Series

FOURIER SERIES

Graham S McDonald

A self-contained Tutorial Module for learning

the technique of Fourier series analysis

Table of contents
Begin Tutorial

c 2004 g.s.mcdonald@salford.ac.uk
 Table of contents
1. Theory
2. Exercises
3. Answers
4. Integrals
5. Useful trig results
6. Alternative notation
7. Tips on using solutions
Full worked solutions
Section 1: Theory 3

1. Theory

A graph of periodic function f (x) that has period L exhibits the

same pattern every L units along the x-axis, so that f (x + L) = f (x)
for every value of x. If we know what the function looks like over one
complete period, we can thus sketch a graph of the function over a
wider interval of x (that may contain many periods)

f(x )

P E R IO D = L

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Section 1: Theory 4

This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial fre-

quency k = 2 L that can be used to give a first approximation to
the periodic pattern f (x):

f (x) ' c1 sin(kx + 1 ) = a1 cos(kx) + b1 sin(kx),

where symbols with subscript 1 are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of this first approximation

A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f (x) can

be built up by adding an appropriate combination of harmonics to
this fundamental (sine-wave) pattern. For example, adding

c2 sin(2kx + 2 ) = a2 cos(2kx) + b2 sin(2kx) (the 2nd harmonic)

c3 sin(3kx + 3 ) = a3 cos(3kx) + b3 sin(3kx) (the 3rd harmonic)

Here, symbols with subscripts are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of each harmonic contribution

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Section 1: Theory 5

One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

that involves a fundamental sine-wave plus a combination of harmon-
ics of this fundamental frequency. This sum is called a Fourier series

F u n d a m e n ta l
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 h a rm o n ic s

F u n d a m e n ta l + 5 h a rm o n ic s P E R IO D = L
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 0 h a rm o n ic s

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Section 1: Theory 6

In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for func-

tions f (x) with period L = 2. Their fundamental frequency is then
k = 2
L = 1, and their Fourier series representations involve terms like

a1 cos x , b1 sin x
a2 cos 2x , b2 sin 2x
a3 cos 3x , b3 sin 3x

We also include a constant term a0 /2 in the Fourier series. This

allows us to represent functions that are, for example, entirely above
the xaxis. With a sufficient number of harmonics included, our ap-
proximate series can exactly represent a given function f (x)

f (x) = a0 /2 + a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + ...

+ b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + ...

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Section 1: Theory 7

A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f (x),

with period 2, uses the variable subscript n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1

We need to work out the Fourier coefficients (a0 , an and bn ) for

given functions f (x). This process is broken down into three steps
Z
STEP ONE 1
a0 = f (x) dx

2
Z
STEP TWO 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx

2
Z
STEP THREE 1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx

2
where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2

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Section 1: Theory 8

Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

gives a series of constants that should equal f (x1 ). However, if f (x)
is discontinuous at this value of x, then the series converges to a value
that is half-way between the two possible function values

" V e rtic a l ju m p " /d is c o n tin u ity

in th e fu n c tio n re p re s e n te d f(x )

F o u rie r s e rie s
c o n v e rg e s to
h a lf-w a y p o in t

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Section 2: Exercises 9

2. Exercises
Click on Exercise links for full worked solutions (7 exercises in total).
Exercise 1.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

1, < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval < x < is
 
1 2 1 1
sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + ...
2 3 5
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4 3 5 7

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 10

Exercise 2.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

0, < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval < x < is
 
2 1 1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ...
2 3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
2
(i) 4 = 1 31 + 15 17 + . . . and (ii) 8 = 1 + 312 + 512 + 712 + . . .

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 11

Exercise 3.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

x, 0 < x <
f (x) =
, < x < 2 .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2 is
 
3 2 1 1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 3 5
 
1 1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
1 1 1 2 1 1 1
(i) 4 = 1 3 + 5 7 +... and (ii) 8 = 1+ 32 + 52 + 72 +...

