3.13.1
(a) Complete the following passage:
Metals are elements on the .......................................... side of the Periodic Table and they tend to
give up their outer shell .......................................... to form ions with a .......................................... charge.
Metals are good .......................................... of electricity because they consist of a lattice made
of positive ions surrounded by a sea of .......................................... electrons and the electrons are free
to move.
The random movement of the outer shell electrons provides the .......................................... or force
that holds the crystal structure of the metal lattice together. This force is called a
.......................................... bond. Metallic bonds are very ...........................................
E 8VHDODEHOOHGGLDJUDPWRPRGHOWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOVWUXFWXUHRIDPHWDO
3.13.2 In the following list, circle the substances which have metallic bonds.
(a) aluminium (b) aluminium oxide
(c) copper (d) copper sulfate
(e) sodium (f) sodium chloride
3.13.3
(a) Complete the following passage about ionic compounds.
An ionic compound is a compound that contains .......................................... which are held
together by an .......................................... force. Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids
at room .......................................... $QLRQLFFRPSRXQGFRQVLVWVRIDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO.
.........................................or network of .......................................... which are held together by
.......................................... bonds.
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Science Press

3.13.4
(a) Complete the following passage using the list of words below the passage.
Covalent compounds are compounds that contain .......................................... bonds, thus they
involve the .......................................... of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms. Covalent
compounds are formed between elements in .......................................... IV, V, VI and VII of the
Periodic .......................................... . Covalent compounds exist as .......................................... . These
molecules can be small, e.g. carbon dioxide or large, e.g. silicon dioxide. Large molecules
are called .......................................... .......................................... .......................................... . These giant covalent
lattices can be also called macromolecules and covalent network substances.
The covalent bond within a molecule is a very .......................................... bond. In giant covalent
lattices these strong .......................................... extend throughout the lattice. Small covalent
molecules have weak intermolecular .......................................... holding the molecules together.
List of words: Groups, strong, molecules, covalent, bonds, forces, sharing, giant covalent lattices,
Table
(b) Use a diagram to model molecules of methane, showing all bonding.
(c) Use a diagram to model a giant covalent lattice of silicon dioxide.
3.13.5 Describe the method YOU used to model:

(a) metals
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) ionic compounds
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) covalent compounds
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources.
4.1 Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement
of particles.
4.1.1 Classify each of the following as a physical change or a chemical change.
(a) boiling water ..........................................................................................................................
(b) cooking an egg ......................................................................................................................
F OWHULQJDPL[WXUH ................................................................................................................
(d) combustion of magnesium .............................................................................................
(e) decomposition of mercury oxide ................................................................................
(f) evaporation ..............................................................................................................................

(g) condensation ...........................................................................................................................
4.1.2 The main indication that a chemical change has occurred is the production of a new
substance. Identify three observations that would indicate that this had occurred.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.1.3 Identify which of the following reactions is a physical change and which is a chemical
change. Justify your choice.
(a) + +
(b) +
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.1.4 Complete the following table to compare physical and chemical changes in terms
of their particles.
Physical change Chemical change
New substance No new substance is formed.
Particles New particles are formed (atoms have been

rearranged).
Reversal Easy to reverse by physical methods.
Energy Small energy changes usually involved.
Science Press

4.2 Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of water
tracing the movements of and changes in arrangements of molecules.
4.2.1
(a) Describe the particles that make up water.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) When you start heating water in a beaker, you can see tiny bubbles of a gas on the inside
of the beaker, in the water. Does this mean that the water molecules are breaking up into
hydrogen and oxygen gas? Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) When water is heated, what happens to the H2O particles?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d) When water boils and evaporates, what happens to the particles?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e) When water is heated and boiled, do the H2O molecules ever break up? Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.2.2 Use diagrams to model the arrangement and movement of particles in cold water and
boiling water.
Cold water Boiling water
4.2.3 - XVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIERLOLQJDQGHOHFWURO\VLVDVSK\VLFDODQGFKHPLFDO
changes respectively.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

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analyse the information provided as evidence that water is a compound, and identify an
application of the use of this reaction.
4.3.1 You carried out an experiment in which you passed an electric current through water and the
water decomposed.
(a) Draw a labelled diagram to show how you did this and the results you obtained.
(b) Use a diagram to show the water molecules before and after the passage of the electric
current through the water.
Water molecules before electrolysis: Molecules present after electrolysis of water:
F :ULWHDQHTXDWLRQLQZRUGVDQGV\PEROVWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIZDWHUE\HOHFWURO\VLV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d) Outline one use for electrolysis of water.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e) Describe the tests you used to identify the oxygen and hydrogen produced.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
I $VDUHVXOWRI\RXULQYHVWLJDWLRQRIHOHFWURO\VLVMXVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIZDWHUDVDFRPSRXQG
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

4.4 Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the
difference between physical and chemical change.
4.4.1 Complete the following table to show the differences between the boiling and
electrolysis of water.
Boiling of water Electrolysis of water
Changes in water. Water changes state from
liquid to gas.
Changes in particles. Particles have changed. Water particles

(H2O) have disappeared and new particles
(H2 and O2) have appeared.
Reversal of process. Easy to reverse cool water

vapour and it changes back to a
liquid.
Physical or chemical
change.
4.4.2 :ULWHHTXDWLRQVWRVKRZWKH
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) combustion of hydrogen
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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salts and identify an application of the use of this reaction.
4.5.1
(a) Describe the changes that occur in a silver salt (e.g. silver chloride, bromide or iodide) when
it is exposed to light.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Identify the type of chemical reaction that has occurred.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
F :ULWHDQHTXDWLRQIRUWKLVUHDFWLRQLQZRUGVDQGV\PEROV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.5.2 Explain how silver salts are used in photography.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide as the products of the reaction.
4.6.1 <RXSHUIRUPHGDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIDFDUERQDWHE\KHDW
(a) Use a labelled diagram to show how you carried out this experiment.
E :ULWHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHGHFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKLVFDUERQDWH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Describe how you tested the oxide and the gas produced.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d) Before you carry out any experiment it is essential to do a risk assessment. Outline reasons
why we bother with this step.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(e) Describe one safety concern that you anticipated when planning this experiment and outline
how you prevented or overcame this potential problem.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

4.7 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or
absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these
changes occurring in everyday life.
4.7.1 HQHDQGJLYHHYHU\GD\H[DPSOHVRIWKHIROORZLQJW\SHVRIFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV)RUHDFKRI
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the examples complete the table to identify the type of energy released or used.
D 'HFRPSRVLWLRQGHQLWLRQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Example Method used Energy used or released

Production of metals from their Heat in a furnace. Heat energy used to decompose
ores, e.g. copper from copper the copper carbonate.
carbonate.
Production of aluminium from

aluminium oxide (in bauxite).
Development of lm.
E 6\QWKHVLVGHQLWLRQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Example How it occurs Energy used or released

The rusting of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen in air, in Energy released in the form of
the presence of water to form a heat.
hydrated form of iron(III) oxide.
Photosynthesis.
Formation of nitrogen oxides in the

atmosphere.
Burning of coal or coke to produce

electricity or to make steel.
4.7.2 ULWHHTXDWLRQVIRURQHRIWKHH[DPSOHVRIGHFRPSRVLWLRQDQGRQHH[DPSOHRIV\QWKHVLVWKDW
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\RXGHVFULEHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVTXHVWLRQ
Decomposition:
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Synthesis:
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

