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Basics of Structural Design PDF
Basics of Structural Design PDF
Lecture notes
Aurel Stratan
Timioara 2014
Contents
Course 1
Introduction to Structures
Structural Materials
Structures
Man-made structures
buildings
bridges
dams
masts
drilling platforms
ships aircrafts, etc.
Natural structures
skeleton of animals
shell of snails
spider's web
tree trunk and branches, etc.
Structure: something which carries weight or resists
loads and forces, and which may form a protective cover
or skeleton for an object or living thing.
1
Some structures can fail
12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea
2
Some structures can fail
12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea
3
Some structures can fail
19.12.2008 failure of a silo near Vinga
Design criteria
Suitability for its function: a building should be designed
and realised in a manner that will offer to its users a
certain function
Safety and serviceability:
Structures should resist loads and other external actions without
collapse, protecting its inhabitants
Structures should not develop excessive deformations and
cracks, nor vibrate alarmingly
Aesthetics: buildings should be aesthetically pleasant,
both individually and as a group
Economy: generally, the above three criteria need to be
fulfilled with a limited budget
Cost to design and build a structure
Maintenance cost during the planned life
4
Structural materials
A building consists of the structure and other
components used in order to protect and provide for
building function and aesthetics (cladding, partitions,
floors, etc.)
Structural material is the one which is used in those parts
of the structure which carry loads and give it strength
and stiffness
Properties of
structural materials: .
strength
stiffness .
ductility
.
deformation
5
Structural materials: ductility
Ductile materials: able to deform significantly into the
inelastic range
Brittle materials:
fail suddenly by cracking or splintering
much weaker in tension than in compression
force force
ductile brittle
deformation deformation
Structural materials
"Traditional" materials: used by builders and engineers
since the ancient times
Stone and timber: occur naturally
Bricks: man-made
sun-dried clay/mud bricks - from 4500 B.C.
fired bricks - from 3000 B.C.
calcium silicate bricks
Ancient concrete:
lime mixed with stone and sand: early civ. of the Middle East
"hydraulic cement" - lime, stone, sand and silicates: Romans
Stone, bricks, ancient concrete:
weak
weaker in tension than in compression
Stone and bricks masonry: units interconnected by even
weaker mortar
6
Structural materials
Timber:
substantial tensile strength along the grain
weak in compression and across the grain (difficult to realise
connections in tension)
Stone
Limestone 5 40
Brick 6 60
Timber Along grain 120 30
(spruce) Across grain 3.5 -
Portland Normal use 2 20
cement
High strength 6 60
concrete
Mild steel 355 355
Modern
High strength
700 700
steel
Iron and
steel Very high-
strength
2000 -
prestressing
wires
Aluminium alloy (dural) 450 450
7
Specific strength
All structures have to support their own weight
Can the size of a structure be increased indefinitely for it
to be able to carry its own weight?
Specific strength
Weight = Volume specific weight
W=ALg
Tensile resistance = Area ultimate tensile strength
R = A u
Equate weight to resistance:
W = R A L g = A u
L = u / ( g) = S = specific strength
There is an absolute limit (= S) to the length
that the bar can attain without breaking
Larger a structure is, larger is the
proportion of its own weight to the
total load that can be carried by itself
8
Specific strength
For structures subjected to tension/compression, as the
size of an object increases, its strength increases with
the square of the ruling dimensions, while the weight
increases with its cube
For each type of structure there is a maximum possible
size beyond which it cannot carry even its own weight
Consequences:
it is impossible to construct structures of enormous size
there is a limit to natural structures (trees, animals, etc.)
larger a structure becomes, stockier and more bulky it gets
large bridges are heavier in proportions than smaller ones
bones of elephants are stockier and thicker than the ones of mice
proportions of aquatic animals are almost unaffected by their size
(weight is almost entirely supported by buoyancy)
Specific strength
Ultimate strength u
Specific strength S (m)
Material (N/mm2)
Tensile Compression Tensile Compression
Granite 40 200 1400 7000
Traditional
Stone
Limestone 5 40 225 1800
Brick 6 60 320 3200
Timber Along grain 120 30 24000 6000
(spruce) Across grain 3.5 - 700 -
Portland Normal use 2 20 90 900
cement
High strength 6 60 270 2700
concrete
Mild steel 355 355 4500 4500
Modern
High strength
600 600 8000 8000
steel
Iron and
steel Very high-
strength
2000 - 26700 -
prestressing
wires
Aluminium alloy (dural) 450 450 17000 17000
9
Specific strength
Stone, brick and concrete: used in compression
Steel: used in tension
Timber: excellent performance in terms of specific
strength, especially in tension
Aluminium: high specific strength
10
Structural materials: stress-strain curves
Steel and aluminium: excellent ductility
Concrete, brick: brittle
Modulus of elasticity: E = /
Unloading after loading in the elastic range NO
permanent deformations
Unloading after loading in the inelastic range
permanent deformations present
Permanent deformations need to be avoided in structures
under service loads stresses should be kept in the
elastic region under service loads
11
Structural materials: stiffness
The extension of a bar under its own weight is
proportional to the square of the scale (a bar which is 10
times longer than a reference one will extend 102 = 100
times more than the reference one)
Stone
Limestone 30 000 1.35 Brittle
Brick 30 000 1.60
Timber Along grain 15 000 3.00
NA
(spruce) Across grain - -
Portland Normal use 25 000 1.12
cement Brittle
High strength 40 000 1.80
concrete
Large
Mild steel 210 000 2.80
ductility
Modern
12
Structural materials: ductility
Ductility is important for the "ultimate" behaviour of
structures
Most structures are designed to respond in the elastic
range under service loads, but, given the uncertainties in
real strength of material, behaviour of the structure,
magnitude of loading, and accidental actions, a structure
can be subjected to inelastic deformations
A ductile material will sustain large deformations before
collapsing, "warning" the people inside
A ductile material allows for redistribution of stresses in
statically indeterminate structures, which are able to
support larger loads than in the case of a structure
realised of brittle material
13
Basis of Structural Design
Course 2
Structural action
Structural action: the way in which a structure of a given
type and configuration resists the loads acting on it
Types of structures:
Cables
Arches
Trusses
Beams
Frames
1
Cable / chain structures
Cable and chains:
excellent tensile strength
no strength/stiffness in compression
no strength/stiffness in bending
Cable and chain structures exploit the benefits of high
tensile strength of natural fibres and steel
Especially useful in large-span structures
2
A chain subjected to a single force
The simplest chain structure:
links connected by pins
load W acts on the central pin
Solution (equilibrium of node C):
the pin C is acted by three forces: load W, and two tensile internal
forces T
the vectors representing the three forces can be represented as a
a triangle of forces 012 (W=12, T=20, T=01)
length of lines 20 and 01 gives the tensions in the chain
3
A chain carrying two vertical forces
Node E
node E is acted by three forces:
load W2, and to tensile internal
forces T2 and T3
the vectors representing the
three forces can be represented
as a a triangle of forces 023
(W2=23, T2=02, T3=30)
length of lines 02 and 30 gives
the tensions in the chain
The two triangles can be combined
to get a force diagram
4
A chain carrying equal weight at each pin
The chain hangs symmetrically about point C
Each inclined line in the force diagram gives the
magnitude and inclination of the force in the
corresponding link
Starting from the midspan, the slope of the links
increases in proportion to the horizontal distance from
the midspan parabola
5
Deformed shape of a cable / chain
Actual deformed shape of a cable or chain hanging under
its own weight: catenary (slightly from parabola)
Parabola: the shape of a chain carrying uniform loads for
each horizontal span
Catenary:
the shape of a chain hanging under its own weight
weight of the chain per unit horizontal span increases toward the
sides due to increasing slope of the chain
Parabola:
easier to calculate
differences between parabola and catenary negligible for small
spans
Arches
Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch
6
Three-bar linear arch
Three-bar chain Three-bar arch
Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch
7
Arches: line of thrust
Linear arch gives the
smallest stresses
Shape of the arch is
not important for small
arches: own weight
has a small
contribution to
stresses in
comparison with
imposed (traffic) loads
Shape of the arch is
very important for
large arches: own
weight has a major
contribution to
stresses
Arches: forms
Perfect arch: shape of catenary (example: Taq-e Kisra
Palace, Ctesiphon, Iraq - built 220 B.C.)
8
Arches: forms
The first civilisation to
make extensive use of
arches: Romans
Shape of Roman arches:
semicircular
why?