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 12

Exercise 4.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that
x
f (x) = over the interval 0 < x < 2.
2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2 is
 
1 1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 2 3
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4 3 5 7 9

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 13

Exercise 5.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

x, 0 < x <
f (x) =
0, < x < 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2 is
 
2 1 1
+ cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 3 5
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
2 3 4
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 14

Exercise 6.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

f (x) = x in the range < x < .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval < x < is
 
1 1
2 sin x sin 2x + sin 3x . . .
2 3
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4 3 5 7

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 15

Exercise 7.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

f (x) = x2 over the interval < x < .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval < x < is

2
 
1 1
4 cos x 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x . . .
3 2 3
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
2 1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 2 3 4

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

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Section 3: Answers 16

3. Answers
The sketches asked for in part (a) of each exercise are given within
the full worked solutions click on the Exercise links to see these
solutions

The answers below are suggested values of x to get the series of

constants quoted in part (c) of each exercise

1. x = 2,

2. (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 0,

3. (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 0,

4. x = 2,
5. x = 0,

6. x = 2,
7. x = .

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Section 4: Integrals 17

4. Integrals
R b dv b Rb du
Formula for integration by parts: a u dx dx = [uv]a a dx v dx
R R
f (x) f (x)dx f (x) f (x)dx
xn+1 n [g(x)]n+1
xn n+1 (n 6= 1) [g (x)] g 0 (x) n+1 (n 6= 1)
0
1 g (x)
x ln |x| g(x) ln |g (x)|
x ax
e ex ax
ln a (a > 0)
sin x cos x sinh x cosh x
cos x sin x cosh x sinh x
tan x ln
 |cos x| tanh x ln cosh x 
cosec x ln tan x2  cosech x ln tanh x2 
sec x ln |sec x + tan x| sech x 2 tan1 ex
sec2 x tan x sech2 x tanh x
cot x ln |sin x| coth x ln |sinh x|
sin2 x x
2
sin 2x
4 sinh2 x sinh 2x
4 x2
cos2 x x
2 +
sin 2x
4 cosh2 x sinh 2x
4 + x2

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Section 4: Integrals 18

R R
f (x) f (x) dx f (x) f (x) dx
 
1 1
tan1 x 1 1  a+x 
a2 +x2 a a a2 x2 2a ln  ax  (0 < |x| < a)
 
1 1  xa 
(a > 0) x2 a2 2a ln  x+a  (|x| > a > 0)

 
2 2
1 sin1 x 1 ln  x+ aa +x  (a > 0)

a2 x2 a a2 +x2
 
2 2
(a < x < a) 1 ln  x+ xa a  (x > a > 0)

x2 a2

a2
a2
h i
sinh1 x a2 +x2
 1 x

x


a2 x2 2 sin a a2 +x2 2 a + a2

i h i
a2
a2 x2
cosh1
2 2
+x x
+ x xa2a


a2 x2 a2 2 a

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Section 5: Useful trig results 19

5. Useful trig results

When calculating the Fourier coefficients an and bn , for which n =
1, 2, 3, . . . , the following trig. results are useful. Each of these results,
which are also true for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , can be deduced from
the graph of sin x or that of cos x
s in (x )
1

sin n = 0 x
3 2 0 2 3

c o s(x )
1

cos n = (1)n x
3 2 0 2 3

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Section 5: Useful trig results 20

s in (x ) c o s(x )
1 1

x x
3 2 0 2 3 3 2 0 2 3

1 1

0 , n even 0 , n odd

sin n = 1 , n = 1, 5, 9, ... cos n = 1 , n = 0, 4, 8, ...
2 2
1 , n = 3, 7, 11, ... 1 , n = 2, 6, 10, ...