4.7.3 Identify whether each of the following reactions is an example of synthesis or decomposition.
D 0DJQHVLXPR[\JHQPDJQHVLXPR[LGH ............................................................................................................
E )HV6V)H6V .......................................................................................................................................................
(c) Heating mercury oxide to form mercury and oxygen. .......................................................................................
(d) CaCO3V&D2V&22(g) .......................................................................................................................................
(e) + .............................................................................................................................
(f) +
........................................................................................................................................................
4.8 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of
the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them.
4.8.1 Mercury oxide (HgO) can be easily decomposed by heating whereas potassium oxide (K2O)
cannot. Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.8.2 The following table shows the decomposition by heat of some types of compounds.
8VHWKHWDEOHWRDQVZHUWKHTXHVWLRQVEHORZ
Metal Chloride Carbonate Hydroxide Nitrate Oxide Sulfate
Potassium Stable. Stable. Stable. Forms nitrite Stable. Stable.
Sodium and oxygen.
Barium Forms metal Forms metal Forms
Calcium oxide and oxide and metal oxide,
Magnesium carbon water. nitrogen Forms
Aluminium dioxide. dioxide and metal oxide
Zinc oxygen. and sulfur
Iron trioxide.
Tin
Copper
Lead Stable.
Mercury Sublimes. Forms metal, Do not exist. Forms metal, Forms metal Forms metal,
Silver Stable. oxygen nitrogen and oxygen. sulfur trioxide
and carbon dioxide and and oxygen.
Platinum dioxide. oxygen.
Gold
(a) Of the metals listed in the table, which two form the most stable compounds?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Identify the two types of compounds, from those listed in the table, that are the most stable.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

(c) Identify any products formed when:
(i) calcium carbonate decomposes
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(ii) silver chloride decomposes
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(iii) aluminium oxide is heated
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d) Neither water nor aluminium oxide can be decomposed by heat, yet both of these compounds
can be decomposed by electrolysis. Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure.
5.1 Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds
and mixtures.
5.1.1 Classify each of the following as either a physical property or a chemical property.
(a) ability to burn ............................................................................................................
(b) ability to react with water ...................................................................................
(c) boiling point ...............................................................................................................
(d) colour ..............................................................................................................................

(e) high reactivity ............................................................................................................
(f) density ............................................................................................................................
(g) unreactive or inert ...................................................................................................
(h) conductivity ................................................................................................................
(i) melting point ..............................................................................................................
(j) hardness ........................................................................................................................
5.1.2 DFKHOHPHQWKDVLWVRZQGLVWLQFWLYHSURSHUWLHV8VHDGDWDERRNRURWKHUUHVRXUFHWRQGWKH
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physical and chemical properties of the elements listed in the tables.
(a) Physical properties:
Element Melting point (C) Boiling point (C) Density (g/mL at 20C)
Calcium
Mercury
Nitrogen
(b) Chemical properties:

Element Reactivity with water Ability to burn
Hydrogen
Silver
Magnesium
5.1.3 (OHPHQWVDQGFRPSRXQGVERWKKDYHGHQLWHSURSHUWLHVEXWPL[WXUHVGRQRW([SODLQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

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(a) physical and (b) chemical properties of the compounds listed.
(a) Physical properties:
Compound Melting point (C) Boiling point (C) Density (g/mL at 20C)
Calcium iodide
Mercury(I) chloride
Nitric acid

Compound Reactivity with water Decomposition
Copper sulfate
Silver chloride
Magnesium carbonate
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3
their elemental state with the properties of the compound(s) of these elements (e.g. the elements
magnesium and oxygen and the compound magnesium oxide).
5.2.1
(a) Identify the compound you studied.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Identify the elements that make up this compound, and the ratio in which they
are combined.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) List the physical and chemical properties you studied.

Physical properties:
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Chemical properties:
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d) Comment on the accuracy and reliability of your results.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

5.2.2 When elements combine to form a compound, the compound has properties which are
different to the properties of the elements used to make the compound.
(a) Explain why this happens, using an example.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) We eat sodium chloride on our food and yet it is made from sodium, a silver metal which
UHDFWVH[SORVLYHO\ZLWKZDWHUDQGFKORULQHDJUHHQLVK\HOORZSRLVRQRXVJDV([SODLQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.2.3 Complete the following table to show that the properties of water differ from those of the
elements from which it is made.
Chemical properties Physical properties
Water
Hydrogen
Oxygen
5.3 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular
or covalent network.
5.3.1 Classify the following compounds as ionic, covalent molecular or covalent network.
(a) sodium chloride ......................................................................................................................
(b) silicon dioxide .........................................................................................................................
(c) ammonia .....................................................................................................................................
(d) carbon dioxide .........................................................................................................................

(e) carbon tetrachloride ..............................................................................................................
5.3.2 Identify the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic, covalent molecular or
covalent network.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.3.3 Complete the following sentences to explain why ionic, covalent molecular and covalent
network substances have different melting and boiling points.
(a) When an ionic substance such as sodium chloride is heated enough to change state,
.......................................... bonds have to be broken. These are .......................................... bonds,
so the melting and boiling points are ...........................................
Science Press

(b) When a covalent molecular substance such as water is heated enough to change state,
the forces that break are the .......................................... forces, e.g. .......................................... forces.
As these are weak forces the melting and boiling points of covalent molecular substances
are .......................................... .
(c) When a macromolecular substance such as silicon dioxide is heated enough to change state,
the bonds that break are the .......................................... bonds that extend throughout the lattice.
These are strong bonds so the melting and boiling points of these types of substances are
...........................................
5.3.4 Complete the following sentences to explain why ionic, covalent molecular and covalent
network substances have different conducting abilities.
(a) Ionic substances cannot conduct when in the .......................................... state as their ions are
UPO\KHOGLQDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO........................................... They can ..........................................
when molten or in solution as their ions are free to move.
(b) All covalent substances are poor conductors of electricity because they do not have
.......................................... or free .......................................... .
5.3.5 Tabulate the differences between the melting and boiling points, hardness and electrical
conductivity of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network compounds.
Property Ionic Covalent molecular Covalent network
Melting and boiling Very high
points.
Hardness. Hard
Electrical conductivity
when solid.
Electrical conductivity Poor
when dissolved in water.
Electrical conductivity Good Poor
when molten.
5.4 Perform an investigation to examine the physical properties of a range of common substances
in order to classify them as metallic, ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network substances
and relate their characteristics to their uses.
5.4.1
(a) Identify the substances you investigated to determine their types of bonds.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Identify physical properties that you measured or researched for each substance.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

5.4.2 Use the following descriptions of the properties of substances to classify those substances as
ionic, metallic, covalent molecular or covalent network.
Description Classication
(a) Shiny, insoluble solid which is a good conductor of
electricity when solid and when molten.
(b) Gas at room temperature, soluble in water,
does not conduct electricity, low melting point.
(c) Very high melting and boiling points, non-conductor

of electricity when solid and when molten.
(d) Low melting and boiling points, soluble in water,
non-conductor.
(e) Good conductor of electricity when molten and in
aqueous solution, but not when solid.
5.4.3 Classify each of the following substances as metallic, ionic, covalent molecular or covalent
network. Then for each substance determine a use that relies on properties associated with its
type of bonding.
Factor Copper Sodium chloride Nitrogen Silicon dioxide
Type of substance.
Use.
Property that allows

for this use.
Reason for this
property.
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5.5.1 Use a labelled diagram to represent the structure of a metal.
Science Press

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of the structure of metals to explain the properties of metals shown in the following table.
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Physical property of metal Explanation in terms of structure
Good conductor of electricity. Outer shell electrons are delocalised (not held tightly to the metal ion) and
thus mobile so they are free to carry charge.
Good conductor of heat.
High melting and boiling points.
Malleable and ductile.
Shiny lustre.
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5.6.1 Sodium chloride is an ionic compound with the formula NaCl. What does this
formula represent?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.6.2 Complete the following:

Ionic compounds consist of a repeating ..........................................GLPHQVLRQDO
.......................................... of positively and .......................................... charged ...........................................
These ions are held together by strong forces called .......................................... bonds which extend
throughout the .......................................... . Ionic lattices form crystals which can be of any size.
5.7 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula.
5.7.1
D 'HQHWKHWHUPPROHFXODUIRUPXOD
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
E 'HQHWKHWHUPHPSLULFDOIRUPXOD
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Identify each of the following as an empirical or a molecular formula:

(i) C6H12O6 .................................................................. (ii) CH2O .............................................................................
(iii) CH2 ........................................................................... (iv) C3H6 ...............................................................................
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5.7.2 Explain why NaCl is an empirical formula rather than a molecular formula.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.8 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices.