Semicircular arch
A cable takes a
circular form
when subjected
to a uniform
radial load
A linear
semicircular
arch: loaded by
uniform radial
pressure
Loading in
bridges and
buildings quite
different from the
condition above
9
Romanesque semi-circular arches and vaults
Semi-circular arch used
extensively in the
Romanesque period
Severe architectural
restrictions:
Romanesque barrel vault
requires continuous support
and makes the interior dark
when used for roofs
groined arch: enables light to
enter from all sides but allows
only square bays to be covered
Gothic arches
Gothic period - pointed
arches
Rectangular spans can be
covered by varying the
ratio of rise to span
10
Gothic arches
A kink in an weightless cable implies a concentrated
force at the kink, as well as a distributed load along the
two sides corresponding shape of linear Gothic arch
This condition is not present in almost all Gothic arches,
which requires support from the adjoining masonry
Gothic arches
Correct use of pointed arch: Font Pedrouse viaduct in
France
11
Arches: design
A stone arch
(no strength
in tension)
will fail when
the thrust line
reaches the
extrados and
intrados in
four points,
becoming a
mechanism
Arches: design
19th century approach - avoid cracking (tensile stresses)
under service loads - keep the thrust line within the
middle third of the arch cross-section
12
Arches: design
Thrusts at
springings
(reactions at
supports) are
inclined:
vertical component
horizontal
component
Horizontal
reactions tend to
spread the
supports apart
buttresses can be
used, especially for
arches/vaults on
high walls
Arches: buttresses
13
Basis of Structural Design
Course 3
Arch Truss
rafter
tie
1
Truss forces
Truss members connected by
pins: axial forces
(direct stresses) only
Supports:
one pinned, allowing free rotations
due to slight change of truss shape
due to loading
one roller bearing support ("simple - (C) - (C)
support") - allowing free rotations
and lateral movement due to + (T)
loading and change in temperature
Truss forces
If more forces are present within
the length of the rafter
bending stresses
2
Alternative shape of a truss
For a given loading find out the shape of a linear arch
(parabolic shape)
Add a tie to relieve spreading of supports
3
Truss shapes
Curved shape of the arch: difficult to fabricate trusses
with parallel chords
Trusses with parallel chords: web members (diagonals
and struts) carry forces whatever the loads
Pratt truss:
top chord in compression
bottom chord and diagonals in tension
economical design as
longer members
(diagonals) are in tension
Truss shapes
Howe truss:
top chord in compression
bottom chord in tension
diagonals in compression
Warren truss:
top chord in compression
bottom chord in tension
diagonals in tension and
compression
economy of fabrication: all
members are of the same
length and joints have the
same configuration
4
Truss joints
Pinned joints statically
determinate structures member
forces can be determined from
equilibrium only
Space trusses
The most common plane truss
consists of a series of triangles
The corresponding shape in three
dimensions: tetrahedron (a)
5
Statically indeterminate trusses
Indeterminate trusses:
large variety
Example (a): cross
diagonals in the middle
panel, so that one of
the diagonals will
always be in tension
Beams
Beam: a structure that supports
loads through its ability to resist
bending stresses
6
Beams: analogy with trusses
Forces in a
Pratt truss
loaded by a unit
central force
Forces in a
Howe truss
Forces in a
truss with
double diagonals
(reasonable estimate)
7
Beams: analogy with trusses
Bending and shear deformations in a truss
After web
buckling, only
tensile loads are
resisted by the
web, plate girder
acting as a
Pratt truss
8
Beams: bending action
Top flange in compression linear variation of
Bottom flange in tension normal stress
Normal stress proportional to distance from the neutral
plane
Simplifications:
Thin web, thick flanges web has a small contribution to the
bending resistance (ignore it)
Normal stress can be considered uniform on flanges
resistance:
+ F = (A/2)
away from A/2
the neutral axis
F = (0.5db/2)
2d/3
M = Ad/6
d
A
F = (0.5db/2)
+
b
9
Beams: bending action
Examples of efficient location of material for bending
resistance
light roof beams (trusses)
10
Beams: bending action
Examples of efficient location of material for bending
resistance
corrugated steel sheet
11
Beams: bending action
Examples of efficient location of material for bending
resistance
columns requiring bending resistance in any direction: tubular
sections
12
Beams: shear stresses
In the uncut beam stresses should be present along the
neutral plane to prevent sliding of the lower and upper
halves of the beam: shear stresses
Smaller stresses would be required to keep the unity of
action if the beam were cut above the neutral plane
Shear stresses
parabolic variation in a rectangular cross-section
carried mainly by the web, on which they can be considered to be
constant for a steel double T beam
Structural shapes
Simply supported beam
subjected to a uniformly
distributed load
13
Structural shapes
Simply
supported truss
subjected to a
uniformly
distributed load
Structural shapes
Bridge with a simply supported central span and two
cantilevered sides
The shape of the truss must resemble the bending
moment diagram in order to make efficient use of material
in upper and bottom chords
Quebec
railway bridge
14
Structural shapes
Forth
bridge,
Scotland
Angel
Saligny
bridge,
Romania
15
Basis of Structural Design
Course 4
Structural action:
- prestressing
- plate and shell structures
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Prestressing
Prestressing: setting up an initial state of stress, that
makes the structure work better than without it
Examples:
wall plugs
spider's web
bicycle wheel
1
Prestressing examples: wall plug
A hole in the wall is filled with a wooden or plastic plug
The screw driven into the plug squeezes the plug against
the sides of the hole, generating compressive stresses in
the plug and in the wall around it
Compressive prestressing generates frictional resistance
to pulling out the screw
2
Prestressing examples: bicycle wheel
Wire spokes are strong in tension
but weak in compression (due to
buckling)
Spokes must be kept in tension
When the wheel is assembled,
spokes are tightened up uniformly
by the turnbuckles at the rim
Under a downward load on the
wheel, the spokes in the lower part
of the wheel tend to be subjected to
compression
Tensile prestress in the spokes
must be higher than the
compression force to keep all the
spokes in tension
3
Prestressing examples: bicycle wheel
Forces due to cornering:
force is imposed on the wheel at right
angles to its plane
the spokes are inclined with respect to the
plane of the wheel, forming a triangulated
system, which resists the forces due to
cornering
tensile prestress ensures that all spokes
are in tension and active
4
Other prestressing examples
A set of books: no tensile resistance
between the volumes
The books can be moved if a
pressure is applied at the middepth:
the row of books act as a simply
supported beam
the pressure overcomes the tensile
stress in the lower part due to own
weight of the books, enabling them to act
as a unit
The books can be moved with lower
pressure if it is applied somewhat
lower than the middepth: an upward
moment is introduced, which
counteracts the downward moment
due to own weight of the books
5
Prestressed concrete beams
Concrete is kept in compression
by cables or rods
The whole concrete cross-
section can be considered in
design
Substantial economy in material
If prestressing is applied in the
centroid of the cross-section:
by choosing correctly the
prestressing force, the entire cross-
section can be kept in compression
a large stress is present at the
compression side
6
Prestressed concrete beams
Bending moment due to dead weight in a simply
supported beam: parabolic shape
The best arrangement of the prestressing tendons?
a parabolic shape along the beam, in order to generate
bending moment M=Fe counteracting the bending
moment due to dead load
7
Prestressed concrete
Type of prestress:
Posttensioning: the prestressing force is applied after concrete
has been cast and has set, through tendons located in holes left
in concrete elements. The prestress is retained due to anchorage
of steel tendons at the end of the element.
Pretensioning: prestressing wires are stretched over a long
length and the concrete is cast around them in steel forms. The
prestress is retained due to the bond between the concrete and
the steel wires.
Problems related to prestressing:
When the concrete sets up, it shrinks, leading to loss of
prestressing (in the case of pretensioning)
Concrete shortens in time (creep) after it sets up due to
compression acting on it, leading to loss of compression
High strength steel required for prestressing, in order to reduce
the loss of prestress due to shrinkage and creep
Higher strength concrete is needed to resist higher compression
and to reduce the contraction due to creep and shrinkage
Plates
8
One-way plates
When a narrow beam bends, the material in the lower half
of the beam extends longitudinally it contracts in the
transversal direction due to Poisson effect ( times the
longitudinal strain)
The material in
the upper half of
the beam contracts
longitudinally
it expands in the
transversal direction
An anticlastic
curvature of the beam in the
transversal direction equal
with times the longitudinal curvature
One-way plates
In plates the anticlastic curvature is
suppressed due to large dimension in
the transversal direction (the deflected
shape is almost cylindrical, except
near the free edges)
9
Two-way plates
Two-way plates simply
supported on all four sides:
complicated interaction
between the two ways in
which a load is supported
If a slab is more than about
4 times as long as it is
wide, the bending moment
at the center of the plate is
almost the same as in a
one-way plate supported
on longer edges. Why?
Stiffer structural action
(bending in the short
direction) attracts larger
forces
10
Stiffness in structural action
Column is much stronger than the beam: 2/1 = 6(L/h)
for L/h=20 2/1 = 120
Column is much stiffer than the beam: 2/1 = 4(L/h)2
for L/h=20 2/ 1 = 1600 (P=k
k1/k2 = 1600)
If the beam and the column are used in conjunction to
support the load P:
the two members deflect by the
same ammount
P=k P1=k11; P2=k2
2. If the deflection
is the same for the two members 1= 2
P1/k1 = P2/k2; P1/P2=k1/k2 = 1600
the column carries a load of (1600/1601)P
the beam carries a load of (1/1601)P
Of the two alternative modes of action
open to this structure, it chooses the
column compression, because it is stiffer
Membrane action
Some structures can support loads only in bending.
Example: simply supported beam
Uniform loading:
the neutral axis becomes curved
roller support moves slightly toward the other end of the beam
11
Membrane action
A beam pinned at both ends
Uniform loading:
the neutral axis becomes curved
horizontal movement of the support is prevented longitudinal
tension H develops the beam begins to support load as a
slightly curved cable or catenary
Membrane action
The catenary action is much stiffer than bending
Beam action: stiffness remains constant
Catenary action: stiffness increases with the square of
the deflection
As the load increases, the portion of the load carried
axially (w1), as catenary, increases rapidly
It can be shown that w1/w2 = 3.33(/h)2
w2 - the portion of the loading carried through bending.
When the deflection ammounts to twice the depth of the
beam, w1/w2 = 13.33, so that the catenary action
ammounts to 13.33/14.33 = 0.93 of the total resistance to
load
Membranes: surface elements in which loading is
resisted through direct (axial) stresses
12
Shells
Shells: surface elements resisting loading through
bending and membrane action
Examples:
dome
human skull
turtle's armour
bird egg
Shells
Bird's egg: weak under a concentrated loading (breaking
against a cup's rim) but strong under distributed loading
(squeezing between ends with palms)
distributed loading resisted through membrane action (stronger)
concentrated loading resisted through bending action (weaker)
Domes:
used since ancient times
capable of resisting through membrane
action a variety of distributed loading
13
Dome: structural action
The shape of a cable changes as the
shape of the applied loading changes
14
Dome: structural action
A system formed by using enough cables in order to
obtain a surface approximates a thin-shelled dome
Such a structures is capable of carrying a variety of
distributed loading through membrane action (stresses
which are uniformly distributed over the thickness of the
shell)
A shell is capable of resisting loads either through
bending stresses or direct (membrane) stresses
Membrane action is "preferred" by the dome,
as it is much stiffer for this action
Ideally, for a membrane action
to take place in a shell, it must
be thin and its shape should be
similar to that assumed by a flexible
membrane under the same loading
15
Shells: hyperbolic paraboloid
Rectangular area to be covered:
(a) taking a portion of a sphere and
arching it between supports
16
Shells: hyperbolic paraboloid
17
Basis of Structural Design
Course 5
Structural action:
- Cable structures
- Multi-storey structures
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Cable structures
Cables - good resistance in tension, but no strength in
compression
Tent:
a cable structure consisting of a waterproofing membrane
supported by ropes or cables and posts
cables must be maintained in tension by prestressing in order to
avoid large vibrations under wind forces and avoid collapse
1
Cables: roof structures
Cables in a cable-supported roof
must be maintained in tension -
easily achieved if the roof is saddle-
shaped
Example: hyperbolic paraboloid,
with curvatures in opposite senses
in directions at right angles
cables hung in direction BD
a second set of cables placed over
them, parallel to direction AC and put in
to tension
cables from the second set press down
on those from the first one, putting them
into tension as well fully-tensioned
network
2
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges: the earliest method of crossing
large gaps
Early bridges realised from a walkway suspended from
hanging ropes of vines
To walk a lighter bridge of this type at a reasonable pace
requires a particular gliding step, as the more normal
walking step will induce travelling waves that can cause
the traveller to pitch (uncomfortably) up and down or
side-to-side.