Areas cancel when

s in (x )
when integrating 1

overR whole periods + + + x

sin nx dx = 0 3 2 0 2 3
2
R
cos nx dx = 0 1
2

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Section 6: Alternative notation 21

6. Alternative notation
2
For a waveform f (x) with period L = k

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nkx + bn sin nkx]
2 n=1
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 2
a0 = f (x) dx
L
L
Z
STEP TWO 2
an = f (x) cos nkx dx
L
L
Z
STEP THREE 2
bn = f (x) sin nkx dx
L
L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of L

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Section 6: Alternative notation 22

For a waveform f (x) with period 2L = 2

k , we have that
2
k = 2L =L and nkx = nx
L

a0 X h nx nx i
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin
2 n=1
L L
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 1
a0 = f (x) dx
L
2L
Z
STEP TWO 1 nx
an = f (x) cos dx
L L
2L
Z
STEP THREE 1 nx
bn = f (x) sin dx
L L
2L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of 2L

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Section 6: Alternative notation 23
2
For a waveform f (t) with period T =

a0 X
f (t) = + [an cos nt + bn sin nt]
2 n=1
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 2
a0 = f (t) dt
T
T
Z
STEP TWO 2
an = f (t) cos nt dt
T
T
Z
STEP THREE 2
bn = f (t) sin nt dt
T
T
and integrations are over a single interval in t of T

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Section 7: Tips on using solutions 24

7. Tips on using solutions

When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, INTEGRALS, TRIG

or NOTATION pages, use the Back button (at the bottom of the
page) to return to the exercises

Use the solutions intelligently. For example, they can help you get
started on an exercise, or they can allow you to check whether your
intermediate results are correct

Try to make less use of the full solutions as you work your way
through the Tutorial

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Solutions to exercises 25

Full worked solutions

Exercise 1.

1, < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < , and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2

f(x )
1

2 0 2
x

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Solutions to exercises 26

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
0
1
Z Z Z
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
0

1 0 1
Z Z
= 1 dx + 0 dx
0

1 0
Z
= dx

1 0
= [x]

1
= (0 ())

1
= ()

i.e. a0 = 1 .

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Solutions to exercises 27

STEP TWO
Z Z 0 Z
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
0
Z 0 Z
1 1
= 1 cos nx dx + 0 cos nx dx
0
Z 0
1
= cos nx dx

 0
1 sin nx 1 0
= = [sin nx]
n n
1
= (sin 0 sin(n))
n
1
= (0 + sin n)
n
1
i.e. an = (0 + 0) = 0.
n

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Solutions to exercises 28

STEP THREE
Z
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx

Z 0 Z
1 1
= f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
0
Z 0 Z
1 1
= 1 sin nx dx + 0 sin nx dx
0

0  0
1 cos nx
Z
1
i.e. bn = sin nx dx =
n
1 1
= [cos nx]0 = (cos 0 cos(n))
n n
1 1
= (1 cos n) = (1 (1)n ) , see Trig
 n n 
0 , n even n 1 , n even
i.e. bn = 2 , since (1) =
n , n odd 1 , n odd

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Solutions to exercises 29

We now have that

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
with the three steps giving

0 , n even
a0 = 1, an = 0 , and bn = 2
n , n odd
It may be helpful to construct a table of values of bn

n 1 2 3
4 5

bn 2 0 2 13 0 2 15

Substituting our results now gives the required series

 
1 2 1 1
f (x) = sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . .
2 3 5

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Solutions to exercises 30

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

1 1 1
4 =1 3 + 5 7 + ...

Comparing this series with

 
1 2 1 1
f (x) = sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . . ,
2 3 5
we need to introduce a minus sign in front of the constants 13 , 17 ,. . .

So we need sin x = 1, sin 3x = 1, sin 5x = 1, sin 7x = 1, etc

The first condition of sin x = 1 suggests trying x = 2.

This choice gives sin 2 + 1

3 sin 3 2 + 1
5 sin 5 2 + 1
7 sin 7 2
1 1 1
i.e. 1 3 + 5 7
Looking at the graph of f (x), we also have that f ( 2 ) = 0.