5.8.1
(a) Identify three elements that exist as molecules.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Identify one element that exists as a covalent network structure.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5.8.2
(a) What is meant by an allotrope?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) Identify three allotropes of carbon.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c) Identify two other elements that also occur as allotropes.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Science Press

5.9 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure
of ionic, covalent molecular, and covalent network structures.
5.9.1 Complete the following table to identify the physical properties of ionic compounds that are
determined by the structural features shown.
Structural feature of ionic compounds Physical property determined by structure
Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal lattice. High melting and boiling points.
A lot of energy is needed to break these bonds. Hard. Crystalline.
Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks the

bonds and the ions are then free to move and carry
the current.
Water moves between the ions, pushing them apart

and breaking the ionic bonds. The ions are then free
to move and carry the electric charge.
Ions are held in xed positions by strong ionic bonds

that extend throughout the lattice. The ions can
only vibrate, they are not free to move and carry the
charge.
5.9.2 Compare the following physical properties of substances with metallic, ionic and
covalent bonding.
Property Metallic Ionic Covalent Covalent network
molecular
Melting and boiling High Low
points.
Hardness. Hard
Electrical conductivity Good Poor

when solid.
Electrical conductivity Insoluble Poor
Electrical conductivity Good
when molten.
5.9.3 Complete the following table to summarise the relationship between the structure and
properties of covalent molecular substances.
Properties Structure
Poor conductors of electricity in all states.
Hardness.
Science Press

5.9.4 Complete the following table to summarise the relationship between the structure and
properties of covalent network substances.
Poor conductors of electricity in all states.
Hardness.
5.10 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds.

5.10.1 Complete the following passages using the words listed below:
covalent, metals, sharing, metal ions, electrons, ionic, ions, V, VI and VII,
molecular (covalent), dispersion, atoms, electrostatic, electrons.
(a) Metallic bonds occur in .......................................... where they hold the positive
metal ions together. The metallic bond is caused by the random motion of the
delocalised outer shell .......................................... of metal atoms and their attraction
to the positive .......................................... .
(b) Ionic bonds occur in .......................................... compounds where they hold positively charged
.......................................... ..........................................WRJHWKHUZLWKQHJDWLYHO\FKDUJHGQRQPHWDOLRQV
or polyatomic ion(s). Ionic bonds are caused by the ................................................................. attraction
between oppositely charged ions.
(c) Covalent bonds occur in .......................................... compounds and in elements from
Groups .......................................... of the Periodic Table. Covalent bonds occur in both
small covalent molecules and large covalent networks. Covalent bonds are caused
by atoms .......................................... of one or more pairs of .......................................... .
(d) Covalent molecular compounds have strong .......................................... bonds within the
molecule (intramolecular bonds) holding the .......................................... together and weak
forces between the molecules which are called .......................................... forces.
Science Press

5.10.2 7
KHIROORZLQJRZFKDUWFDQEHXVHGWRKHOSFODVVLI\HOHPHQWVDQGFRPSRXQGVDFFRUGLQJWR
the types of bonds they contain.
Elements and
compounds.
A good conductor
when solid?
Yes No
It is a metal. A good conductor

in aqueous solution?
Yes No
It is ionic. It is covalent.
M.p. and B.p. high?
Yes No
It is covalent network. It is covalent molecular.
8VHWKHRZFKDUWWRGHWHUPLQHWKHERQGLQJLQWKHIROORZLQJVXEVWDQFHV
(a) sodium ........................................................................................................................
(b) sodium chloride .....................................................................................................
(c) sulfur ............................................................................................................................

(d) hydrogen ....................................................................................................................
(e) dilute hydrochloric acid ....................................................................................
Note:7KHFODVVLFDWLRQRZFKDUWDERYHZLOOQRWZRUNIRUDOOVXEVWDQFHV)RUH[DPSOHLWDVVXPHVWKDW
all ionic substances are soluble in water, and this is not correct. Also graphite (carbon) would
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Science Press

5.11 Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the
limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices.
5.11.1
(a) Models can take many forms. Suggest some forms in which models can occur.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b) The following diagram represents a model of a metal as a lattice structure. Discuss
advantages and limitations of this model.
e e
e
e
e e e
e e
e e e
e
e e
e e
e e e
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Science Press

5.11.2 The following diagrams represent two models of an ionic substance as an ionic lattice.
Discuss advantages and limitations of these two models.
+
(a) Na Cl
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Cl Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl Na+ Na+
Cl Na+ Cl Cl
Na+ Cl Na+
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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5.11.3 0
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IRUH[DPSOHWKHPROHFXOHVRIDPPRQLDDQGK\GURJHQVXOGHVKRZQEHORZ'LVFXVVWKH
usefulness of these models.
N S
H H H H H
Ammonia Hydrogen
sulfide
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Science Press

DOT POINT
Answers
Science Press
Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 169 Answers

Notes
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Science Press
Answers 170 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

The Chemical Earth
1.1.1 All matter is made of tiny particles which are continually moving.
1.1.2 (a) An element is a pure substance containing only one type of particle, e.g. atoms of copper, molecules of hydrogen.
(b) A compound consists of two or more different types of particles, chemically combined, with the ratio of these particles
always the same.
(c) A mixture contains two or more types of particles in any proportion. It is not a pure substance. The components of a
mixture keep their own properties and can be separated by physical methods.
1.1.3 (a) element
(b) compound
(c) mixture (of element and compound)
(d) mixture (of two compounds)
(e) element
(f) mixture (of two elements)
1.2.1
Zone Mixture present Components of mixture
Biosphere Wood Mixture of compounds such as water,
carbohydrates, oils.
Lithosphere Copper carbonate ore Mixture of copper carbonate and other
mineral compounds that we cannot use
(called gangue).
Hydrosphere Salt water Mixture of compounds, e.g. water and salts
such as sodium chloride.
Atmosphere Air Mixture of elements such as nitrogen, oxygen,
argon as well as the compounds water
vapour and carbon dioxide.
1.3.1
(a) Filtration (b) Sedimentation and decanting (c) Evaporation and crystallisation
Filter funnel Evaporating basin

Filter paper
contains residue Gauze
left behind
Filter ring Liquid being
poured off
Retort Bunsen burner
stand Beaker
Solid stays
Filtrate in container
(d) Fractional distillation of a (e) Sieving (f) Using a separating funnel

mixture of liquids to separate liquids
Thermometer Separating
Water out funnel
Large particles Less dense
Condenser liquid
stay in sieve
Fractionating
column Cool water in
Small particles More dense
fall through sieve liquid
Flask
Mixture
Hot water Distillate
bath
Bunsen
Science Press

1.3.2 Various, e.g.
Type of mixture Example Suitable process to separate components

Solids of different sizes. A mixture of partly crushed rock particles Sieving particles smaller than the hole in
and silt. the sieve pass through, large particles stay in
the sieve.
A liquid and a solid that will not dissolve in Sand and salt water. Filtering separates the sand from the salty
that liquid. water.
A solid dissolved in a liquid. Salt water. Distillation or evaporation and crystallisation.
Miscible liquids with different boiling points. Petroleum. Fractional distillation.
Immiscible liquids with different densities. Oil and water. Separating funnel.
Gases. Nitrogen and oxygen from air. Fractional distillation.
1.3.3 (a) Approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide.
E /LTXHI\WKHDLUWKHQIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQ
1.4.1 Various, e.g. sand and salt.
1.4.2 Various, e.g.
Place the mixture in a beaker. Add 100 mL water. Using a stirring rod, stir until all of the salt dissolves in the water. Set up the
OWHULQJHTXLSPHQWDVVKRZQ3RXUWKHPL[WXUHLQWRWKHOWHUSDSHUDVVKRZQLQWKHGLDJUDP
Filter funnel
Filter paper contains mixture
residue left behind
Filter ring
Retort
stand Beaker
Filtrate
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XQWLOLWKDVDOOEHHQOWHUHG'U\WKHUHVLGXHVDQGLQWKHOWHUSDSHU(YDSRUDWHWKHOWUDWHWRUHFRYHUWKHVDOWFU\VWDOVE\
heating it in an evaporating dish (see diagram).
Evaporating basin
Gauze
Bunsen burner
1.5.1 UDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQFDQEHXVHGVXFFHVVIXOO\WRVHSDUDWHQLWURJHQDQGR[\JHQIURPDLURQFHWKHDLUKDVEHHQOLTXHHG
)
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FRQGHQVHGVHSDUDWHO\1LWURJHQZLOOYDSRULVHUVWIROORZHGE\R[\JHQ
1.5.2 7KLVSURFHGXUHZRXOGQRWZRUNXQOHVVZDWHUZDVUVWDGGHGWRGLVVROYHWKHVDOW,IVROLGVDQGDQGVROLGVDOWZHUHPL[HGDQG
SODFHGLQWROWHUSDSHUQHLWKHUZRXOGSDVVWKURXJKWKHSDSHUVRWKH\ZRXOGQRWVHSDUDWH
, IZDWHULVDGGHGUVWDQGWKHPL[WXUHVWLUUHGWRGLVVROYHWKHVDOWWKHQOWUDWLRQZRXOGEHDYHU\JRRGPHWKRGIRUVHSDUDWLQJ
WKHVDQGDQGVDOW6DQGLVLQVROXEOHLQZDWHUVRLWZRXOGFROOHFWLQWKHOWHUSDSHUDVDUHVLGXH6DOWLVVROXEOHLQZDWHUVRLW
ZRXOGSDVVWKURXJKWKHOWHUSDSHUDVWKHOWUDWH7RLPSURYHWKHDFFXUDF\RIVHSDUDWLRQWKHUHVLGXHLQWKHOWHUSDSHUVKRXOG
be washed with lots of fresh water.
The salt crystals could then be recrystallised by evaporating the water.
Science Press

