BSD 2014 Stratan PDF

Basis of Structural Design
Lecture notes
Aurel Stratan
Timişoara 2014
Contents
COURSE 1. INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURES. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS.

COURSE 2. STRUCTURAL ACTION: CABLES AND ARCHES.
COURSE 3. STRUCTURAL ACTION: TRUSSES AND BEAMS.
COURSE 4. STRUCTURAL ACTION: PRESTRESSING. PLATE AND SHELL STRUCTURES.
COURSE 5. STRUCTURAL ACTION: CABLE STRUCTURES. MULTI-STOREY STRUCTURES.
COURSE 6. STRUCTURAL ACTION: FOUNDATIONS. GENERAL REMARKS ON STRUCTURAL
ACTION
COURSE 7. THE PROCESS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN. LOAD PATHS.
COURSE 8. DESIGN CODES: STRUCTURAL EUROCODES. CURRENT ROMANIAN CODES.
COURSE 9. ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES: PERMANENT LOADS, IMPOSED LOADS AND SNOW
LOADS.
COURSE 10. ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES: WIND LOADS. OTHER LOADS.
COURSE 11. EN 1990: DESIGN REQUIREMENTS. THE LIMIT STATE METHOD.
COURSE 12. EN 1990: BASIC VARIABLES. THE PARTIAL FACTOR METHOD.
COURSE 13. EN 1990: THE PARTIAL FACTOR METHOD (CONT.).
COURSE 14. BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.
Course 1
Introduction to Structures
Structural Materials
Course notes are available for download at

https://www.ct.upt.ro/studenti/cursuri/stratan/bsd.htm
Structures
 Man-made structures
– buildings
– bridges
– dams
– masts
– drilling platforms
– ships aircrafts, etc.
 Natural structures
– skeleton of animals
– shell of snails
– spider's web
– tree trunk and branches, etc.
 Structure: something which carries weight or resists
loads and forces, and which may form a protective cover
or skeleton for an object or living thing.
Some structures can fail
 12.02.2009. Mall under construction in Oradea
 19.12.2008 – failure of a silo near Vinga
Design criteria
 Suitability for its function: a building should be designed
and realised in a manner that will offer to its users a
certain function
 Safety and serviceability:
– Structures should resist loads and other external actions without
collapse, protecting its inhabitants
– Structures should not develop excessive deformations and
cracks, nor vibrate alarmingly
 Aesthetics: buildings should be aesthetically pleasant,
both individually and as a group
 Economy: generally, the above three criteria need to be
fulfilled with a limited budget
– Cost to design and build a structure
– Maintenance cost during the planned life
Structural materials
 A building consists of the structure and other
components used in order to protect and provide for
building function and aesthetics (cladding, partitions,
floors, etc.)
 Structural material is the one which is used in those parts
of the structure which carry loads and give it strength
and stiffness
 Properties of
structural materials: .
– strength
– stiffness .
– ductility
.
deformation
Structural materials: properties
 Strength (ultimate stress): the
stress (load per unit area of the
cross-section) at which the
failure takes place force
– tension strength
– compression
 Stiffness: the resistance of an
ductility
elastic body to deformation
 Ductility: capacity of the material
to deform into the inelastic range stiffness
without significant loss of its
load-bearing capacity deformation
Structural materials: ductility
 Ductile materials: able to deform significantly into the
inelastic range
 Brittle materials:
– fail suddenly by cracking or splintering
– much weaker in tension than in compression
force force
ductile brittle
deformation deformation
 "Traditional" materials: used by builders and engineers
since the ancient times
 Stone and timber: occur naturally
 Bricks: man-made
– sun-dried clay/mud bricks - from 4500 B.C.
– fired bricks - from 3000 B.C.
– calcium silicate bricks
 Ancient concrete:
– lime mixed with stone and sand: early civ. of the Middle East
– "hydraulic cement" - lime, stone, sand and silicates: Romans
 Stone, bricks, ancient concrete:
– weak
– weaker in tension than in compression
 Stone and bricks masonry: units interconnected by even
weaker mortar
 Timber:
– substantial tensile strength along the grain
– weak in compression and across the grain (difficult to realise
connections in tension)
 "Modern" materials: Portland cement concrete, steel,