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Solutions to exercises 31

Picking x = 2 thus gives
h
0 = 21 2 sin 2 + 1
3 sin 3
2 +
1
5 sin 5
2 i
1
+ 7 sin 7
2 + ...

h
1 2 1 1
i.e. 0 = 2 1 3 + 5 i
1
7 + ...

A little manipulation then gives a series representation of 4

 
2 1 1 1 1
1 + + ... =
3 5 7 2
1 1 1
1 + + ... = .
3 5 7 4
Return to Exercise 1

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Solutions to exercises 32

Exercise 2.

0, < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < , and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

f(x )

3 2 2 3
x

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Solutions to exercises 33

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE

Z Z 0 Z
1 1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
0
Z 0 Z
1 1
= 0 dx + x dx
0
 
1 x2
=
2 0

1 2
 
= 0
2

i.e. a0 = .
2

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Solutions to exercises 34

STEP TWO
Z Z 0 Z
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
0
Z 0 Z
1 1
=0 cos nx dx + x cos nx dx
0
Z   Z 
1 1 sin nx sin nx
i.e. an = x cos nx dx = x dx
0 n 0 0 n
(using integration by parts)
  
1 sin n 1 h cos nx i
i.e. an = 0
n n n 0
 
1 1
= ( 0 0) + 2 [cos nx]0
n
1 1
= 2
{cos n cos 0} = 2
{(1)n 1}
n
 n
0 , n even
i.e. an = , see Trig.
n2 2 , n odd
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Solutions to exercises 35

STEP THREE
0
1
Z Z Z
1 1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
0
1 0 1
Z Z
= 0 sin nx dx + x sin nx dx
0
Z  Z  
1 1 h  cos nx i cos nx 
i.e. bn = x sin nx dx = x dx
0 n 0 0 n
(using integration by parts)
1
 Z 
1 1
= [x cos nx]0 + cos nx dx
n n 0
   
1 1 1 sin nx
= ( cos n 0) +
n n n 0
1 1
= (1)n + (0 0), see Trig
n n2
1
= (1)n
n

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Solutions to exercises 36
n1
(
, n even
i.e. bn =
+ n1 , n odd

We now have

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1

n1
( (
0 , n even , n even
where a0 = , an = , bn =
2 n2 2 , n odd 1
, n odd
n

Constructing a table of values gives

n 1 2 3 4 5
an 2 0 2 1
32 0 2 1
52

bn 1 12 1
3 14 1
5

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Solutions to exercises 37

This table of coefficients gives

 
1  2
f (x) = + cos x + 0 cos 2x
2 2
 
2 1
+ 2 cos 3x + 0 cos 4x
3
 
2 1
+ 2 cos 5x + ...
5
1 1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ...
2 3
 
2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ...
2 3

and we have found the required series!

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Solutions to exercises 38

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

1 1 1
(i) 4 =1 3 + 5 7 + ...

Comparing this series with

 
2 1 1
f (x) = cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ... ,
2 3
the required series of constants does not involve terms like 312 , 512 , 712 , ....
So we need to pick a value of x that sets the cos nx terms to zero.
The Trig section shows that cos n 2 = 0 when n is odd, and note also
that cos nx terms in the Fourier series all have odd n

i.e. cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = ... = 0 when x = 2,

i.e. cos 2 = cos 3 2 = cos 5 2 = ... = 0

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Solutions to exercises 39

Setting x = 2 in the series for f (x) gives

  
2 1 3 1 5
f = cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + ...
2 4 2 3 2 5 2
 
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
+ sin sin + sin sin + sin ...
2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2
2
= [0 + 0 + 0 + ...]
4
1 1 1 1
+ 1 sin + (1) sin 2 + (1) ...
2 | {z } 3 4 | {z } 5
=0 =0

The graph of f (x) shows that f 2 = 2, so that

1 1 1
= + 1 + + ...
2 4 3 5 7
1 1 1
i.e. = 1 + + ...
4 3 5 7

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Solutions to exercises 40

Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

2 1 1 1
(ii) 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + 72 + ...