1.5.3
Components of mixture Process used to separate components Property that makes this use possible
Oil and water. Fractional distillation Water has a higher boiling point than oil
or or
Using a separating funnel. Oil is less dense than water.
Solid wastes from sewage. Filtration. Solid wastes are insoluble in water.
Sand and gravel. Sieving. Gravel particles are larger in size than sand.
Nitrogen and oxygen from air. Fractional distillation. Different boiling points, i.e. oxygen 183C,
nitrogen 196C.
1.6.1 Weigh a sample of mercury oxide. Heat the mercury oxide to make it decompose, making sure that no mercury is lost.
Collect the mercury produced and weigh it. Calculate the percentage of the original sample that was mercury
(mass of mercury/mass of mercury oxide 100).
1.6.2 Various, e.g. analysing the percentage of a mineral in rock, alcohol content of wine, water of crystallisation in a compound, fat
in food.
1.6.3 (a) Gravimetric analysis. Weigh a sample of the oats. Separate out the components, e.g. carbohydrate, protein. Weigh the
amount of each component in the sample being analysed. Calculate the amount present in 100 g of the food.
E /LVWLQJWKHFRQWHQWRIIRRGLVDPDQGDWRU\UHTXLUHPHQW7KLVDOORZVXVWRDVVHVVWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHIRRGVZHHDW,WDOVR
allows people to avoid those foods that contain a substance to which they are allergic.
1.7.1 (a) Various, e.g. a mixture of sand and salt or copper ore and rock.
(b) Various. If your teacher can tell you the actual composition of your original mixture you can calculate the percentage
accuracy of the procedure you used. You should make a statement about how accurate this procedure was and then
discuss reasons for any discrepancy between the actual values and those you obtained. You should be able to identify
some ways you could have improved the accuracy of your method. Examples of the sorts of suggestions you could
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(c) Various. In your answer you should discuss such things as:
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LIDQ\RIWKHFKHPLFDOVLQYROYHGDUHFRUURVLYHDQGLIVRWKHSUHFDXWLRQVQHHGHG
DQ\ULVNRIFKHPLFDOVVSLWWLQJRUEHLQJVSLOWDQGKRZ\RXFRXOGDYRLGWKLVRUSUHYHQWGDPDJHHVSHFLDOO\WRH\HV
1.7.2 (a) (i) the mass of the residue = 1.45 g
(ii) the mass of the solid salt in the evaporating dish = 3.25 g
(iii) the percentage composition of salt in the original mixture = 3.25/4.90 100 = 66.33%
(iv) the total mass of chemicals recovered after separation = 4.70 g
(b) The accuracy of the procedure used can be calculated as 4.70/4.90 100 = 95.92%.
Only 0.20 g (4.08%) of the original mixture has been lost which still means that the process was reasonably accurate.
Some salt may have been lost by spitting as the mixture was evaporating. This could be avoided by heating the
mixture more gently and perhaps partly covering the top of the evaporating basin. Also, some sand may have been
OHIWEHKLQGLQWKHRULJLQDOFRQWDLQHU:DVKLQJWKHPL[WXUHDQGLWVFRQWDLQHULQWRWKHOWHUSDSHUDWOHDVWWZLFHVKRXOG
ensure that all sand is transferred.
Science Press

1.8.1 Various, e.g.
Name of Industrial separation process researched Froth otation

Components of mixture separated by this process. Metal compounds (minerals such as copper carbonate) and gangue
(waste rock minerals).
Properties of components that allow them to be separated by this Gangue minerals have different surface properties to metal minerals.
process. Metal minerals cling to the bubbles and gangue minerals become wet
and sink to the bottom of the frothy mixture.
Uses of components when they have been separated. Metal minerals are treated further to remove the wanted metal
(e.g. copper) from the compound (e.g. copper carbonate).
Gangue minerals are sent to a tailings dam where they accumulate
and are eventually disposed of safely, e.g. they may be used to
ll an old mining shaft.
Some tailings still contain small percentages of the metal minerals and
they may be further treated at a later date when technology improves.
Issues associated with any wastes produced during this process. The tailings may contain toxic substances (e.g. arsenic in tailings from
gold mines or copper salts in tailings from copper mines). Therefore
care must be taken that the tailings dam is lined to prevent seepage of
chemicals from the dam into the water supply. The wastes must also
be kept away from birds and native animals.
1.8.2 Check that the reference used is not a manufacturer of the product being researched as they could give a biased presentation.
Choose a government or university based reference rather than a company as these are more likely to be impartial. Check the
date when the reference was published or the website was updated, to ensure that the information is not outdated.
Various, e.g.
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/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVDLUFDQEHVHSDUDWHGLQWRLWVSDUWVE\SK\VLFDOPHWKRGVHJDLUIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQ
/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVDLUGRHVQRWKDYHDFKHPLFDOIRUPXOD
7KHUHLVQRVXFKWKLQJDVDPROHFXOHRIDLU$LUFRQWDLQVPROHFXOHVRIDQXPEHURIFKHPLFDOVHJQLWURJHQR[\JHQ
carbon dioxide.
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/LNHRWKHUPL[WXUHVDLUKDVQR[HGPHOWLQJRUERLOLQJSRLQW(OHPHQWVDQGFRPSRXQGVGRKDYH[HGPHOWLQJDQG
boiling points.
<RXFRXOGDOVRSRLQWRXWWKDWDLUFRQWDLQVERWKHOHPHQWVHJQLWURJHQDQGFRPSRXQGVHJFDUERQGLR[LGHEXWWKH\
can be mixed in any proportion.
2.1.1 (a) a compound
(b) an uncombined element
2.1.2 Magnesium is much more active than gold.
2.1.3 Most elements are chemically active so they occur as compounds combined with other elements. The less reactive an element
is, the more likely it will occur as uncombined element. For example, the inert gases (Group VIII) and unreactive metals, such
as silver and gold, occur as elements.
2.2.1 Physical properties are those that can be found by studying the substance itself rather than its reactions, e.g. hardness,
conductivity, malleability, density. Chemical properties describe how a substance reacts, e.g. whether it reacts with water,
oxygen or acids and if it decomposes when heated.
2.2.2 (a) physical
(b) physical
(c) physical
(d) chemical
(e) chemical
(f) physical
Science Press

2.2.3
Physical property Metals Non-metals
Melting and boiling points. High. Low.
Conductivity of heat. Good conductors. Poor conductors.
Conductivity of electricity. Good conductors. Poor conductors (except graphite).
Malleability (able to be bent and hammered Malleable. Not malleable (brittle).
into shapes).
Ductility (able to be stretched into wires). Ductile. Not ductile.
Lustre. Shiny lustre. No lustre usually powders or gases at room
temperature.
2.2.4 Various, e.g. silicon and germanium, high, poorer.