aluminium , etc.
 Portland cement concrete:
– mixture of Portland cement, water, aggregates
– weaker in tension
– brittle
 Steel (iron with low carbon content) and
Aluminium (duraluminium alloy):
– strong in tension and compression
– ductile
Structural materials: strength
Ultimate strength u
Material (N/mm2)
Tensile Compression
Granite 40 200
Traditional
Stone
Limestone 5 40
Brick 6 60
Timber Along grain 120 30
(spruce) Across grain 3.5 -
Portland Normal use 2 20
cement
High strength 6 60
concrete
Mild steel 355 355
Modern
High strength
700 700
steel
Iron and
steel Very high-
strength
2000 -
prestressing
wires
Aluminium alloy (dural) 450 450
Specific strength
 All structures have to support their own weight
 Can the size of a structure be increased indefinitely for it
to be able to carry its own weight?
 Problem: how long a bar of

uniform cross-section can be
before it breaks due to
its own weight?
 Equate the weight of the bar
to its tensile strength:
Weight = Tensile resistance
Specific strength
 Weight = Volume  specific weight
W=ALg
 Tensile resistance = Area  ultimate tensile strength
R = A  u
 Equate weight to resistance:
W = R  A  L    g = A  u 
L = u / (  g) = S = specific strength
 There is an absolute limit (= S) to the length
that the bar can attain without breaking
 Larger a structure is, larger is the
proportion of its own weight to the
total load that can be carried by itself
 First to realise this: Galileo Galilei

Specific strength
 For structures subjected to tension/compression, as the
size of an object increases, its strength increases with
the square of the ruling dimensions, while the weight
increases with its cube
 For each type of structure there is a maximum possible
size beyond which it cannot carry even its own weight
 Consequences:
– it is impossible to construct structures of enormous size
– there is a limit to natural structures (trees, animals, etc.)
– larger a structure becomes, stockier and more bulky it gets
• large bridges are heavier in proportions than smaller ones
• bones of elephants are stockier and thicker than the ones of mice
– proportions of aquatic animals are almost unaffected by their size
(weight is almost entirely supported by buoyancy)
Specific strength
Ultimate strength u
Specific strength S (m)
Material (N/mm2)
Tensile Compression Tensile Compression
Granite 40 200 1400 7000
Traditional
Stone
Limestone 5 40 225 1800
Brick 6 60 320 3200
Timber Along grain 120 30 24000 6000
(spruce) Across grain 3.5 - 700 -
Portland Normal use 2 20 90 900
cement
High strength 6 60 270 2700
concrete
Mild steel 355 355 4500 4500
Modern
High strength
600 600 8000 8000
steel
Iron and
steel Very high-
strength
2000 - 26700 -
prestressing
wires
Aluminium alloy (dural) 450 450 17000 17000
Specific strength
 Stone, brick and concrete: used in compression
 Steel: used in tension
 Timber: excellent performance in terms of specific
strength, especially in tension
 Aluminium: high specific strength
 Aircrafts must carry loads and must be capable of being

raised into the air under their own power  materials with
high specific strength
– wood was extensively used in early planes
– modern material: aluminium
Structural materials: stress-strain curves
 Stress-strain curves
provide "at a glance"
information on:
– strength
– stiffness
– ductility
 Elastic region
 Inelastic region
 Steel: elastic region

is almost linear
 Stone, brick,
concrete, aluminium:
elastic region is
not linear
Structural materials: stress-strain curves
 Steel and aluminium: excellent ductility
 Concrete, brick: brittle
 Modulus of elasticity: E =  / 
 Unloading after loading in the elastic range  NO
permanent deformations
 Unloading after loading in the inelastic range 
permanent deformations present
 Permanent deformations need to be avoided in structures
under service loads  stresses should be kept in the
elastic region under service loads
 factor of safety = ultimate strength / design stress