Compare this series with

 
2 1 1
f (x) = cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ... .
2 3
This time, we want to use the coefficients of the cos nx terms, and
the same choice of x needs to set the sin nx terms to zero

Picking x = 0 gives
sin x = sin 2x = sin 3x = 0 and cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = 1

Note also that the graph of f (x) gives f (x) = 0 when x = 0

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Solutions to exercises 41

So, picking x = 0 gives

 
2 1 1 1
0 = cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + ...
4 3 5 7
sin 0 sin 0
+ sin 0 + ...
 2 3 
2 1 1 1
i.e. 0 = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0 0 + 0 ...
4 3 5 7

We then find that

 
2 1 1 1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... =
3 5 7 4
1 1 1 2
and 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... = .
3 5 7 8

Return to Exercise 2
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Solutions to exercises 42

Exercise 3.

x, 0 < x <
f (x) =
, < x < 2, and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2

f(x )

2 0 2
x

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Solutions to exercises 43

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
2
1 2
Z Z Z
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
0 0

1 1 2
Z Z
= xdx + dx
0
   2
1 x2
= + x
2 0
 2   
1
= 0 + 2
2

= +
2
3
i.e. a0 = .
2
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Solutions to exercises 44

STEP TWO
Z 2
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
0
Z Z 2
1 1
= x cos nx dx + cos nx dx
0
"  # 2
Z 
1 sin nx sin nx sin nx
= x dx +
n 0 0 n n
| {z }
using integration by parts
"     #
1 1 cos nx
= sin n 0 sin n0
n n2 0

1
+ (sin n2 sin n)
n

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Solutions to exercises 45

"    #  
1 1 cos n cos 0 1
i.e. an = 00 + 2 + 00
n n2 n n

1
= (cos n 1), see Trig
n2
1
(1)n 1 ,


= 2
n

n22 , n odd
(
i.e. an =
0 , n even.

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Solutions to exercises 46

STEP THREE
Z 2
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
0
Z Z 2
1 1
= x sin nx dx + sin nx dx
0
" # 2
1 h  cos nx i Z  cos nx  
cos nx
= x dx +
n 0 0 n n
| {z }
using integration by parts
"    #
1 cos n sin nx 1
= +0 + (cos 2n cos n)
n n2 0 n
" #
1 (1)n

sin n sin 0 1
1 (1)n


= + 2

n n n
1 1
(1)n + 1 (1)n


= 0
n n

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Solutions to exercises 47
1 1 1
i.e. bn = (1)n + (1)n
n n n
1
i.e. bn = .
n
We now have

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
(
3 0 , n even
where a0 = 2 , an = , bn = n1
n22 , n odd

Constructing a table of values gives

n 1 2 3
4 5

an 2 0 2 312 0 2 512
bn 1 21 13 14 15

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Solutions to exercises 48

This table of coefficients gives

   h i
1 3 2 1
f (x) = 2 2 + cos x + 0 cos 2x + 32 cos 3x + . . .
  h i
1 1
+ 1 sin x + 2 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x + . . .

h i
3 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = 4 cos x + 32 cos 3x + 52 cos 5x + . . .
h i
1 1
sin x + 2 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x + . . .

and we have found the required series.

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Solutions to exercises 49

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

1 1 1
(i) 4 =1 3 + 5 7 + ...

Compare this series with

 
3 2 1 1
f (x) = cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 3 5
 
1 1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 3
Here, we want to set the cos nx terms to zero (since their coefficients
are 1, 312 , 512 , . . .). Since cos n 2 = 0 when n is odd, we will try setting
x = 2 in the series. Note also that f ( 2 ) = 2

This gives
3 2
cos 2 + 1
cos 3 2 + 1
cos 5 2 + . . .
 