2.3.1 (a) Various, e.g. magnesium, sulfur, iron.
(b) Various, e.g. Magnesium is a shiny silver solid at room temperature, it is malleable, hard and is a good conductor of
both heat and electricity. It has a melting point of 650C and a boiling point of 1110C.
7RMXVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIDVXEVWDQFHDVDPHWDORUQRQPHWDO\RXZRXOGQHHGWROLVWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQ\RX
REWDLQHGDQGVKRZWKDWWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV\RXREVHUYHGDUHW\SLFDORIHLWKHUPHWDOVRUQRQPHWDOV)RUH[DPSOHWR
classify magnesium as a metal you would need to show that it is a shiny solid, is malleable, has high melting and
boiling points, good conductivity of electricity.
(c)
Electrodes
Container
Substance being tested
Each element to be tested was placed in the container, one at a time. The ends of the element were touched with the
HOHFWURGHV7KHVL]HRIWKHFXUUHQWRZLQJLQGLFDWHGWKHDELOLW\RIWKHHOHPHQWWRFRQGXFWHOHFWULFLW\7KHKLJKHUWKH
current, the better the ability of the element to conduct electricity.
2.3.2 It has the characteristics of a metal shiny lustre, high melting and boiling point, a good conductor of heat and electricity
and it is malleable.
2.4.1 (a) metal
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2.4.2 Metals A and D.
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2.4.3 7
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QRQPHWDOV&RPSRXQGVFDQQHYHUEHFODVVLHGDVDPHWDORUDQRQPHWDO
2.4.4 (a) carbon
(b) mercury
(c) neon or argon
(d) bromine
Science Press

2.5.1
Period
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Non-metals
Semi-metals
Metals
2.5.2
H He
He
Li Be B C N O F Ne Ne
Na Mg Cll A
Al Si P S C Arr
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br K
Krr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Hg Rn
Fr Ra Ac Ru Db
Gases Liquids Solids
2.5.3 $VROLG%OLTXLG&VROLG'OLTXLG(JDV
2.5.4
Metals Non-metals
Potassium K Phosphorus P
Copper Cu Carbon C
Calcium Ca Argon Ar
Sodium Na Hydrogen H
Aluminium Al Sulfur S
Mercury Hg Iodine I
2.6.1 Various, e.g.
Element Use Properties

Gold Jewellery. Shiny lustre; Malleable.
Carbon Jewellery (diamonds are carbon) Good reector and refractor of light; hard and
or durable.
Drawing (graphite in lead pencils is carbon). Makes marks on paper.
Aluminium Window frames. Lightweight; malleable.
Helium Filling balloons. Low density oats in air.
Iron Making steel for buildings. High strength.
Science Press

2.6.2
Name of element Properties Use
Selenium Conductor of electricity in the light, Light sensitive switches.
non-conductor in the dark.
Carbon (diamond) Durable, clear, shiny solid. Jewellery.
Helium Gas which is inert and has a very low density. Filling balloons.
Iron Strong, solid, malleable metal. Building construction.
Aluminium Durable metal, very malleable, can be rolled Wrapping food.
into thin sheets, insoluble in water.
Neon Unreactive gas which emits red light when Advertising signs.
electricity is passed through.

(a) Lead is soft and dull in appearance.
(b) Carbon in the form of graphite is a good conductor. Carbon in the form of diamond is a hard and strong solid at room
temperature and has a high melting point (3547C).
(c) Iodine is a shiny solid at room temperature.
G 0HUFXU\LVDOLTXLGDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
H &RSSHULVUHGGLVKEURZQLQFRORXUQRWVLOYHU\
3.1.1 Atoms, ions, molecules.
3.1.2 6ROLGOLTXLGDQGJDV
3.1.3
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Arrangement of particles Particles are close together and Particles are close together and Particles are far apart and moving
vibrating in xed positions. moving more freely. very freely.
Diagram
Shape Denite shape. Takes the shape of the container. Depends on container.
Volume Denite volume. Denite volume. Fills all available space.
Ability to be compressed Cannot be compressed. Cannot be compressed. Can be compressed.
Ability to diffuse Cannot diffuse. Can diffuse. Can diffuse.
Kinetic energy of particles Least. More than solids, less than Greatest kinetic energy.
liquids.
3.2.1 The smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
3.2.2
Particle Where found Symbol Relative charge Relative mass
+
Proton Nucleus of atom p +1 1
Neutron Nucleus of atom n 0 1

Electron Orbit the nucleus of atom e 1 1/1835
3.2.3 Mass number of an element is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of its atom.
Atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom. (Note:7KLVLVDOVRHTXDOWRWKHQXPEHURI
electrons in the atom.)
Science Press

3.2.4
Name of element Atomic number Mass number Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1
Beryllium 4 9 4 5 4
Neon 10 20 10 10 10
Aluminium 13 27 13 14 13
Mercury 80 201 80 121 80
3.2.5
Atomic number Name of element Symbol
5 Boron B
7 Nitrogen N
19 Potassium K
92 Uranium U
3.2.6 A and C (same number of protons).

3.3.1
Energy level Maximum number of electrons
K (1st level closest to nucleus) 2
L 2nd level 8
M 3rd level 18
N 4th level 32
3.3.2 N
3.3.3
(a)
e e
Lithium atom
3p+ e
4n (OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
(b)
ee
e e
e e
Calcium atom
e e 20p+ e ee
e e 20n e e e
(OHFWURQFRQJXUDWLRQ
e e
e e
3.4.1 A charged particle formed when an atom gains or loses one or more outer shell electrons.
3.4.2
Name of atom Gains or loses electron(s) Number of electrons gained or lost Symbol of ion formed
Sodium loses 1 Na+
Chlorine gains 1 Cl
Magnesium loses 2 Mg2+
Oxygen gains 2 O2
Neon neither 0 No ion formed
Aluminium loses 3 Al3+
3.4.3 (a) lose ... positive

(b) gain ... negative
Science Press

3.5.1 (a) K+
(b) Ca2+
(c) Br
(d) Ag+
(e) H+
(f) Pb2+
3.5.2
Group of Periodic Table Electrons lost or gained Charge on ion formed
I 1 lost +1
II 2 lost +2
III 3 lost +3
VI 2 gained 2
VII 1 gained 1
3.5.3
Ion Symbol Valency
2
Sulfate ion SO 4 2

Nitrate ion NO3 1
2
Carbonate ion CO 3 2
3
Phosphate ion PO 4 3

Hydroxide ion OH 1
+
Ammonium ion NH 4 1
3.6.1 D 1D1D+ + e
E 0J0J2+ + 2e
(c) Cl + e&O
3.7.1 (a) sodium ions
Na _ e Na+
sodium sodium
atom ion
(b) chlorine ions

_
Cl + e Cl
chlorine atom chloride ion
3.7.2 (a)
chlorine (Cl2)
Cl Cl or Cl Cl
Shared pair of electrons
(b)
Science Press

water (H2O)
O H or H O
H
H
Shared pairs of electrons
3.7.3 (a) compounds, electrons, valency, stable

(b)
Name Symbol Valency Name Symbol Valency
Strontium Sr 2 Nitrogen N 3
Copper Cu 1 or 2 Carbon C 4
Calcium Ca 3 Bromine Br 1
Nickel Ni 2 Iodine I 1
Magnesium Mg 2 Zinc Zn 2
Iron Fe 2 or 3 Mercury Hg 2
(c) A number, not positive or negative. Valency is the combining power, the tendency to lose, gain or share one or more
electrons. A valency of 1 means that atoms of that element will gain, lose or share 1 electron from the outer shell. Ions
are positive (if the atom loses electrons) or negative (if the atom gains electrons), not valency.
3.8.1 A compound formed by the electrostatic attraction (ionic bonds) between two or more ions, e.g. sodium chloride, magnesium
oxide and sodium hydroxide.
3.8.2 Chloride ions. Magnesium ions are positive (metals lose electrons forming positive ions). Ions are attracted to other ions with
the opposite charge. Chloride ions are the only ions in the list that are negative.
3.8.3 Ionic bond an electrostatic force.
3.9.1 The smallest particles of an element or molecular compound which can move independently of each other.
3.9.2 An atom of hydrogen is the smallest unit of hydrogen that can take part in a chemical reaction. However, one atom of
hydrogen cannot exist and move independently. The smallest particle that can do this is a molecule of hydrogen which
consists of two atoms.
3.10.1 Various, e.g.
(a) helium, argon, neon
(b) hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
(c) diatomic
(d) water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen chloride
3.10.2 (a) H
(b) H2
(c) Cl
(d) Cl2
(e) Ne
(f) CO2
(g) H 2O
3.11.1 HCl(g) is hydrogen chloride gas. Atoms of hydrogen share an electron with atoms of chlorine to form this covalent molecular
compound.
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+
covalent molecular compound.
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+
this process, hydrogen and chloride ions are formed, so the compound is ionic.
Science Press