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridge realised following the simple design
of early bridges:
cables (catenaries)
light deck
hangers suspending the deck on catenaries
Lack of stability in high winds
Very flexible under concentrated loads, as the form of the
cable will adapt to loading form
3
Suspension bridges
Capilano Suspension Bridge, Canada
Suspension bridges
Improved behaviour under traffic and wind loads:
stiffening trusses at the level of the deck, that distributes
concentrated loads over greater lengths
4
Suspension bridges
The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan: 1991 m span
Suspension bridges
Golden Gate Bridge, California, USA: 1280 m span
5
Suspension bridges
Brooklyn Bridge, USA (the largest from 1883 until 1903):
486 m span
6
Cable-stayed bridges
A cable-stayed bridge consists of one or more piers, with
cables supporting the bridge deck
Basic idea: reduce the span of the beam (deck) several
times compared to the clear span between the piers
Steel cable-stayed bridges are regarded as the most
economical bridge design for spans ranging between 200
and 400 m
Shorter spans: truss or box girder bridges
Larger spans: suspension bridges
Cable-stayed bridges
Reducing the
span of a
beam greatly
improves the
maximum
stress and
deflection
7
Cable-stayed bridges: examples
Rio-Antirio bridge in Greece. Longest span: 560 m.
Total length: 2,880 m.
8
Multi-storey buildings
Why multi-storey buildings?
large urban population
expensive land
9
Multi-storey buildings: masonry
Monadnock building in
Chicago
Built between 1889 and 1891
16 storeys, 60 m high
Tallest masonry building
until today
Walls at the ground floor:
almost 1.80 m thick,
occupying more than one-
fifth of the width of the
building
Wall thickness: rule of
thumb - 0.3m3 of exterior
walls for each square meter
of floor
10
Multi-storey buildings: skeleton frames
Steel skeleton frames
loads carried by a steel frame composed of columns and beams
rigidly connected between them
large clear spaces
11
Load-bearing wall construction
In modern load-bearing wall construction, lateral forces
due to wind are resisted by walls aligned in the direction
of the wind
Such walls are much more effective, because they have a
much larger moment resistance
Transverse walls acts as vertical cantilevers against
lateral forces
In modern construction,
load-bearing walls
are from reinforced
concrete
12
Multi-storey buildings: gravity and lateral loads
Lateral forces on external cladding are transmitted to the
bearing walls
directly, through external cladding
indirectly, via floors
Floors must be stiff and strong in their plane in order to
allow lateral forces acting on gravity frames to be
transmitted to load-bearing walls
Usually floors are realised from cast in place reinforced
concrete to give a monolithic slab over full plan of the
building
F F
Steel structures:
moment-resisting frames
braced frames
13
Multi-storey buildings: types of steel structures
Moment-resisting frames resist lateral
loads through flexural strength of
members
clear spaces, but
large deformations of the structure
large stresses due to bending
Concentrically
V-braced frames
Eccentrically
braced frames
14
Multi-storey buildings: steel structural systems
15
Multi-storey buildings: steel structural systems
Braced frame with central braced span:
inner columns: large axial stresses due to truss action
outer columns: small axial stresses
Outrigger truss: outer columns
are "involved" into the truss-like
action (axial stresses) through
the outrigger truss
16
Multi-storey buildings: steel structural systems
Exterior framed tube:
World Trade Center,
New-York
17
Multi-storey buildings: steel structural systems
Exterior framed tube: World Trade Center, New-York
18
Multi-storey buildings: steel structural systems
Exterior diagonal tube: giant
truss-like behaviour
19
Basis of Structural Design
Course 6
Structural action:
- Foundations
- General remarks on structural action
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Foundations
Most structures invariably rest on the ground
1
Types of foundations
Isolated footing
Top soil layer is removed and a block of
concrete, wider than the one which rests
on it, is placed on the ground
Plan dimensions of the isolated footing
need to be larger than the ones of the
column, in order to have lower stresses
at the foundation-soil interface
Foundation dimensions should be large
enough to allow stresses acting on the
soil to be smaller than the soil strength
Continuous footing: when the
structural member to be supported
by the foundation is a wall, the
footing is realised continuously
below the wall, following the
concept of the isolated footing
Types of foundations
Raft foundation:
When the soil is very poor, larger
area is required for the foundation,
which extends over the full plan
dimension of the building
Raft foundations were developed by
Romans, who built them from
hydraulic concrete several metres
deep
Modern raft foundations are much
thinner, as they area realised from
reinforced concrete
Raft foundations can be
constructed as a series of boxes,
with the walls in the basement
contributing to the strength of the
foundation and enabling thinner
slab
2
Types of foundations
Isolated and continuous footings, and raft foundations
are shallow foundations:
placed relatively close to the surface of the ground
loads are transferred from the building to the soil by providing
large enough area of the foundation in order to reduce stresses
below the ones allowed by the strength of the soil
Types of foundations
Pile foundations:
Soil properties get better as the depth
increases. When the soil near the surface is
very poor, pile foundations can be used.
Pile foundations are made of tree trunks (in
old times), steel or reinforced concrete (in
modern times)
Loads are transferred to the soil through
shear stresses between the pile shaft and
the soil (major contribution) and
compression stresses at the bottom of the
pile (minor contribution)
Piles are long, enabling them to reach
stronger and stiffer soil layers, or even
solid rock
First pile foundations date back to Neolithic
period, and were made of tree trunks
3
Types of foundations
Pile foundations:
Without pile foundations, cities like Venice
and Amsterdam, located due to strategic
and economic reasons on marshes could
not have been developed at all
Wooden piles were usually of oak or, in the
sea, of greenheart from Central America,
which is particularly resistant to marine
borers
Pile foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground (wooden, steel
and precast concrete) or drilling a shaft and
filling it with concrete
Piles are deep foundations, in which
loads are transferred to the soil by
reaching deeper and stronger soil
layers.
Types of foundations
Cofferdam foundations
Cofferdam is an enclosure beneath
the water constructed to allow
water to be displaced by air for the
purpose of creating a dry work
environment
Were developed by Romans and
remained mainly unchanged until
the early 19th century
Pneumatic caissons were then
invented, allowing underwater
foundations to be excavated,
keeping the water out by air
pressure. Difficult and expensive
to operate.
4
Failure of foundations
Complete failures of foundations are rare, though they
may happen
Example: Transcona grain silo, Winipeg , Canada. In October
1913, this grain silo started to tip over. It was loaded with over a
million bushels of wheat and was newly built. It continued to sink
slowly for over 12 hours until finally it was at an angle of 30
degrees from vertical but still intact. The wheat was emptied from
the bins, and work began to right it. By tunelling underneath it,
they built new foundations down to the bedrock and then pushed
it back into position. It is still in use today
Failure of foundations
Complete failure of foundations are rare, though they may
happen
Example: Tilting of apartment buildings at Kawagishi-Cho,
Niigata, produced by liquefaction of the soil during the 1964
Niigata Earthquake
5
Foundation soil behaviour
The biggest problem of foundations is soil settlement,
especially the differential settlement, of various parts of a
structure, leading to cracking and distortion of the
superstructure
Soil can vary greatly in composition from one point to
another, even under the same structure
Soil properties are greatly affected by ground water
Soil consists of a mass of solid particles (soil skeleton) of
sand and/or clay, more or less loosely packed, and the
spaces between them filled with water
In an undisturbed soil the weight of the earth above is
carried by solid particles, and the water in pores is at
normal pressure of water at that level below the water
table
6
Foundation soil behaviour
Problems due to settlement can arise when:
Soil property changes at different points under the same structure
When construction of the building proceeds fast (as is the case in
modern times)
When an additional heavy load (e.g. a tower in old times) is added
after the bulk of the structure is completed and has settled
Ground water is pumped out. Notorious instances: Venice and
Mexico-city
Example: Venice
Water supply in Venice originally came from mainland
Starting from 1910, this was increasingly supplemented from
boreholes up to 300 m deep
7
General remarks on structural action
[1] Structures support loads in
the most direct way open to
them
bowstring truss: if the top chord
has the right shape for the given
loading, loads pass directly to the
support, ignoring the web
members
a lateral load at the top of a
triangular tower is transmitted
down the two main members while
the inner bars are unstressed
8
General remarks on structural action
Characteristics of a well-designed structure:
elements are few and well-disposed
their function is obvious, and
the whole effect inspires confidence
well conceived structure
ill-conceived structure
larger moments
9
General remarks on structural action
Example: cantilever
bridge
the moment due to dead
weight is largest at the
support
10
General remarks on structural action
[3] Statically indeterminate structures support loads in
the stiffest mode open to them
sometimes simple change in a structure allows loads to be
carried in a more efficient way:
portal frame with a concentrated load at the ridge develops bending
stresses
if a tie is inserted between the two sides of the eaves level. The two
rafters and the tie form a triangulated structure. The loads are
transmitted through compression in the rafters, tension in ties,
compression in beams, with negligible bending.
11
Basis of Structural Design
Course 7
References
ESDEP
http://www.esdep.org/members/master/wg01b/l0100.htm
1
Structures
Civil engineering
structures: how to
design?
Design objectives
Design is "the process of defining the means of
manufacturing a product to satisfy a required need"
conceptual ideas, ideas and studies
study of human intentions, communicated with
detailed technical and drawings, words and
manufacture stages models
2
Design objectives
Re-using an existing design:
not always suitable (e.g. need for larger spans, larger loads,
different function, etc.)
need to improve a deficient design
new materials
boring
Completely new design:
not enough time - new theoretical ideas and innovations
invariably takes much time
potential risks and errors
The middle way:
The solutions will incorporate components from both of
fundamental principles and recent developments
However, throughout the Design Process it is prudent to maintain
a clear grasp of final objectives and utilise relatively simple
technical means and solutions
Design approach
Many design methods exist
Suggested approach:
Recognise that a challenge
exists and clearly define the
overall objectives for a design.
Research around the task and
investigate likely relevant
information (Analysis).
Evolve possible solutions to
the task (Synthesis).
Decide on, and refine, the best
solution (Evaluation),
establishing clear priorities for
action (in terms of
manufacture, construction,
operation and maintenance).
Communicate decisions to
others involved in the task.