2 = 4 32 52

sin 2 + 1
sin 2 2 + 1
sin 3 2 + 1
sin 4 2 + 1
sin 5 2 + . . .
 
2 3 4 5
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Solutions to exercises 50

and
3 2
2 = 4 [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]

1 1 1 1
 
(1) + 2 (0) + 3 (1) + 4 (0) + 5 (1) + . . .
then

3 1 1 1


2 = 4 1 3 + 5 7 + ...

1 1 1 3
1 3 + 5 7 + ... = 4 2

1 1 1
1 3 + 5 7 + ... = 4, as required.

To show that
2 1 1 1
(ii) 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + 72 + ... ,

We want zero sin nx terms and to use the coefficients of cos nx

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Solutions to exercises 51

Setting x = 0 eliminates the sin nx terms from the series, and also
gives
1 1 1 1 1 1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + 2 cos 7x + . . . = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
3 5 7 3 5 7
(i.e. the desired series).
The graph of f (x) shows a discontinuity (a vertical jump) at x = 0

The Fourier series converges to a value that is half-way between the

two values of f (x) around this discontinuity. That is the series will
converge to 2 at x = 0
 
3 2 1 1 1
i.e. = cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + . . .
2 4 3 5 7
 
1 1
sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2 3
 
3 2 1 1 1
and = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . . [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
2 4 3 5 7
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Solutions to exercises 52

Finally, this gives

 
2 1 1 1
= 1+
+ + + . . .
4 32 52 72
2 1 1 1
and = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5 7

Return to Exercise 3

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Solutions to exercises 53

Exercise 4.

f (x) = x2 , over the interval 0 < x < 2 and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4

f(x )

0 2 3 4
x

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Solutions to exercises 54

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE

Z 2
1
a0 = f (x) dx
0
Z 2
1 x
= dx
0 2
 2 2
1 x
=
4 0

(2)2
 
1
= 0
4

i.e. a0 = .

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Solutions to exercises 55

STEP TWO
Z 2
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
0
Z 2
1 x
= cos nx dx
0 2
( 2 )
Z 2
1 sin nx 1
= x sin nx dx
2 n 0 n 0
| {z }
using integration by parts
(  )
1 sin n2 sin n 0 1
= 2 0 0
2 n n n
( )
1 1
= (0 0) 0 , see Trig
2 n
i.e. an = 0.

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Solutions to exercises 56

STEP THREE
Z 2 Z 2
1 1 x
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = sin nx dx
0 0 2
Z 2
1
= x sin nx dx
2 0
(  2 Z 2   )
1 cos nx cos nx
= x dx
2 n 0 0 n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )
1 1 1
= (2 cos n2 + 0) + 0 , see Trig
2 n n
2
= cos(n2)
2n
1
= cos(2n)
n
1
i.e. bn = , since 2n is even (see Trig)
n
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Solutions to exercises 57

We now have

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1

where a0 = , an = 0, bn = n1

These Fourier coefficients give

 
X 1
f (x) = + 0 sin nx
2 n=1 n
 
1 1
i.e. f (x) = sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . . .
2 2 3

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Solutions to exercises 58

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

1 1 1 1
4 =1 3 + 5 7 + 9 ...

Setting x = 2 gives f (x) = 4 and
 
1 1
= 1 + 0 + 0 + + 0 ...
4 2 3 5
 
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4 2 3 5 7 9
 
1 1 1 1
1 + + ... =
3 5 7 9 4
1 1 1 1
i.e. 1 + + . . . = .
3 5 7 9 4
Return to Exercise 4

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Solutions to exercises 59

Exercise 5.

x , 0<x<
f (x) =
0 , < x < 2, and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2

f(x )

2 0 2
x

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Solutions to exercises 60

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
Z 2
1
a0 = f (x) dx
0
Z Z 2
1 1
= ( x) dx + 0 dx
0
 