3.11.2
(a) water (b) methane
O H
H H
H C H
(c) oxygen (d) ammonia
O O N
H H
H
3.12.1 (a) KCl (b) NaNO3

(c) MgCO3 (d) Li3PO4
(e) Al2(SO4)3 (f) Fe(OH)2
3.12.2 (a) NH3 (b) N2O
(c) SO2 (d) SO3
(e) N2O4 (f) SiO2
3.13.1 (a) Left, electron(s), positive, conductors, delocalised, bond, metallic, strong
(b)
Positive e e
metal ions e
e Delocalised
e e e electrons
e e
e e e
e
e e
e e
e e e
3.13.2 (a) aluminium, (c) copper, (e) sodium

3.13.3 (a) ions, electrostatic, temperature, lattice, ions, ionic
(b)
Na
+
Cl Na
+
Cl Na+ Cl
Cl Na+ Cl
Na+ Cl Na+
Na+ Cl Na+
Cl Na+ Cl
Science Press

3.13.4 (a) covalent, sharing, Groups, Table, molecules, giant covalent lattices, strong, bonds, forces
(b)
H H
H C H H C H
H H
Weak Strong intramolecular
intermolecular H covalent bonds
dispersion H C H
forces
H
(c)
O
Si Si O
Si Si O
O Si O O
O O
O
O O
O
Si Si Si
O O Si
O O O Si
O O
O
O
Si
Si O O O
O Strong covalent bonds
O Si
extend throughout the lattice
3.13.5 (a), (b) and (c): Various you may have used commercial sets or substances such as plasticine and matchsticks.
Describe what you used and what each substance or structure represents. It is a good idea to include diagrams in answers to
TXHVWLRQVVXFKDVWKHVH$OZD\VGUDZGLDJUDPVLQSHQFLODQGODEHOWKHPIXOO\
4.1.1 Physical a, c, f, g. Chemical b, d, e.
4.1.2 Permanent colour change, gas produced, precipitate (solid) formed, solid disappears, heat produced.
4.1.3 (a) A chemical change as new particles are produced by the rearrangement of atoms.
(b) A physical change as no new particles are produced.
4.1.4
Physical change Chemical change
New substance No new substance is formed. A new substance is formed.
Particles Particles are the same (although they may New particles are formed (atoms have been
move differently). rearranged).
Reversal Easy to reverse by physical methods. Usually difcult to reverse.
Energy Small energy changes usually involved. Energy changes are usually large.
4.2.1 (a) Molecules of H2O each consisting of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen combined in the ratio 2:1.
E 1R:KHQ\RXKHDWDOLTXLGDQ\GLVVROYHGJDVHJDLUZLOOFRPHRXWRIVROXWLRQ7KLVRFFXUVEHFDXVHJDVHVDUHOHVV
VROXEOHLQKRWOLTXLGVWKDQLQFROGOLTXLGVWKHRSSRVLWHRIVROLGV6RWKHEXEEOHVLQVLGHDEHDNHURIZDUPZDWHUDUHDLU
bubbles coming out of solution.
(c) H2O molecules gain energy and move faster. They do not break up as they are held together by strong covalent bonds.
(d) H2O molecules then have enough energy to leave the surface of the water we say the water is changing state from
OLTXLGWRJDV
(e) No. Heat cannot break up a water molecule. It can only give them more energy so they move fast enough to break the
weak intermolecular forces and pull away from each other.
Science Press

4.2.2
Cold water Boiling water
Water particles escaping

(changing state)
Water particles moving more slowly Water particles moving rapidly
Bunsen burner Bunsen burner
4.2.3 Boiling is a physical change because no new substance is produced. The only change is to the movement of the particles, the
particles themselves do not change, they remain water (H2O) particles.
Electrolysis is a chemical change because new substances are produced hydrogen and oxygen. The particles of oxygen and
hydrogen differ from the original water particles.
4.3.1
(a)
Tap to release gas
Reservoir
O2
gas
H2
gas
Water
Inert anode Inert cathode
+ -
(b)
Water molecules before electrolysis Molecules present after electrolysis of water
H H H H H H H H
O O O O
F :DWHUK\GURJHQR[\JHQ
2H22O+2(g) + O2(g)
(d) To produce hydrogen and oxygen (from water) for use in fuel cells.
(e) Hydrogen Place a lighted taper in the gas if it pops, the gas is hydrogen.
2[\JHQ3ODFHDJORZLQJVSOLQWLQWKHJDVLILWUHOLJKWVEXUVWLQJLQWRDPHVWKHQWKHJDVLVR[\JHQ
I DWHUFDQEHFODVVLHGDVDFRPSRXQGEHFDXVHGXULQJHOHFWURO\VLVLWLVGHFRPSRVHGLQWRVLPSOHUVXEVWDQFHVWKH
:
HOHPHQWVK\GURJHQDQGR[\JHQ(OHFWURO\VLVRIZDWHUDOZD\VSURGXFHVK\GURJHQDQGR[\JHQLQWKHUDWLR7KLVWV
WKHGHQLWLRQRIDFRPSRXQGDVDVXEVWDQFHPDGHRIWZRRUPRUHHOHPHQWVFRPELQHGLQDGHQLWHUDWLR
Science Press

4.4.1
Boiling of water Electrolysis of water
Changes in water. Water changes state from liquid to gas Water decomposes to form two new
(two different forms of water liquid water substances hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
and water vapour).
Changes in particles. Particles stay the same but move faster and Particles have changed. Water particles
become further apart. (H2O) have disappeared and new particles
(H2 and O2) have appeared.
Reversal of process. Easy to reverse cool water vapour and it Reversal is not as easy. To convert hydrogen
changes back to a liquid. and oxygen back to water a chemical
reaction is needed you have to burn the
hydrogen in the presence of oxygen.
Physical or chemical change. Physical. Chemical.
4.4.2 D :DWHUJZDWHUO

H22J+2O(l)
E +\GURJHQR[\JHQZDWHU
2H2(g) + O2J+2O(l)
4.5.1 (a) Silver chloride changes from white to purple and then black.
Deposit of silver metal is formed.
The mass of the silver chloride decreases.
(b) Decomposition
F 6LOYHUFKORULGHVLOYHUFKORULQH
$J&OV$JV&O2(g)
4.5.2 LOYHUEURPLGHLVDSSOLHGWRSKRWRJUDSKLFOP:KHQWKHOPLVH[SRVHGWROLJKWWKHVLOYHUEURPLGHGHFRPSRVHVIRUPLQJD
6
silver deposit in the shape of the image on the negative.
4.6.1 (a) Various, e.g.
Test tube Tubing
Green copper Test tube

carbonate
decomposing
Limewater
(calcium
Bunsen hydroxide
solution)
E &RSSHUFDUERQDWHFRSSHUR[LGHFDUERQGLR[LGH
CuCO3V&X2V&22(g)
(c) CuO I added dilute sulfuric acid to the black powder. A blue colour was produced indicating the presence of copper ions.
CO2 the gas produced was bubbled through limewater (calcium hydroxide solution) and the limewater turned milky.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2DT&D&23(s) + H2O(l)
(d) To identify and address any potential hazards so we do not cause damage to the environment or to people.
Science Press