3
Design process
The design process is
highly complex, as all
factors in the design
are interdependent to
a greater or lesser
degree
All factors and
combinations must be
explored
comprehensively from
idea to detail, with
many compromises
having to be finely
balanced to achieve a
feasible solution
4
Development of a structural system: garage
[1] Pose an initial concept that may well satisfy the
functions
start by looking at the functions (performance) required and their
relationships
generate a 'bubble' (or flow) diagram of relationships between
different functional areas to decide possible interconnections and
locations
find suitable plan areas and minimum clear heights of each three-
dimensional 'volume of space'
a possible plan layout may then
be indicated, noting any
particular complications of the
site, e.g. plan shape, proximity
of old buildings, slope or
soil consistency
many other plan arrangements
will be possible and should be
considered quickly at this phase
5
Development of a structural system: garage
[1] Pose an initial concept that may well satisfy the
functions
The main criteria
can easily be
recognised and
then followed up
and tested by
numerical
assessment.
Incompatibilities
may be 'designed
out' by re-
arranging the
planned spaces or
making other
compromises.
6
Development of a structural system: garage
[1] Pose an initial concept that may well satisfy the
functions
Hypothesis: choose steel 'frame' system
Elucidate and test your ideas by making quick 3D
sketches, or simple physical models, to explore
the likely compatibility and aesthetic impact
A range of patterns viewed at different distances
from, all around, and inside the buildings must
be developed
Long range - the skyline silhouette or "landscape"
pattern
Middle distance - when the whole built object can
be seen
Close up - when a detail is clearly seen
Very close - when the texture of the materials can
be seen
7
Development of a structural system: garage
[2] Recognise the main structural systems and estimate
the necessary strength and stiffness
Consider the applied live loads from roofs, floors or walls, and
trace the 'load paths' through the integral 3D array of elements to
the foundations
Profiled steel decking
roof: the rainwater should
run to the sides
Manufacturers' data table
will indicate both the
slope angle to be
provided (4- 6
minimum) and the
secondary beam (purlin)
spacing required.
8
Development of a structural system: garage
[2] Recognise the main structural systems and estimate
the necessary strength and stiffness
Consider the applied live loads from roofs, floors or walls, and
trace the 'load paths' through the integral 3D array of elements to
the foundations
The columns could resist
overturning by:
cross-bracing (in this case
the large entry door would
be impeded).
rigidly fixing the columns
to the foundation bases;
can the soil resist the extra
overturning effect at the
base?
or rigidly fixing the tops of
the columns to the main
beams (creating 'portals')
and giving smaller, cheaper
"pin" base foundations.
9
Development of a structural system: garage
[2] Recognise the main structural systems and estimate
the necessary strength and stiffness
Consider the applied live loads from roofs, floors or walls, and
trace the 'load paths' through the integral 3D array of elements to
the foundations
Roof bracings may be
required to transfer the
horizontal longitudinal
forces due to wind and
earthquake to the top of
the columns along
longitudinal walls
These forces need to
reach the foundation
vertical braces along the
longitudinal walls
10
Development of a structural system: garage
[3] Assess loads accurately and estimate sizes of main
elements
Evaluate loads
Estimate action effects (forces and bending moments in structural
members)
Estimate beam sizes (checking bending strength
and stiffness). Structure/service duct or
pipe integration may require beams to
be as shallow as possible, or
deeper and with holes in the web.
Likely jointing methods must
be considered carefully: is
the beam to be simply
supported or fully continuous
and what are the fabrication,
erection and cost implications?
Structural calculations are now being performed and the time
involved is more significant. Timescale: minutes/hours.
11
Development of a structural system: garage
[5] Communicate Design Intentions through Drawings
and Specifications
The structural design is now being finalised.
Timescale: days/weeks.
12
Development of a structural system: garage
[7] Conduct Regular Maintenance
This is the operation phase. Timescale: years/decades
13
Basis of Structural Design
Course 8
Design codes:
- Structural Eurocodes
- Current Romanian codes
Course notes are available for download at
http://www.ct.upt.ro/users/AurelStratan/
Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved ancient law
code, created about 1760 BC in ancient Babylon.
It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi.
Only one example of the Code survives today, inscribed
on a basalt stone stele. Originally, several stelae would
have been displayed in temples around the empire.
The text has been broken down by translators into 282
laws, but this division is arbitrary, since the original text
contains no divisional markers
1
Code of Hammurabi (excerpt)
...
228. If a builder build a house for a man and complete it, (that man)
shall give him two shekels of silver per SAR of house as his wage.
229. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its
construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and
cause the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to
death.
230. If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house, they
shall put to death a son of that builder.
231. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house, he
shall give to the owner of the house a slave of equal value.
232. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed,
and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it
collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed at his own
expense.
233. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its
construction meet the requirements and a wall fall in, that builder
shall strengthen that wall at his own expense.
Building codes
Many of the restrictions encountered in building design
are imposed by legal regulations
The most important ones for structural engineers are
building codes, which represent a set of regulations
regarding:
principles of structural design
guidance in evaluation of loads on structures
specific design provisions for different type of structures (steel
structures, reinforced concrete structures, foundations, etc.) and
building components (electrical system, HVAC, plumbing, etc.)
In general, building-code requirements are the minimum
needed for public protection.
Often, however, architects and engineers must design
more conservatively, to meet the clients needs, produce
a more efficient building system, or take into account
conditions not covered fully by code provisions.
2
Forms of building codes
Codes can often be classified as specifications type or
performance type
Specifications type codes:
names specific materials for specific uses and specifies minimum
or maximum dimensions,
for example, "a brick wall may not be less than 40 cm thick".
Performance type codes:
Specifies required performance of a construction but leaves
materials, methods, and dimensions for the designers to choose.
Performance-type codes are generally preferred, because they
give designers greater design freedom in meeting clients needs,
while satisfying the intent of the code.
Most codes are rather a mixture of specifications and
performance type. The reason for this is that insufficient
information is currently available for preparation of an
entire enforceable performance code.
3
What are the Eurocodes?
The Eurocodes are a set of European Standards (EN) for
the design of buildings and other civil engineering works
and construction products
The Eurocodes are produced by the Comit Europen de
Normalisation (CEN).
The Eurocodes embody National experience and research
output together with the expertise of CEN Technical
Committee 250 (CEN/TC250) and of International
Technical and Scientific Organisations and represent a
"world-class standard for structural design".
Publication of the Eurocodes was completed in 2007.
Following CEN rules, the Eurocodes can be used in
parallel with National Standards until 2010, when all
conflicting National Standards should be withdrawn.
4
The Eurocodes suite
The Eurocodes suite is made up by 10 European Standards
for structural design
EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design
EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and
concrete structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures
EN 1991
Actions on structures
EN 1997 EN 1998
Geotechnical design Seismic design
5
EN Eurocode Parts and Packages
Each of the codes (except EN 1990) is divided into a
number of Parts covering specific aspects of the subject
In total there are 58 EN Eurocode parts distributed in the
ten Eurocodes (EN 1990 1999)
All of the EN Eurocodes relating to materials have a Part
1-1 which covers the design of buildings and other civil
engineering structures and a Part 1-2 for fire design
6
EN 1990: Basis of structural design
EN 1990 is applicable for the design of
structures where other materials or other
actions outside the scope of EN 1991 to EN
1999 are involved.
EN 1990 is applicable for the structural
appraisal of existing construction, in
developing the design of repairs and
alterations or in assessing change of use.
EN 1990 may be used, when relevant, as a
guidance document for the design of
structures outside the scope of the
Eurocodes EN 1991 to EN 1999, for:
assessing other actions and their combinations;
modelling material and structural behaviour;
assessing numerical values of the reliability
format.
7
EN 1991: Actions on structures
EN 1991-1-1:2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions -
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
EN 1991-1-2:2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-2: General actions -
Actions on structures exposed to fire
EN 1991-1-3:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-3: General actions -
Snow loads
EN 1991-1-4:2005 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4: General actions -
Wind actions
EN 1991-1-5:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-5: General actions -
Thermal actions
EN 1991-1-6:2005 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-6: General actions -
Actions during execution
EN 1991-1-7:2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-7: General actions -
Accidental actions
EN 1991-2:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 2: Traffic loads on
bridges
EN 1991-3:2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 3: Actions induced by
cranes and machinery
EN 1991-4: 2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 4: Silos and tanks
8
EN 1992: Design of concrete structures
9
EN 1993: Design of steel structures
EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-2:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-2:
General rules - Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-3:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-3:
General rules - Supplementary rules for cold-formed
members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-4:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-4:
General rules - Supplementary rules for stainless
steels
EN 1993-1-5:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-5:
General rules - Plated structural elements
EN 1993-1-6:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-6:
Strength and stability of shell structures
EN 1993-1-7:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-7:
Strength and stability of planar plated structures
subject to out of plane loading
EN 1993-1-8:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-8:
Design of joints
EN 1993-1-9:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-9:
Fatigue
10
EN 1994: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures
EN 1994 (Eurocode 4) applies to the design of
composite structures and members for
buildings and other civil engineering works
11
EN 1995: Design of timber structures
EN 1995 (Eurocode 5) applies to the design of
buildings and other civil engineering works in
timber (solid timber, sawn, planed or in pole
form, glued laminated timber or wood-based
structural products) or wood-based panels
jointed together with adhesives or
mechanical fasteners
12
EN 1997: Geotechnical design
EN 1997 (Eurocode 7) applies to the
geotechnical aspects of the design of
buildings and other civil engineering
works
Numerical values of actions on buildings
and other civil engineering works to be
taken into account in design are provided
in EN 1991 for the various types of
construction, whereas actions imposed by
the ground, such as earth pressures and
by ground water, shall be calculated
according to the rules of EN 1997.
EN 1997-1:2004 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 1:
General rules
EN 1997-2:2007 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 2:
Ground investigation and testing
13
EN 1998: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
The extent of the protection that can be
provided to different categories of buildings,
which is only measurable in probabilistic
terms, is a matter of optimal allocation of
resources and is therefore expected to vary
from country to country, depending on the
relative importance of the seismic risk with
respect to risks of other origin and on the
global economic resources.
Special structures, such as nuclear power
plants, offshore structures and large dams,
are beyond the scope of EN 1998.
14
EN 1999: Design of aluminium structures
EN 1999 Eurocode 9 applies to the design of
buildings and other civil engineering and
structural works in aluminium.
EN 1999 is concerned with requirements for
resistance, serviceability, durability and fire
resistance of aluminium structures.