1 1
= x x2 + 0
2 0
2
 
1
= 2 0
2

i.e. a0 = .
2

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Solutions to exercises 61

STEP TWO
Z 2
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
0
1 1 2
Z Z
= ( x) cos nx dx + 0 dx
0
  Z 
1 sin nx sin nx
i.e. an = ( x) (1) dx +0
n 0 0 n
| {z }
using integration by parts
 Z 
1 sin nx
= (0 0) + dx , see Trig
0 n
 
1 cos nx
=
n n 0
1
= 2 (cos n cos 0)
n
1
i.e. an = 2 ((1)n 1) , see Trig
n
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Solutions to exercises 62

0 , n even
i.e. an =
2
, n odd

n2

STEP THREE
Z 2
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
0
Z Z 2
1
= ( x) sin nx dx + 0 dx
0

1
h  cos nx i Z  cos nx  
= ( x) (1) dx + 0
n 0 0 n
   1 
1 
= 0 0 , see Trig
n n
1
i.e. bn = .
n
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Solutions to exercises 63

In summary, a0 = 2 and a table of other Fourier cofficients is

n 1 2 3 4 5

2 2 2 1 2 1
an = n2 (when n is odd) 0 32 0 52

1 1 1 1 1
bn = n 1 2 3 4 5

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
2 2 1 2 1
= + cos x + cos 3x + cos 5x + . . .
4 32 52
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
 2 3 4 
2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = + cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 3 5
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
2 3 4
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Solutions to exercises 64
2 1 1
c) To show that 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + ... ,

note that, as x 0 , the series converges to the half-way value of 2,

 
2 1 1
and then = + cos 0 + cos 0 + cos 0 + . . .
2 4 32 52
1 1
+ sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2 3
 
2 1 1
= + 1 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0
2 4 3 5
 
2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
4 3 5
2 1 1
giving = 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5
Return to Exercise 5

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Solutions to exercises 65

Exercise 6.

f (x) = x, over the interval < x < and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

f(x )

x
3 2 0 2 3

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Solutions to exercises 66

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
Z
1
a0 = f (x) dx

Z
1
= x dx

 
1 x2
=
2

1 2 2
 
=
2 2

i.e. a0 = 0.

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Solutions to exercises 67

STEP TWO

1
Z
an = f (x) cos nx dx

Z
1
= x cos nx dx

(  Z   )
1 sin nx sin nx
= x dx
n n
| {z }
using integration by parts

1
 Z 
1 1
i.e. an = ( sin n () sin(n)) sin nx dx
n n
 
1 1 1
= (0 0) 0 ,
n n
Z
since sin n = 0 and sin nx dx = 0,
2
i.e. an = 0.

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Solutions to exercises 68

STEP THREE

1
Z
bn = f (x) sin nx dx

Z
1
= x sin nx dx

(  Z   )
1 x cos nx cos nx
= dx
n n
1
 Z 
1 1
= [x cos nx] + cos nx dx
n n
 
1 1 1
= ( cos n () cos(n)) + 0
n n

= (cos n + cos n)
n
1
= (2 cos n)
n
2
i.e. bn = (1)n .
n
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Solutions to exercises 69

We thus have

a0 X h i
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx
2 n=1

with a0 = 0, an = 0, bn = n2 (1)n

and
n 1 2 3

2
bn 2 1 3

Therefore
f (x) = b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + . . .
 
1 1
i.e. f (x) = 2 sin x sin 2x + sin 3x . . .
2 3

and we have found the required Fourier series.

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Solutions to exercises 70

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

1 1 1
4 =1 3 + 5 7 + ...