Structural materials: stiffness
 Excessive flexibility is undesirable in structures
– people dislike noticeable vibration and deflections in buildings
and bridges
– large vibrations and deflections can damage (brittle) non-
structural components (partitions, glazing, floors, etc.)
 Materials with large stiffness are generally desirable
(steel is more advantageous than aluminium from this
point of view)
 Elastic efficiency of materials:
– average stress in the bar:
 = ALg / (2A) = Lg / 2
– extension of the bar under its own weight
 =   L / E = L2g / (2E) = L2 / (2M)
– specific modulus of the material - a measure of material stiffness
M = E / (g)
the higher the value of M, the less it will extend under its own
weight
Structural materials: stiffness
 The extension  of a bar under its own weight is
proportional to the square of the scale (a bar which is 10
times longer than a reference one will extend 102 = 100
times more than the reference one)
Structural materials: stiffness and ductility
Modulus of elasticity
Specific modulus
Material E (N/mm2) Ductility
M (m105)
Granite 45 000 1.57
Traditional
Stone
Limestone 30 000 1.35 Brittle
Brick 30 000 1.60
Timber Along grain 15 000 3.00
NA
(spruce) Across grain - -
Portland Normal use 25 000 1.12
cement Brittle
High strength 40 000 1.80
concrete
Large
Mild steel 210 000 2.80
ductility
Modern
High strength Moderate

210 000 2.80
Iron and steel ductility
steel Very high-
strength Low
210 000 2.80
prestressing ductility
wires
Aluminium alloy (dural) 70 000 2.80 Ductile
Structural materials: ductility
 Ductility is important for the "ultimate" behaviour of
structures
 Most structures are designed to respond in the elastic
range under service loads, but, given the uncertainties in
real strength of material, behaviour of the structure,
magnitude of loading, and accidental actions, a structure
can be subjected to inelastic deformations
 A ductile material will sustain large deformations before
collapsing, "warning" the people inside
 A ductile material allows for redistribution of stresses in
statically indeterminate structures, which are able to
support larger loads than in the case of a structure
realised of brittle material
Course 2
Structural action: cables and arches

Structural action
 Structural action: the way in which a structure of a given
type and configuration resists the loads acting on it
 Types of structures:
– Cables
– Arches
– Trusses
– Beams
– Plates and shells
– Frames
Cable / chain structures
 Cable and chains:
– excellent tensile strength
– no strength/stiffness in compression
– no strength/stiffness in bending
 Cable and chain structures exploit the benefits of high
tensile strength of natural fibres and steel
 Especially useful in large-span structures
Cable / chain structures
 The form of a chain under its own weight?
 The form of a chain under equal loads applied in the
pins?
A chain subjected to a single force
 The simplest chain structure:
– links connected by pins
– load W acts on the central pin
 Solution (equilibrium of node C):
– the pin C is acted by three forces: load W, and two tensile internal
forces T
– the vectors representing the three forces can be represented as a
a triangle of forces 012 (W=12, T=20, T=01)
– length of lines 20 and 01 gives the tensions in the chain
A chain carrying two vertical forces
 Weights W1 and W2 attached to pins D and E
 Tensions T1, T2 and T3 will be set up in three parts of the
chain
 Problem: determine magnitudes of T1, T2 and T3 if
deformed shape is known
 Solution (equilibrium of nodes D and E)
 Node D
– node D is acted by three forces:
load W1, and to tensile internal
forces T1 and T2
– the vectors representing the
three forces can be represented
as a a triangle of forces 012
(W1=12, T1=20, T2=01)
– length of lines 20 and 01 gives
the tensions in the chain
A chain carrying two vertical forces
 Node E
– node E is acted by three forces:
load W2, and to tensile internal
forces T2 and T3
– the vectors representing the
three forces can be represented
as a a triangle of forces 023
(W2=23, T2=02, T3=30)
– length of lines 02 and 30 gives
the tensions in the chain
 The two triangles can be combined
to get a force diagram
A chain carrying four vertical forces
A chain carrying equal weight at each pin
 The chain hangs symmetrically about point C
 Each inclined line in the force diagram gives the
magnitude and inclination of the force in the
corresponding link
 Starting from the midspan, the slope of the links
increases in proportion to the horizontal distance from
the midspan  parabola
A chain carrying equal weight at each pin
 The slope at the sides: twice the average slope 
tangents at the ends A and B will intersect at point F
(GF=2GC)
 Considering the equilibrium of the chain as a whole, the
chain is acted by the tensions T1, T16 and the total weight
W.
 Provided the chain sag is known (GC), end tensions can
be determined from triangle of forces 120
Deformed shape of a cable / chain
 Actual deformed shape of a cable or chain hanging under
its own weight: catenary (slightly  from parabola)
 Parabola: the shape of a chain carrying uniform loads for
each horizontal span
 Catenary:
– the shape of a chain hanging under its own weight
– weight of the chain per unit horizontal span increases toward the
sides due to increasing slope of the chain
 Parabola:
– easier to calculate
– differences between parabola and catenary negligible for small
spans
Arches
 The simplest chain structure