15
EU legislation for construction works and products
The Eurocodes provide common design methods,
expressed in a set of European standards, which are
intended to be used as reference documents for Member
States to:
prove the compliance of building and civil engineering works or
parts thereof with Essential Requirement n1 Mechanical
resistance and stability (including such aspects of Essential
Requirement n4 Safety in use, which relate to mechanical
resistance and stability) and a part of Essential Requirement n2
Safety in case of fire, including durability
express in technical terms , these Essential Requirements
applicable to the works and parts thereof;
determine the performance of structural components and kits
with regard to mechanical resistance and stability and resistance
to fire, insofar as it is part of the information accompanying CE
marking
16
Implementation of the Eurocodes
The implementation of an EN Eurocode Part has three
phases:
Translation period (max 1 year). The National Standards Bodies
may start the translation of a Eurocode Part in authorised national
languages at the latest at the Date of Availability.
17
Implementation of the Eurocodes
Coexistence period. During the coexistence period, which starts
at the end of the National Calibration period, the Eurocode Part
can be used, just as the presently existing national system can
also be used. The coexistence period of a Eurocode Package will
last up to a maximum time of three years after the national
publication of the last Part of a Package. Member States shall
make sure that all the Parts of the related Package can be used
without ambiguity on their territory by adapting their National
Provisions as necessary.
18
National Standards
The National Standard transposing the EN Eurocode Part,
when published by a National Standards Body, will be
composed of the EN Eurocode text preceded by the
National Title page and by the National Foreword and
generally followed by the National Annex
The National Standards Bodies should normally publish
the National Annex, on behalf of and with the agreement
of the competent National Authorities
19
National Standards: NDPs
Eurocodes "recognise the responsibility of regulatory
authorities in each Member State and have safeguarded
their right to determine values related to safety matters at
national level where these continue to vary from State to
State".
National choice is provided by the Eurocodes with sets of
recommended values, classes, symbols and alternative
methods to be used as NDPs.
The NDPs account for possible differences in
geographical or climatic conditions, or in ways of life, as
well as different levels of protection that may prevail at
national, regional or local level.
When the Eurocodes are used for the design of
construction works, or parts thereof, the NDPs of the
Member State on whose territory the works are located
shall be applied.
20
Some of the current Romanian codes
CR 0-2012: Cod de proiectare. Bazele proiectrii
construciilor
CR 1-1-3/2012: Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea aciunii
zpezii asupra construciilor
CR 1-1-4/2012: Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea aciunii
vntului asupra construciilor
P 100-1/2013: Cod de proiectare seismic Partea I
Prevederi de proiectare pentru cldiri
21
Basis of Structural Design
Course 9
Actions on structures:
permanent loads, imposed loads and snow loads
1
EN 1990: Classification of loads
Permanent action is one that is likely to act throughout a
given reference period and for which the variation in
magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the
variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until
the action attains a certain limit value
2
EN 1990: Classification of loads
A fixed action is one that has a fixed distribution and
position over the structure or structural member such
that the magnitude and direction of the action are
determined unambiguously for the whole structure or
structural member if this magnitude and direction are
determined at one point on the structure or structural
member
A free action is one that may have various spatial
distributions over the structure
An action should be described by a model, its magnitude
being represented in the most common cases by one
scalar
NOTE: For some actions and some verifications, a more
complex representation of the magnitudes of some
actions may be necessary.
3
Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
Normative references: EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-
weight, imposed loads for buildings
The total self-weight of structural and non-structural
members should be taken into account in combinations
of actions as a single action.
The self-weight of new coatings and/or distribution
conduits that are intended to be added after execution
should be taken into account in design situations.
The source and moisture content of bulk materials should
be considered in design situations of buildings used for
storage purposes.
4
Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
roofing;
hand rails,
safety barriers,
parapets and kerbs;
5
Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
wall cladding;
suspended ceilings;
fixed services
Fixed services include:
equipments for lifts and moving
stairways;
heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) equipment;
electrical equipment;
pipes without their contents;
cable trunking and conduits.
6
Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
Characteristic values of self-weight are determined using
nominal dimensions (from architectural plans and details) and
characteristic values of densities (obtained from Annex A to
EN 1991-1-1 or manufacturer)
7
Self-weight: example
CARPET FLOOR
RAISED FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
Specific
Thickness, Weight,
weight,
mm kN/m2
kN/m3
CARPET FLOOR ON RAISED
0.40
FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR 30 21.0 0.63
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB 150 25.0 3.75
TOTAL 4.78
8
Imposed loads on buildings - EN 1991-1-1
Heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology
rooms, boiler rooms etc) are not included in the loads
given in EN 1991-1-1. Loads for heavy equipment should
be agreed between the client and/or the relevant
Authority.
Generally, imposed loads are considered as uniformly
distributed. To ensure a minimum local resistance of the
floor structure a separate verification shall be performed
with a concentrated load. The concentrated load shall be
considered to act at any point on the floor (over an area
with a shape which is appropriate to the use and form of
the floor)
qk Qk
9
Imposed loads on buildings: load values
Characteristic values qk for uniformly distributed load
and Qk for concentrated load are assigned to each
category. Recommended values are underlined.
10
Imposed loads on buildings
Where necessary qk and Qk should be increased in the
design (e.g. for stairs and balconies depending on the
occupancy and on dimensions). Where no value is
specified in the code, informatively, the loads on stairs
and balconies can be increased by 1.0 kN/m2.
11
Imposed loads on buildings
Imposed loads are free actions:
the most unfavourable spatial distribution shall be considered
in practice, several "chessboard" distributions are considered in
addition to the uniform distribution
12
Snow load: normative references
Normative references
EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 - Actions on structures -
Part 1-3: General actions - Snow loads
CR 1-1-3/2012: Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea aciunii zpezii
asupra construciilor
EN 1991-1-3 and CR 1-1-3-2012 give guidance to
determine the values of loads due to snow to be used for
the structural design of buildings and civil engineering
works
13
Snow load: classification and characteristics
Generally, for the purpose of applying EN 1990, snow
loads are classified as variable, fixed, and static actions.
Snow load may be treated as accidental in two cases:
In particular situation of a snow fall which has an exceptionally
infrequent likelihood of occurring
In particular situation of a snow deposition pattern which has an
exceptionally infrequent likelihood of occurring
14
Snow load on the ground
15
Snow load
Two primary load
arrangements should be
considered when modelling
snow action:
undrifted snow load on the roof:
load arrangement which describes undrifted
the uniformly distributed snow snow
load on the roof, affected only by
the shape of the roof, before any drifted
redistribution of snow due to snow
other climatic actions.
drifted snow load on the roof: load
arrangement which describes the
snow load distribution resulting
from snow having been moved
from one location to another
location on a roof, e.g. by the
action of the wind.
16
Snow load: code procedure
s = Is i Ce Ct sk
Is is the importance exposure factor for snow load
17
Snow load: code procedure
s = Is i Ce Ct sk
18
Snow load: code procedure
s = Is i Ce Ct sk
i is the snow load shape coefficient,
depending on the shape of the roof
Roof shape coefficients are available for
undrifted and drifted snow
Example: monopitch roofs
Values for roof shape coefficients apply
when the snow is not prevented from sliding
off the roof.
Where snow fences or other obstructions
exist or where the lower edge of the roof is
terminated with a parapet, then the snow
load shape coefficient should not be reduced
below 0.8
19
Snow load: code procedure
Example: multi-span roofs
case (i): undrifted snow
case (ii): drifted snow
Cylindrical roofs
20
Snow load: code procedure
Roof shape coefficients are also specified for local
effects:
drifting at projections and obstructions;
the edge of the roof;
snow fences
Drifting at projections and obstructions:
in windy conditions drifting of snow can occur on any roof which
has obstructions as these cause areas of aerodynamic shade in
which snow accumulates
accumulation of snow due to
parapets at roof edges can
be modeled using this procedure
21
Basis of Structural Design
Course 10
Actions on structures:
Wind loads
Other loads
1
Nature of wind loading
Wind represents masses of air moving mainly
horizontally (parallel to the ground) from areas of high
pressure to ones of low pressure
Wind generates pressures on external (and also internal)
surfaces of structures
The main effect of wind is a horizontal loading of
buildings (especially high-rise)
The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response
of the structure), depends on the size, shape and
dynamic properties of the structure.
2
Reference wind pressure
Reference wind pressure qb is the wind pressure
corresponding to the reference value of the wind velocity
vb
1
qb vb2
2
where:
is the air density, which depends on altitude,
temperature, latitude and season. The recommended
value for design is 1.25 kg/m3
For design purposes, reference wind pressure are
obtained from maps and tables given in codes (CR 1-1-4 /
2012).
3
Mean wind velocity: gradient height
The mean wind velocity at great
heights above the ground is
constant and it is called the
gradient wind speed.
Near the ground the mean wind
velocity is decreasing much due to
frictional forces caused by the
terrain, being equal with zero at the
ground level.
There is a boundary layer within
which the wind speed varies from
zero to the gradient wind speed
(mean wind velocity increases with
height).
4
Mean wind velocity: terrain categories
5
Mean wind velocity: terrain categories
Terrain roughness is described aerodynamically by the
roughness length, z0, expressed in meters. It represents a
measure of the dimensions of eddies of turbulent wind at
the ground surface.
vm z cr z vb
z
kr z0 ln for zmin z zmax
cr z z0
c zz z zmin
r min
where:
cr(z) is a roughness factor
z - height above ground
z0 roughness length
6
Mean wind velocity: variation with height
The terrain factor kr(z0) is given by the relationship:
0,07
z
kr z0 0,189 0
0, 05
7
Wind turbulence
Wind velocity varies with time as shown in the figure
below. This variation with respect to the mean wind
velocity is called turbulence and is generated by the
eddies caused by the wind blowing over obstacles
Wind turbulence
The turbulence intensity I(z) at height z is defined as the
standard deviation of the turbulence divided by the mean
wind velocity.
v
Iv z
vm z
The turbulence intensity I(z) at height z can be expressed
as:
for zmin z zmax 200m
z
I v z 2.5ln
z0
for z zmin
I v z zmin
8
Wind turbulence
Wind turbulence decreases with height above ground
9
Wind turbulence: gust factor
10
Wind pressure at height z
Effect of topography
ce z co2 cr2 z c pq z
11
Wind pressure at height z
ce z co2 cr2 z c pq z
12
Wind effects on structures
Wind effects on structures can be classified as follows:
static or quasistatic response
turbulence induced vibrations
vortex induced vibrations
galloping
flutter
response due to interference of nearby structures
13
Wind pressure on surfaces
Wind pressure w(z) on rigid exterior and interior surfaces
of the structure at height z above ground are obtained as:
we Iw c pe q p ze wi Iw c pi q p zi
where:
Iw the importance factor
qp(ze) peak wind pressure at level ze
ze reference height for external pressure.
cp aerodynamic pressure coefficient (cpe for exterior
surfaces; cpi for internal surfaces)
Pressures are considered positive (+)
Suction is considered negative (-)
The total pressure on a structural element is obtained as
the algebraic sum of pressures on one side and suction
on the other side
14
Aerodynamic pressure coefficients
Aerodynamic pressure coefficients depend on:
geometry of the structure/element
size of the structure/element
terrain roughness
wind direction with respect to the structure
Reynolds number
etc.