Setting x = 2 gives f (x) = 2 and

 
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
= 2 sin sin + sin sin + sin ...
2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2

This gives  
1 1 1
= 2 1 + 0 + (1) 0 + (1) 0 + (1) + . . .
2 3 5 7
 
1 1 1
= 2 1 + + ...
2 3 5 7
1 1 1
i.e. = 1 + + ...
4 3 5 7

Return to Exercise 6
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Solutions to exercises 71

Exercise 7.

f (x) = x2 , over the interval < x < and has period 2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

f(x )

2

3 2 0 2 3
x

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Solutions to exercises 72

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
Z Z
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = x2 dx

 
1 x3
=
3

1 3 3
  
=
3 3

1 2 3
 
=
3

2 2
i.e. a0 = .
3

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Solutions to exercises 73

STEP TWO

1
Z
an = f (x) cos nx dx

Z
1
= x2 cos nx dx

(  Z   )
1 sin nx sin nx
= x2 2x dx
n n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )

2
Z
1 1 2 2
= sin n sin(n) x sin nx dx
n n
( )
2
Z
1 1
= (0 0) x sin nx dx , see Trig
n n
Z
2
= x sin nx dx
n

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Solutions to exercises 74

(   Z   )
2 cos nx cos nx
i.e. an = x dx
n n n
| {z }
using integration by parts again
( )
2 1
Z
1
= [x cos nx] + cos nx dx
n n n
(   )
2 1 1
= cos n () cos(n) + 0
n n n
(   )
2 1
= (1)n + (1)n
n n
( )
2 2
= (1)n
n n

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Solutions to exercises 75

( )
2 2
i.e. an = (1)n
n n

+4
= (1)n
n2
4
= (1)n
n2

4
, n even
(
n2
i.e. an =
4
n2 , n odd.

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Solutions to exercises 76

STEP THREE

1 2
Z Z
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = x sin nx dx

(   Z   )
1 cos nx cos nx
= x2 2x dx
n n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )
Z
1 1 2  2
= x cos nx + x cos nx dx
n n
( Z )
1 1 2 2
cos n 2 cos(n) +


= x cos nx dx
n n
( )

2
Z
1 1 2 2
= cos n cos(n) + x cos nx dx
n| {z } n
=0
Z
2
= x cos nx dx
n
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Solutions to exercises 77

(  )
Z
2 sin nx sin nx
i.e. bn = x dx
n n n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )
Z
2 1 1
= ( sin n () sin(n)) sin nx dx
n n n
( )
1
Z
2 1
= (0 + 0) sin nx dx
n n n

2
Z
= sin nx dx
n2

i.e. bn = 0.

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Solutions to exercises 78

a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
(
4
2 2 n2 , n even
where a0 = 3 , an = 4 , bn = 0
n2 , n odd

n 1 2 3 4
1 1 1




an 4(1) 4 22 4 32 4 42

2 2
   
1 1 1 1
i.e. f (x) = 4 cos x 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x 2 cos 4x . . .
2 3 2 3 4

+ [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]

2
 
1 1 1
i.e. f (x) = 4 cos x 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x 2 cos 4x + . . . .
3 2 3 4

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Solutions to exercises 79
2
c) To show that = 1 + 212 + 312 + 412 + . . . ,
6
(
1 , n even
use the fact that cos n =
1 , n odd

1 1 1
i.e. cos x 22 cos 2x + 32 cos 3x 42 cos 4x + . . . with x =

1 1 1
gives cos 22 cos 2 + 32 cos 3 42 cos 4 + . . .

1 1 1
i.e. (1) 22 (1) + 32 (1) 42 (1) + . . .

1 1 1
i.e. 1 22 32 42 +...

 
1 1 1
= 1 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
2 3 4
| {z }
(the desired series)

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Solutions to exercises 80

The graph of f (x) gives that f () = 2 and the series converges to

this value.

Setting x = in the Fourier series thus gives

2
 
2 1 1 1
= 4 cos 2 cos 2 + 2 cos 3 2 cos 4 + . . .
3 2 3 4
2
 
1 1 1
2 = 4 1 2 2 2 . . .
3 2 3 4
2
 
2 1 1 1
= + 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3 2 3 4
2
 
2 1 1 1
= 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3 2 3 4
2 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 2 3 4
Return to Exercise 7

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