(e) Various, e.g. the risk of the test tube breaking while being heated and hot chemicals entering and burning the eye.
To prevent this, wear goggles and point the test tube away from all people.
When heating is complete or the production of carbon dioxide gas slows down the cold limewater could be drawn
back into the hot test tube causing it to crack and releasing the hot chemicals. This could damage the bench and/or
burn students.
To prevent this, the tube must be removed from the limewater as soon as heating is complete and the production of
carbon dioxide gas slows down.
4.7.1 (a) Decomposition is a chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler substances.
Example Method used Energy used or released

Production of metals from their ores, Heat in a furnace. Heat energy used to decompose
e.g. copper from copper carbonate. the copper carbonate.
Production of aluminium from Pass electricity through molten Electrical energy used.
aluminium oxide in bauxite. aluminium oxide.
Development of lm. Action of sunlight on silver bromide Solar energy used to decompose
(on the lm). the silver bromide.
(b) Synthesis is a chemical reaction in which simple substances combine to form a more complex substance.
Example How it occurs Energy used or released

The rusting of iron. Iron reacts with oxygen in air, in the Energy released in the form of heat.
presence of water to form a hydrated
form of iron(III) oxide.
Photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide and water combine to form Solar energy is used.
glucose and oxygen.
Formation of nitrogen oxides in Lightning causes atmospheric nitrogen Electrical energy is used.
the atmosphere. to combine with oxygen to form nitrogen
monoxide.
Burning of coal or coke to produce Coal is heated in industrial furnaces Energy is used to start the reaction
electricity or to make steel. forming carbon dioxide. and then energy is released.
4.7.2 Various, e.g.

'HFRPSRVLWLRQDOXPLQLXPR[LGHDOXPLQLXPR[\JHQ
2Al2O3V$OV22(g)
6\QWKHVLVQLWURJHQR[\JHQQLWURJHQPRQR[LGHQLWULFR[LGH
N2(g) + O2J12J
4.7.3 Synthesis a,b,e
Decompositiom c,d,f
4.8.1 Potassium is more active than mercury so it forms stronger bonds with oxygen than mercury. Therefore more heat energy is
needed to break the bond between potassium and oxygen than between mercury and oxygen.
4.8.2 (a) Potassium and sodium.
(b) Chlorides and oxides.
(c) (i) Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
(ii) Silver and chlorine.
(iii) None aluminium oxide is stable to heat.
(d) Electric current provides more energy than heating. These substances are stable compounds, a great deal of energy
holds their atoms together in the compound. Thus a lot of energy is needed to pull them apart.
5.1.1 Physical properties: (c) boiling point, (d) colour, (f) density, (h) conductivity, (i) melting point, (j) hardness.
Chemical properties: (a) ability to burn, (b) ability to react with water, (e) high reactivity, (g) unreactive or inert.
Science Press

5.1.2 (a) Physical properties:
Element Melting point (C) Boiling point (C) Density (g/mL at 20C)
Calcium 838 1440 1.55
Mercury 38 357 13.6
Nitrogen 210 196
Element Reactivity with water Ability to burn

Hydrogen No reaction Burns explosively
Silver Does not react Does not burn
Magnesium Reacts slowly with steam Burns with a white light
5.1.3 Elements and compounds are pure substances. This means that they always have the same composition so their properties stay
the same, e.g. the element magnesium is always made of magnesium atoms only. The compound magnesium oxide (MgO) is
always made of magnesium atoms and oxygen atoms, chemically combined in the ratio 1:1.
Mixtures are not pure substances. This means that mixtures do not always have the same composition. Their components
(parts) and the proportion of each can vary, so their properties can vary.
5.1.4 (a) Physical properties:
Compound Melting point (C) Boiling point (C) Density (g/mL at 20C)
Calcium iodide 575 718 4.0
Mercury(I) chloride 302 384 7.2
Nitric acid 47 86 1.5
Compound Reactivity with water Decomposition

Copper sulfate No reaction, dissolves Decomposes to form copper oxide and sulfur trioxide.
Silver chloride No reaction Stable to heat does not decompose.
Will decompose with light.
Magnesium carbonate No reaction Decomposes to form magnesium oxide and
carbon dioxide.
5.2.1 Various, e.g.

(a) magnesium oxide
(b) magnesium:oxygen = 1:1
(c) Physical melting and boiling points, colour, malleability.
Chemical effect of heat, reaction with water.
(d) We observed colour, malleability and reaction with water individually and then compared our observations. All
agreed, so the observations were accurate.
We compared our observations with those in textbooks, and they agreed with ours, indicating that our results are
reliable.
+RZHYHUZHZHUHXQDEOHWRREVHUYHPHOWLQJDQGERLOLQJSRLQWVDVZHFRXOGQRWDFKLHYHDVXIFLHQWO\KLJK
temperature. Thus we had to rely solely on results published in data books and on the Internet. Our data book was
SXEOLVKHGE\DUHSXWDEOHFRPSDQ\DQGHGLWHGE\8QLYHUVLW\SURIHVVRUVVRZHDVVXPHGWKDWWKHJXUHVZHUHDFFXUDWH
:HDOVRDVVXPHGWKDWWKHJXUHVKDGEHHQREWDLQHGIURPUHSHDWHGUHDGLQJVDQGWKDWWKH\ZRXOGWKHUHIRUHEHUHOLDEOH
7RLQFUHDVHRXUUHOLDELOLW\ZHDOVRFRPSDUHGWKHVHJXUHVZLWKWKRVHRQDUHSXWDEOH,QWHUQHWVLWH7KHJXUHVDJUHHG
Science Press

5.2.2 (a) When the element magnesium burns, it combines with the element oxygen to form the compound magnesium oxide.
Magnesium is a metal (shiny lustre, silver, high melting and boiling point).
2[\JHQLVDQRQPHWDOORZPHOWLQJSRLQWDQGERLOLQJSRLQWFRORXUOHVVJDVDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
Magnesium oxide is a NEW substance, so it has its own properties they are not the same as those of magnesium or
oxygen. Magnesium oxide is a white powder.
(b) When sodium and chlorine combine to form sodium chloride, a new substance (sodium chloride), with different
properties, is formed. Compounds have different properties to those of the elements used to make them. Sodium chloride
is soluble in water (it does not react explosively) and it is composed of white crystals which are not poisonous.
5.2.3
Chemical properties Physical properties

Water Puts out res. Colourless liquid, boils at 100C
Good solvent.
Hydrogen Burns explosively in air. Colourless gas, boils at 253C
Oxygen Combines chemically with substances Colourless gas, boils at 183C
when they burn.
5.3.1 (a) sodium chloride ionic

(b) silicon dioxide covalent network
(c) ammonia covalent molecular
(d) carbon dioxide covalent molecular
(e) carbon tetrachloride covalent molecular
5.3.2 Melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity and hardness.
5.3.3 (a) ionic, strong, high
(b) intermolecular, dispersion, low
(c) covalent, high
5.3.4 (a) solid, lattice, conduct
(b) ions, electrons
5.3.5
Property Ionic Covalent molecular Covalent network
Melting and boiling points. Very high Low Extremely high
Hardness. Hard Soft Hard
Electrical conductivity when solid. Poor Poor Poor
Electrical conductivity when Good Poor Poor
dissolved in water.
Electrical conductivity when Good Poor Poor
molten.
5.4.1 Various, e.g.