15
Press. coeff.: vertical walls of rect. plan buildings
The reference heights, ze, for rectangular plan buildings
depend on the aspect ratio h/b and are always the upper
heights of the different parts of the walls
Reference heights are used to compute the exposure
factor ce(z)
Three cases:
A building, whose height h is less than b should be considered to
be one part.
16
Press. coeff.: vertical walls of rect. plan buildings
A building, whose height h is greater than 2b may be considered
to be in multiple parts, comprising: a lower part extending
upwards from the ground by a height equal to b; an upper part
extending downwards from the top by a height equal to b and a
middle region, between the upper and lower parts, which may be
divided into horizontal strips with a height hstrip (max hstrip = b)
17
Press. coeff.: vertical walls of rect. plan buildings
Depending on geometry and position with respect to wind
direction, different regions of vertical walls are assigned
different names, with corresponding values of pressure
coefficients cp
Pressure coefficients
Similar procedure are specified in the code for roofs of
buildings (of different geometry), canopies, isolated
vertical walls, fences etc.
18
Wind forces method
For structures like signboards, lattice structures and
scaffoldings, flags, etc. wind actions is modelled as a
resultant force
Fw Iw cd c f q p ze Aref
where:
Iw the importance factor
qp(ze) peak wind pressure at level ze
ze reference height for external pressure.
cf - wind force coefficient
cd - dynamic response coefficient
Aref - reference area perpendicular on wind direction
19
Other loads: traffic loads on bridges
Railway bridge design must take account of static loading and
forces associated with the movement of vehicles.
As for highway bridges, two models of loading are specified for
consideration as separate load cases. They represent ordinary
traffic on mainline railways and, where appropriate, abnormal
heavy loads. They are expressed as static loads due to stationary
vehicles and are factored to allow for dynamic effects associated
with train speeds up to 300km/h.
Eurocode 1 also gives guidance on the distribution of loads and
their effects and specifies horizontal forces due to vehicle motion.
Centrifugal forces associated with the movement around curves,
lateral forces due to oscillation of vehicles (nosing) and
longitudinal forces due to traction and braking are included.
Other aspects of bridge loading which need to be considered
include accidental loads and the possibility of premature failure
due to fatigue under traffic loading.
20
Other loads: wave loading
For offshore structures in deep waters, wave loads can be
particularly severe. The loads arise due to movement of water
associated with wave action. These movements can be described
mathematically to relate forces to physical wave characteristics
such as height and wavelength.
The treatment is therefore
similar to wind loads in
that these physical
characteristics are
predicted and
corresponding forces on
the particular structural
arrangement then
calculated. These
calculation procedures
are, however, very
complicated and must
realistically be performed
on a computer.
21
Other loads: retained material
Structures for retaining and containing material (granular
or liquid) will be subject to a lateral pressure.
For liquids it is simply the hydrostatic pressure. For
granular material a similar approach can be adopted, but
with a reduction in pressure depending on the ability of
the material to maintain a stable slope - this is the
Rankine approach.
Ponding of water on
flat roofs should be
avoided by ensuring
adequate falls
(1:60 or more) to gutters.
22
Other loads: accidental loads
Accidental actions may occur as a result of accidental
situations. The situations include fire, impact or
explosion. It is very difficult to quantify these effects.
In many cases it may be preferable to avoid the problem,
for instance by providing crash barriers to avoid collision
from vehicles or roof vents to dissipate pressures from
explosions.
Where structures such as crash barriers for vehicles and
crowds must be designed for 'impact' the loading is
treated as an equivalent static load.
23
Basis of Structural Design
Course 11
EN 1990:
Design requirements
The limit state method
1
Design requirements
A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way
that, during its intended life, with appropriate degrees of
reliability and in an economical way it will have adequate:
structural resistance [strength] (the structure should be safe for
people and contents, sustaining all actions and influences likely
to occur during execution and use)
serviceability (remain fit for the use for which it is required - the
deformations, deflections and vibrations should not be too large)
durability (a structure should continue to resist environmental
influences and be usable after an extended period of time and
usage)
fire resistance (in the case of fire, the structural resistance shall
be adequate for the required period of time)
robustness (a structure should not be damaged by events such
as explosion, impact, and the consequences of human errors, to
an extent disproportionate to the original cause)
2
Design requirements in the case of fire
Effect of fire on structures:
reduce the strength and stiffness of
materials due to temperature
impose large deformations
3
Design requirements: robustness
A structure shall be
designed and executed
in such a way that it will
not be damaged by
events such as:
explosion, impact, and
the consequences of
human errors, to an
extent disproportionate
to the original cause
4
Design requirements: reliability
Reliability is the ability of a structure
or a structural member to fulfill
the specified requirements, during
the design working life, for which it
has been designed.
Reliability is usually expressed in
probabilistic terms.
In a narrow sense, reliability is the probability that the
structure will not exceed specified limit states (strength
or serviceability requirements) during a specified
reference period.
The reliability required for structures by EN 1990 should
be achieved:
by design in accordance with EN 1990 to EN 1999 and by
appropriate execution and quality management measures
5
Design requirements: the design working life
The present state of knowledge is insufficient to enable
precise prediction of the life of a structure. The behaviour
of materials and structures over extended periods of time
can only be estimated. The likely period of maintenance
of the structure or time of replacement of various
components of a structure can, however, be determined.
The notion of design working life is useful for:
the selection of design actions (snow, wind, etc.) and the
consideration of material property deterioration (corrosion,
fatigue or creep)
estimation of life-cycle cost to evaluate relative economics of
different solutions (comparison of different design solutions and
choice of materials, with different initial and maintenance costs)
developing management procedures and strategies for
systematic maintenance and renovation of structures
6
Design requirements: durability
Initially, upon building completion,
building performance remain constant for a period of time (e.g.
steel structures), or
building performance can increase with time (e.g. concrete
structures in which concrete strength grows)
7
Principles of limit states design: general
Limit states: states beyond which the structure no longer
fulfils the relevant design criteria. In other words, limit
states are idealisations of undesirable events or
phenomena. Each limit state is associated with a certain
performance requirement imposed on a structure.
Two categories of limit states need to be considered:
Ultimate limit states (ULS)
Serviceability limit states (SLS)
8
Principles of limit states design: general
According the traditional concept
of limit states, a structure is
assumed to be fully satisfactory
up to a certain value of load effect
E0, and beyond this point the
structure is assumed to be fully
unsatisfactory.
It may be difficult to define
precisely a distinct value E0,
separating the desirable and
undesirable structural conditions.
In these cases, a gradual loss of
the ability of the structure to
perform adequately provides a
more realistic concept.
9
Principles of limit states design: general
The difference between the ULS and SLS result in
separate formulation of reliability conditions, and
different levels of reliability assumed in the verification of
both limit states.
In some cases verification of one limit state may be
omitted if sufficient information is available to ensure that
the requirements of one limit state are met by satisfying
the other limit state. For example, in the case of
reinforced concrete beams satisfying the ULS condition,
the verification of deflection can be omitted provided the
span/depth ratio is less than 18 for highly stressed
concrete or less than 25 for lightly stressed concrete.
10
Principles of limit states design: design situations
Design situations: sets of physical conditions
representing the real conditions occurring during a
certain time interval for which the design will
demonstrate that relevant limit states are not exceeded:
Persistent design situations
Transient design situations
Accidental design situations
Seismic design situations
11
Principles of limit states design: design situations
Accidental design situations,
which refer to exceptional
conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g.
to fire, explosion, impact or the
consequences of localised
failure.
12
Principles of limit states design: ULS
The limit states that concern the safety of people, and/or
the safety of the structure are classified as ultimate limit
states. In some circumstances, the limit states that
concern the protection of the contents are classified as
ultimate limit states (examples: chemicals, nuclear
materials or masterpieces in a museum).
Generally, the first occurrence FORCE
DISP.
of a ULS is equivalent to failure.
In some cases (e.g. when
excessive deformations
FORCE
STATE PRIOR
are decisive) due to the difficulty TO COLLAPSE
collapse of a structure or a
structural element, ultimate limit
states can be defined for DISPLACEMENT
simplicity as states prior to collapse.
13
Principles of limit states design: SLS
Serviceability limit states
concern:
the functioning of the
structure or structural
members under normal use,
the comfort of people,
the appearance of the
construction works.
14
Principles of limit states design: SLS
Irreversible serviceability limit states:
remain permanently exceeded even when the loads that caused
infringement are removed
examples: permanent local damage or unacceptable deformations
the first infringement of the limit state is decisive
the design criteria are similar to those of ultimate limit states
15
Principles of limit states design
The design procedure using the limit state method
consists in setting up structural and load models for the
relevant ultimate and serviceability limit states which are
considered in various design situations and load cases.
The aim of the limit state design is to verify that no limit
state is exceeded when relevant design values for
actions, for materials or products, and for geometrical
properties are used in appropriate structural and load
models.
The verification of structural reliability is done using
the method of partial factors, or
as an alternative, using probabilistic methods (applied to unusual
structures, line nuclear power stations).
16
Principles of limit states design: structural model
pinned rigid
connection connection
17
Basis of Structural Design
Course 12
EN 1990:
Basic variables
The partial factor method
1
Variability of loads
Loads change in time.
What loads to design a structure for?
Most loads are determined today based on
measurements taken over time
Example: maximum
wind speed measured
over 5-min periods in
each month between
1884 and 1950 in New
York at a height
of 140 m.
Histogram
Theoretical distribution
Fractiles
A p-fractile is defined as the x-value of the distribution
which includes p*N observations, with 0<p<1 and N being
the number of observations.
Example : the 0.1-fractile of the distribution shown below
is 14.6, as it includes 10% of all observations (starting
from the left)
2
Variability of loads
Loads are probabilistic variables (not deterministic)
Basic value of a load can be defined in probabilistic terms
only, e.g. "for annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02,
which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years".
A larger or smaller
probability of the loads
being exceeded can
be considered in design
(corresponding to
smaller or larger
mean return periods)
Variability of loads
The engineer can never be absolutely sure that the loads
he designs his structure for will not be exceeded in its
lifetime.
3
Actions and environmental influences: classification
The aim of the classifications is to identify the similar or
dissimilar characteristics of various actions and to enable
the use of appropriate theoretical action models and
reliability elements in structural design.
Actions are classified by their variation in time as follows:
permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed
equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by
shrinkage and uneven settlements;
variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams
and roofs, wind actions or snow loads;
accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, or impact from vehicles.
Actions can also be classified
by their origin, as direct or indirect,
by their spatial variation, as fixed or free, or
by their nature and/or the structural response, as static or
dynamic.
4
Permanent actions: characteristic values
Usually there is sufficient
statistical data for permanent
actions, in particular for self-
weight of traditional structural
materials
If the variability of a permanent
action is small, a single
the self weight of a bridge
characteristic value can be deck has a small
considered: the mean value (G) variability because the
If the variability of a permanent execution of the bridge is
action cannot be considered as strictly controlled by
competent personnel
small, two values are used: an
the self-weight of items
upper value Gk,sup (representing such as vehicle parapets,
0.95 fractile) and a lower value waterproofing, coatings,
Gk,inf (representing 0.05 fractile) railway ballast, etc., has a
large variability
5
Variable actions: reference period
Variable action versus time
The reference period (e.g. 1 year)
6
Variable actions: characteristic values
In general, the characteristic value of environmental
loads and imposed loads on building floors for persistent
design situations is based on an intended probability of
the value not being exceeded of 0.98, and a reference
period of 1 year.
The probability p of the characteristic value being
exceeded and the reference period are linked by the
equation:
T
ln 1 p p
where T is the return period (expected period between
two subsequent occurrences of the characteristic value).
Example: for a probability of the characteristic value
being exceeded p=0.02 and a reference period of 1 year,
the return period of the characteristic value is
T1/0.02=50 years
7
Other representative values of variable actions
8
Variability of material properties
The strength of a structure cannot be predicted with
absolute confidence
Structural materials, whether natural or man-made, vary
in quality and strength
Example: result of
compression test on
303 cubes of concrete
of supposedly the same
strength, made during
a certain period of
construction.
9
Material and product properties
Basic properties of a material or product:
STRESS
strength: mechanical property of a DUCTILITY
10
Geometrical data
Geometrical variables describe the shape, size and
overall arrangement of structures, structural members
and cross-sections.
No structure can be erected without some deviations of
form, shape and dimension from the ones assumed in
design
Example: steel sections are rolled under
very careful control, but some variation
in thickness and depth cannot be avoided.
Concrete formwork may be slightly out in dimensions.
Load-bearing walls in a multi-storey building may be out
of alignment one above the other.
11
Structural analysis
Generally, any structural model should be regarded as an
idealization of the structural system.
A simplified model should take account of significant
factors and neglect the less important ones.
The following is a list of factors that may be important for
the structural model:
geometric properties (e.g. structural configuration, spans, cross-
sectional dimensions, deviations, imperfections)
material properties (e.g. strength, constitutive relations, time and
stress state dependence, plasticity, temperature and moisture
dependence)
actions (e.g. direct or indirect, variation in time, spatial variation,
and static or dynamic)
The appropriate structural model should be chosen
based on previous experience and knowledge of
structural behaviour.
12
Verification by the partial factor method: general
Actions that cannot occur simultaneously due to physical
reasons, should not be considered together in
combination
Example: snow and live loads need not be considered
simultaneously on the terrace of a multistorey building,
because they cannot act simultaneously with their
extreme values (just the maintenance personnel will be
on the roof in the event of a heavy snow).
Action effects (E) represent the response of the structure
to actions applied on it. Examples:
action effects on structural members: internal force, moment,
stress, strain
action effects on the whole structure: deflection, rotation
13
The partial factor method: design values
For a specific load case the design values of the effects
of actions (Ed) can be expressed in general terms as:
Ed = Sd E {f,i Frep,i ; ad} i1
where:
ad is the design values of the geometrical data;
Sd is a partial factor taking account of uncertainties:
- in modelling the effects of actions;
- in some cases, in modelling the actions.
E {f,i Frep,i ; ad} is the effect of action for the design
value of the force Fd and the design geometrical
characteristics ad
14
The partial factor method: design values
Ed = E {F,i Frep,i ; ad} i1 The design value of the
effect of actions Ed is determined by applying the
representative values of actions Frep,i amplified by the
partial factors F,i on the model of the structure
characterised by the geometry ad.
Example:
F,1 F rep,1 (Gd = F,G Grep)
Design values of permanent ( F,G Grep)
and imposed ( F,Q Qrep) actions F,2 F rep,2 (Qd = F,Q Qrep)
+
Geometrical data ad (beam span L) ad (L)
=
Ed (M Ed)
15
The partial factor method: design values
The design value Xd of a material or product property can
be expressed in general terms as:
Xd = (Xk/m)
where:
Xk is the characteristic value of the material property;
is the mean value of the conversion factor taking into
account
volume and scale effects,
effects of moisture and temperature, and
any other relevant parameters;
m is the partial factor for the material or product property
to take account of:
the possibility of an unfavourable deviation of a material or
product property from its characteristic value;
the random part of the conversion factor .
16
The partial factor method: design values
The design resistance Rd can be expressed in the
following form
where
Rd is a partial factor covering uncertainty in the
resistance model, plus geometric deviations if these are
not modelled explicitly;
Xd,i is the design value of material property i.
17
The partial factor method: design values
For members made of a single material (e.g. steel), the
design resistance may be obtained directly from the
characteristic value of a material or product resistance
Rk, without explicit determination of design values for
individual basic variables, using
18
Basis of Structural Design
Course 13
EN 1990:
The partial factor method (cont.)
1
Ultimate limit states
EQU: Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any
part of it considered as a rigid body, where:
minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of actions
from a single source are significant, and
the strengths of construction materials or ground are generally
not governing;
Example: a bridge deck launched with a counterweight
where loss of static equilibrium may be possible
Mmax
2
Ultimate limit states
GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground
where the strengths of soil or rock are significant in
providing resistance;
Example: resistance of foundations like footings, piles,
etc.
3
Verifications of static equilibrium and resistance
When considering a limit state of rupture or excessive
deformation of a section, member or connection (STR
and/or GEO), it shall be verified that
Ed Rd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as
internal force, moment or a vector representing several
internal forces or moments;
Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance.
4
ULS: Combination of actions
Combinations of actions for persistent or transient
design situations (fundamental combinations)
The general format of effects of actions
where
"+" implies "to be combined with"
implies "the combined effect of"
P - prestressing
P - partial safety factor for prestressing action P
5
ULS: Combination of actions
Combinations of actions for accidental design situations
6
Serviceability limit states
At the SLS it shall be verified that:
Ed Cd
where:
Cd is the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability
criterion.
Ed is the design value of the effects of actions specified in the
serviceability criterion, determined on the basis of the relevant
combination
Serviceability limit states in buildings should take into
account criteria related, for example, to floor stiffness,
differential floor levels, storey sway or/and building sway
and roof stiffness.
Stiffness criteria may be expressed in terms of limits for
vertical deflections and for vibrations.
Sway criteria may be expressed in terms of limits for
horizontal displacements.
7
Serviceability limit states
Horizontal displacements can be
represented schematically:
u - Overall horizontal displacement
over the building height H
ui - Horizontal displacement over a
storey height Hi
8
SLS: Combination of actions
Characteristic
combination
Frequent
combination
Quasi-permanent
combination
Examples of
limiting
values for
vertical
deflections
9
Examples of limiting values for horizontal deflections
10
Example: multistorey frame
The following
actions can be
identified:
Permanent loads Gk Snow load (Sk) Wind load (Wk )
Imposed loads Qk
Snow load Sk
Wind load Wk
Seismic action Aed
Imposed load -
Imposed load (Qk,1) Seismic load (Aed )
chessboard (Qk,2)
11
Example: multistorey frame
Load cases (combinations of actions)
Persistent design situation
Ultimate limit states (ULS)
12
Example: multistorey frame
Load cases (combinations of actions)
Persistent design situation
Serviceability limit states (SLS)
(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Qk,1
check beam
(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Qk,2
deflections
(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Sk,1
(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Wk check lateral storey
(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Wk + 0.7Qk,1 + 0.7Sk deformations
13
Basis of Structural Design
Course 14
Principles
A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the
ground and that provides total or nearly total shelter for
machines, processing equipment, performance of human
activities, storage of human possessions, or any
combination of these
Building design is the process of providing all
information necessary for construction of a building that
will meet its owners requirements and also satisfy public
health, welfare, and safety requirements
Architecture is the art and science of building design. It is
primarily driven by the creative manipulation of mass,
space, volume, texture, light, shadow, materials, program,
and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction and
technology, in order to achieve an end which is aesthetic,
functional and often artistic.
1
Principles
Engineering design is driven primarily by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical
and scientific principles
Building construction is the process of assembling
materials to form a building
Building design may be legally executed only by persons
deemed competent to do so by the state in which the
building is to be constructed. Competency is determined
on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass
a written test of design skills
Architects: persons legally permitted to practice architecture
Engineers: experts in specific scientific disciplines and are legally
permitted to design parts of buildings; in some cases, complete
buildings (structural, mechanical, electrical engineers)
Principles
Building construction is generally performed by
labourers and craftspeople engaged for the purpose by
an individual or organization, called a contractor.
The contractor signs an agreement, or contract, with the
building owner under which the contractor agrees to
construct a specific building on a specified site and the
owner agrees to pay for the materials and services
provided.
2
Principles of building design
1. The building should be constructed to serve purposes
specified by the client.
2. The design should be constructable by known techniques
and with available labour and equipment, within an
acceptable time.
3. The building should be capable of withstanding the
actions due to environment and normal usage for a
period of time specified by the client.
4. Both inside and outside, the building should be visually
pleasing.
5. No part of the building should pose a hazard to the safety
or health of its occupants under normal usage, and the
building should provide for safe evacuation or refuge in
emergencies.
3
Principles of building design
The ultimate objective of design is to provide all the
information necessary for the construction of a building.
This objective is achieved by the production of drawings,
or plans, showing what is to be constructed,
specifications stating what materials and equipment are
to be incorporated in the building, and a construction
contract between the client and a contractor.
Designers also should observe construction of the
building while it is in process. This should be done not
only to assist the client in ensuring that the building is
being constructed in accordance with plans and
specifications but also to obtain information that will be
useful in design of future buildings.
Design procedure
Design usually starts when a client recognizes the need
for and economic feasibility of a building and engages an
architect, a professional with a broad background in
building design.