(a) Magnesium, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, silicon dioxide.
(b) Melting and boiling points, conductivity, lustre, state.
5.4.2 (a) metal, (b) covalent molecular, (c) covalent network, (d) covalent molecular, (e) ionic
Science Press

5.4.3 Various, e.g.
Factor Copper Sodium chloride Nitrogen Silicon dioxide

Type of substance. Metal. Ionic compound. Covalent molecular Covalent network
element. compound.
Use. Electric wires. Cooking to avour food. Snap-freeze vegetables. Making glass insulators.
Property that allows for Good conductor of Soluble in water. Very low boiling point. Poor conductor of
this use. electricity. electricity.
Reason for this property. Mobile delocalised Ions present form bonds Weak attractive forces No mobile electrons and
electrons. with water. between molecules. no ions present.
5.5.1
Positive
e e metal ions
e
e
e e e
e e
Delocalised
e e e electrons
e
e e
e e
e e e
5.5.2
Physical property of metal Explanation in terms of structure

Good conductor of electricity. Outer shell electrons are delocalised (not held in place in the atom)
and thus they are mobile and free to carry charge.
Good conductor of heat. The mobile, delocalised outer shell electrons can carry heat.
High melting and boiling points. Strong metallic bonds between the positive metal ions and the sea of
negatively charged delocalised electrons. A lot of energy is needed to
break these metallic bonds.
Malleable and ductile. The rows of metallic ions in the lattice can slide over each other
without coming apart or disrupting the bonds.
Shiny lustre. The sea of delocalised electrons reects light.
5.6.1 6RGLXPFKORULGHLVFRPSRVHGRIVRGLXPDQGFKORULGHLRQVLQWKHUDWLRDUUDQJHGLQDWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOODWWLFH
5.6.2 three, lattice, negatively, ions, ionic, lattice
5.7.1 (a) Molecular formula shows the number of atoms of the elements present in a molecule of a compound the smallest
amount that can exist independently as that compound. The atoms are bonded together by covalent bonds.
(b) Empirical formula shows the simplest, whole number ratio of atoms or ions present in a compound.
(c) (i) molecular
(ii) empirical
(iii) empirical
(iv) molecular
5.7.2 D&OUHSUHVHQWVDQLRQLFFRPSRXQGLWLVPDGHRILRQVVRGLXPDQGFKORULGHLRQVLQWKHUDWLRKHOGWRJHWKHULQDWKUHH
1
dimensional lattice by electrostatic forces (ionic bonds). The formula tells us the ratio of ions present, it does not tell us the
number of ions in a unit. There are no molecules in sodium chloride. Thus it is an empirical formula rather than a molecular
formula.
5.8.1 Various, e.g.
(a) neon, oxygen, nitrogen
(b) carbon
Science Press

5.8.2 (a) Forms of the same element in which the atoms are identical but they are arranged differently and have different
physical properties.
(b) Diamond, graphite, fullerenes.
(c) Tin, oxygen, sulfur.
5.9.1
Structural feature of ionic compounds Physical property determined by structure
Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal lattice. A lot of energy is High melting and boiling points.
needed to break these bonds. Hard and crystalline.
Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks the bonds and the ions Good electrical conductors when molten.
are then free to move and carry the current.
Water moves between the ions, pushing them apart and breaking Good electrical conductors when in solution.
the ionic bonds. The ions are then free to move and carry the electric
charge.
Ions are held in xed positions by strong ionic bonds that extend Poor electrical conductors when solid.
throughout the lattice. The ions can only vibrate, they are not free to
move and carry the charge.
5.9.2
Property Metallic Ionic Covalent molecular Covalent network
Melting and boiling points. High Very high Low Extremely high
Hardness. Hard Hard Soft Hard
Electrical conductivity Good Poor Poor Poor
when solid.
Electrical conductivity Insoluble Good Poor Poor
Electrical conductivity Good Good Poor Poor
when molten.
5.9.3
Poor conductors of electricity in all states. No free electrons, no ions present.
Hardness. Weak dispersion forces between molecules result in low boiling points so usually gases at
room temperature. Thus hardness does not apply.
5.9.4
Poor conductors of electricity in all states. No free electrons, no ions present.
Hardness. Hard due to strong covalent bonds that extend throughout the lattice.
5.10.1 (a) metals, electrons, ions

(b) ionic, metal ions, electrostatic
(c) molecular (covalent), V, VI and VII, sharing, electrons
(d) covalent, atoms, dispersion
5.10.2 (a) metallic
(b) ionic
(c) covalent molecular
(d) covalent molecular
(e) ionic
Science Press

5.11.1 D 0RGHOVFDQEHGLDJUDPVFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHVGHVFULSWLRQVPDSVRURZFKDUWVDQLPDWLRQV
(b) This model is useful because it can account for:
7
KHDELOLW\RIPHWDOVWRFRQGXFWHOHFWULFLW\DQGKHDWZKHQVROLGDQGZKHQPROWHQEDVHGRQWKHPRELOLW\RIWKH
outer shell electrons.
7
KHDELOLW\RIPHWDOVWRFKDQJHVKDSHWKH\DUHPDOOHDEOHDQGGXFWLOH7KHDWRPVFDQHDVLO\PRYHVOLGLQJRYHU
each other.
7KHKDUGQHVVRIPHWDOV6WURQJERQGVWKURXJKRXWWKHODWWLFHKROGWKHLRQVWRJHWKHU
The model is limited because:
, WFDQQRWDFFRXQWIRUWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQPHWDOV7KH\GRQRWDOOKDYHWKHVDPHFRQGXFWLYLW\PHOWLQJSRLQWV
boiling points or hardness and the model does not explain this.
7KHPRGHOLVDVWDWLRQDU\VWUXFWXUHZKHUHDVLRQVDUHYLEUDWLQJDQGHOHFWURQVDUHPRELOH
5.11.2 (a) This model does tell us that the substance consists of ions held closely together, but it suggests that ionic solids exist
as small units. This is not correct. The formula only tells us the ratio of ions present in the crystal.
(b) This model is more useful as it accounts for the crystal structure and the shape of crystals according to how the ions
are packed together. It also shows that there are many ions within a crystal.
5.11.3 These models do provide some information as to the structure of molecules. However, they can be misleading as they are
RQO\WZRGLPHQVLRQDOZKHUHDVPRVWPROHFXOHVDUHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO$OVRDWRPVDUHQRWVROLGVSKHUHVDVLQGLFDWHGLQWKHVH
models.
The following diagram illustrates this with a model of ammonia.
These 2 hydrogens are

behind the plane of the paper
H H This hydrogen is in
H front of the plane
of the paper
Science Press

Preliminary Chemistry: Marilyn Schell Kevin Molyneux

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PRELIMINARY CHEMISTRY

The Chemical Earth vii

The Chemical Earth 1

The Chemical Earth 171

Data Sheet 237

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry iii Contents

Contents iv Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Format of the book

The book has been formatted in the following way:

1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)

1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.

How to use the book

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry v Introduction

Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

1. Mixtures of the Earth 2 3.11 Atoms share electrons in 23

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry vii The Chemical Earth

The Chemical Earth viii Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. Uses of metals and alloys 48 3.4 Recognising patterns in properties 68

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry ix Metals

Metals x Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. Distribution of water on Earth 88 4. Solutions, solubility and precipitation 105

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry xi Water

Water xii Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. Organic origins of energy 118  (TXDWLRQVIRUFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV 

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry xiii Energy

Energy xiv Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 1 The Chemical Earth

(a) ........................................................ (b) ....................................................... (c) ........................................................

(d) ....................................................... (e) ........................................................ (f) .........................................................

The Chemical Earth 2 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

1.3.1 Use diagrams to describe the following processes:

(c) Evaporation and crystallisation (d) Fractional distillation of a mixture of liquids

(e) Sieving (f) Using a separating funnel to separate two liquids

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 3 The Chemical Earth

A solid dissolved in a liquid.

Miscible liquids with different

Immiscible liquids with different

The Chemical Earth 4 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 5 The Chemical Earth

Solid wastes from sewage.

Sand and gravel.

Nitrogen and oxygen from air.

The Chemical Earth 6 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

(b) Describe the purpose of providing such information on food packaging.

(b) Assess the reliability of your results.

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 7 The Chemical Earth

(ii) the mass of the solid in the evaporating dish

(iii) the percentage composition of salt in the original mixture

(iv) the total mass of chemicals recovered after separation

The Chemical Earth 8 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

Properties of components that

Uses of components when they

Issues associated with any

Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry 9 The Chemical Earth

The Chemical Earth 10 Dot Point Preliminary Chemistry

2.1.2 Compare the reactivity of the metals magnesium and gold.

2.2.2 Identify the following properties as either physical or chemical.

(b) hardness ..................................................................................................................................................

(c) malleability ...........................................................................................................................................

(d) decomposition .....................................................................................................................................

1. Organic origins of energy 118 (TXDWLRQVIRUFKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQV

3.5.3 6RPHQRQPHWDOVIRUPSRO\DWRPLFLRQV:ULWHV\PEROVDQGYDOHQFLHVFRPELQLQJSRZHUIRU