The architect, in turn, engages consulting engineers and
other consultants
structural engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
load-bearing walls, floors, roofs, foundations, and skeleton
framing needed for the support of buildings and building
components
mechanical engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
plumbing, elevators, escalators, horizontal walkways, conveyors,
installed machinery, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
electrical engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
electric circuits, electric controls and safety devices, electric
motors and generators, electric lighting, and other electric
equipment
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Design procedure
for buildings on a large site, the architect may engage a
landscape architect as a consultant
for a concert hall, an acoustics consultant may be engaged; for a
hospital, a hospital specialist; for a school, a school specialist
The architect does the overall planning of the building
and incorporates the output of the consultants into the
contract documents
The architect determines what internal and external
spaces the client needs, the sizes of these spaces, their
relative locations, and their interconnections shown in
floor plans
Major responsibilities of the architect are enhancement of
the appearance inside and outside of the building and
keeping adverse environmental impact of the structure to
a minimum. The exterior of the building is shown in
drawings, called elevations.
Design procedure
The location and orientation of the building is shown in a
site plan.
The architect also prepares the specifications for the
building. These describe in detail the materials and
equipment to be installed in the structure.
In addition, the architect, usually with the aid of a lawyer
engaged by the client, prepares the construction
contract.
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Stages of building design
1. Preliminary stage: development of a program (a list
client's requirements) by the architect and client. Getting
a city-planning certificate from local authorities.
2. Conceptual stage: the architect translates requirements
into spaces, relates the spaces and makes sketches,
called schematics, to illustrate the concepts. When
sufficient information is obtained on the size and general
construction of the building, a rough estimate is made of
construction cost.
3. Design development: the architect and consultants work
out more details and show the results in preliminary
construction drawings and outline specifications. A
preliminary cost estimate utilizing the greater amount of
information on the building now available is then
prepared.
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Construction procedure
Construction is performed by contractors
they need to satisfy the requirements of the client and the
building designers
however, their primary objective is to make profit contractors
must prepare bid prices based on accurate estimates of
construction costs
after the contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish
and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labour, and
supervision required for construction
The client compensates the contractors for construction
costs and services
A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for
construction of a building, and may engage
subcontractors
Construction procedure
Subcontractors have contracts with the general
contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor
a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing
an electrical contractor installs the electrical system
a steel erector structural steel, and an elevator contractor installs
elevators
Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the
owners contracts separately with specialty contractors,
called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and
coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid
directly by the owner.
Sometimes also, the owner may award a contract to an
organization for both the design and construction of a
building. Such organizations are called design-build
contractors.
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Construction procedure
Administration of the construction procedure often is
difficult some owners seek assistance from an expert,
called a professional construction manager, with
extensive construction experience, who receives a fee.
The construction manager negotiates with general
contractors and helps select one to construct the
building. Managers usually also supervise selection of
subcontractors.
During construction, they help control costs, expedite
equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on
schedule.
Construction procedure
Owners also engage an inspector who has the
responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the
requirements of the contract documents and is performed
under safe conditions
Inspections also are made by representatives of one or
more governmental agencies. They have the
responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal
requirements and have little or no concern with detailed
conformance with the contract documents. Such legal
inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain
stages of construction.
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Building costs
Construction cost of a building usually is a dominant
design concern
Building costs
Before construction of a building starts, the owner
generally has to make a sizable investment in the project.
The major portion of this expenditure usually goes for purchase
of the site and building design.
Remaining preconstruction costs include those for feasibility
studies, site selection and evaluation, surveys, and program
definition.
The major portion of the construction cost is the sum of
the payments to the general and prime contractors.
Remaining construction costs usually consist of interest
on the construction loan, permit fees, and costs of
materials, equipment, and labour not covered by the
construction contracts.
The occupancy costs covers costs of moving
possessions into the building and start-up of utility
services, such as water, gas, electricity, and telephone.
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Building costs
The initial cost to the owner is the sum of
preconstruction, construction, and occupancy costs.
After the building is occupied, the owner incurs costs for
operation and maintenance of the buildings. Such costs
are a consequence of decisions made during building
design.
Life-cycle cost is the sum of initial, operating, and
maintenance costs.
Often, post-construction costs are permitted to be high
so that initial costs can be kept low
the design makes artificial lighting necessary when daylight could
have been made available
the extra heating and air conditioning are necessary because of
inadequate insulation of walls and roof
frequent repairs may be needed because of poor choice of
materials during design
Building costs
Generally, it is life-cycle cost that should be minimized in
building design rather than construction cost, enabling
the owner to receive the greatest return on the
investment in the building.
Nevertheless, construction cost frequently is a dominant
concern in design, because the client establishes a
construction budget independent of life-cycle cost.
Reasons:
the client does not have adequate capital for an optimum building
and places too low a limit on construction cost. The client hopes
to have sufficient capital later to pay for the higher operating and
maintenance costs or for replacement of undesirable building
materials and installed equipment.
The clients goal is a quick profit on early sale of the building, in
which case the client has little or no concern with future high
operating and maintenance costs for the building.
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Building legislation
Many of the restrictions encountered in building design
are imposed by building regulations:
Dealing with administration and enforcement. They cover
licenses, permits, fees, certificates of occupancy, safety,
projections beyond street lines, alterations, maintenance,
applications, approval of drawings, stop-work orders.
Specifying requirements for design and construction in detail.
They give requirements for structural components, lighting,
HVAC, plumbing, gas piping and fixtures, elevators and
escalators, electrical distribution, stairs, corridors, walls, doors,
and windows.
Requirements for fire-protection purposes. Objective - to delay or
prevent spread of fire over large portions of the building
set allowable floor areas
restrict building height and number of stories
limit the occupant load, or number of persons allowed in a building or
room to permit rapid egress
Building legislation
Zoning regulations are established by local authorities to
protect the health, welfare, and safety of the public
Zoning primarily regulates land use by controlling types
of occupancy of buildings, building height, and density
and activity of population in specific parts of a
jurisdiction
Zoning regulations are usually developed by a planning
commission and administered by the commission or a
building department. Land-use controls adopted by the
local planning commission for current application are
indicated on a zoning map.
Zoning map divides the jurisdiction into districts, shows
the type of occupancy, such as commercial, industrial, or
residential, permitted in each district, and notes
limitations on building height and bulk and on population
density in each district.
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Building legislation
The planning commission usually also prepares a master
plan as a guide to the growth of the jurisdiction. A future
land-use plan is an important part of the master plan. The
commissions objective is to steer changes in the zoning
map in the direction of the future land-use plan.
Building legislation
Control of Building Height. Zoning places limitations on
building dimensions to limit population density and to
protect the rights of occupants of existing buildings to
light, air, and aesthetic surroundings.
establishment of a specific maximum height or number of stories,
limitation of height in accordance with street width,
setting minimums for distances of buildings from lot lines, or
relating total floor area in a building to the lot area or to the area
of the lot occupied by a building
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Building legislation
In addition to building and zoning codes, building design
and construction must comply with many other
regulations. These include those of the local or state
health, labour, and fire departments; local utility
companies; and local departments of highways, streets,
sewers, and water. These agencies may require that
drawings for the building be submitted for review and
that a permit be granted before construction starts.
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Building design and construction regulations RO
2. Obtinerea certificatului de urbanism (CU)
Certificatul de Urbanism in vederea construirii (CU) se
obtine de la primarie, directia de urbanism. CU contine
"regulile" pe care trebuie sa le urmeze proiectantul pentru
realizarea unei constructii pe terenul in cauza. Mai exact,
CU stabileste anumiti parametri tehnici ai terenului
(inaltimea maxima a cladirii, procentul de teren ce poate fi
ocupat de cladire, pozitia pe teren, etc) destinatii admise
ale cladirii (locuinta, birouri, comert, etc) precum si
avizele necesare pentru Autorizatia de Construire (apa,
canalizare, gaze, pompieri, mediu, etc). Avizele necesare
difera de la o zona la alta si de la un teren la altul.
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Building design and construction regulations RO
4. Obtinerea Autorizatiei de Construire (AC) de la Primarie
pe baza Certificatului de Urbanism, a proiectului si a
avizelor de construire
Autorizatia de Construire este actul absolut necesar
pentru inceperea oricarei lucrari de constructii.
Autorizatia de Construire se obtine de la primarie, directia
de urbanism pe baza proiectului tehnic si a avizelor de
construire. Dosarul (documentatia) care se depune in
vederea emiterii autorizatiei de construire cuprinde
urmatoarele documente:
cerere pentru emiterea autorizatiei de construire completata cu
elementele de identificare si datele tehnice conform P.A.C.
actul doveditor al titlului asupra imobilului, care sa ii confere
solicitantului dreptul de executie a lucrarilor de constructii (in
copie legalizata)
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Building design and construction regulations RO
5. Anuntarea inceperii lucrarilor la Primarie si la Inspectia
de Stat in Constructii si inceperea constructiei
Lucrarile de construire pot incepe numai dupa ce a fost
obtinuta Autorizatia de construire (A.C.) si au fost
anuntate (cu minim 5 zile inainte de inceperea lucrarilor)
Primaria locala si Inspectoratul de Stat in Constructii
(I.S.C.).
La inceperea lucrarilor, la locul constructiei trebuie sa existe un
panou de identificare a santierului de constructii pe care sunt
inscrise date despre lucrare (denumire si adresa obiectiv,
beneficiar, proiectant, constructor, nr. autorizatie, termen de
executie, data inceperii si finalizarii constructiei).
Formularele necesare, inclusiv formularul "model panou", se
elibereaza de catre Primaria locala, o data cu eliberarea
autorizatiei de construire.
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Building design and construction regulations RO
7. Intocmirea cartii tehnice a constructiei
Se realizeaza pe parcursul executarii lucrarilor si contine
toate actele si documentatiile privind constructia inclusiv
eventualele dispozitii de santier.
8. Receptia constructiei
Receptia constructiilor se face pe baza proiectului tehnic
(P.T.) prin proces verbal de receptie, intocmit de catre o
comisie formata din:
reprezentantul Inspectoratului de Stat in Constructii (I.S.C.)
reprezentantul autorizatorului (primariei) printr-un membru al
compartimentului Disciplina in Constructii
reprezentantul proiectantului, prin arhitect si inginerul proiectant
al structurii de rezistenta
reprezentantul beneficiarului prin dirigintele de santier. Cu
aceasta ocazie proiectantul da o declaratie de conformitate prin
care se atesta ca imobilul supus receptiei este conform
proiectului
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