(material working in tension):
 If the load direction is reversed

(material working in compression)
 an arch is obtained
 Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch
Three-bar linear arch
Three-bar chain Three-bar arch
 Internal forces are the same in the two structures, but are
compressive in the arch
 Linear arch (funicular shape) - the shape for which under

loads acting on it (including its own weight), the thrust in
the arch acts along the axis of members at all points
Three-bar linear arch
 The forces in an arch can be deduced from those in a
chain of the same shape (first to be realised by Robert
Hooke)
 An essential difference between a chain and an arch:
– a change in the relative values of loads W1 and W2 in a chain leads
to a new position of equilibrium
– a change in the relative values of loads W1 and W2 in a hinged
arch leads to collapse of the structure
 Collapse of the arch due to small changes of loading can
be avoided by connecting the bars rigidly together
Arches: line of thrust
 Linear arch gives the
smallest stresses
 Shape of the arch is
not important for small
arches: own weight
has a small
contribution to
stresses in
comparison with
imposed (traffic) loads
 Shape of the arch is
very important for
large arches: own
weight has a major
contribution to
stresses
Arches: forms
 Perfect arch: shape of catenary (example: Taq-e Kisra
Palace, Ctesiphon, Iraq - built 220 B.C.)
Arches: forms
 The first civilisation to
make extensive use of
arches: Romans
 Shape of Roman arches:
semicircular
why?
 Circle - the easiest way

to set out
Semicircular arch
 A cable takes a
circular form
when subjected
to a uniform
radial load
 A linear
semicircular
arch: loaded by
uniform radial
pressure
 Loading in
bridges and
buildings quite
different from the
condition above
Romanesque semi-circular arches and vaults
 Semi-circular arch used
extensively in the
Romanesque period
 Severe architectural
restrictions:
– Romanesque barrel vault
requires continuous support
and makes the interior dark
when used for roofs
– groined arch: enables light to
enter from all sides but allows
only square bays to be covered
Gothic arches
 Gothic period - pointed
arches
 Rectangular spans can be
covered by varying the
ratio of rise to span
Gothic arches
 A kink in an weightless cable implies a concentrated
force at the kink, as well as a distributed load along the
two sides  corresponding shape of linear Gothic arch
 This condition is not present in almost all Gothic arches,
which requires support from the adjoining masonry
Gothic arches
 Correct use of pointed arch: Font Pedrouse viaduct in
France
Arches: design
 A stone arch
(no strength
in tension)
will fail when
the thrust line
reaches the
extrados and
intrados in
four points,
becoming a
mechanism
Arches: design
 19th century approach - avoid cracking (tensile stresses)
under service loads - keep the thrust line within the
middle third of the arch cross-section
Arches: design
 Thrusts at
springings
(reactions at
supports) are
inclined:
– vertical component
– horizontal
component
 Horizontal
reactions tend to
spread the
supports apart 
buttresses can be
used, especially for
arches/vaults on
high walls
Arches: buttresses
Course 3
Structural action: trusses and beams

Arch  Truss
rafter
tie
Linear arch supporting a Relieving of support

concentrated force: large spreading: adding a tie
spreading reactions at supports between the supports
Truss forces
 Truss members connected by
pins: axial forces
(direct stresses) only
 Supports:
– one pinned, allowing free rotations
due to slight change of truss shape
due to loading
– one roller bearing support ("simple - (C) - (C)
support") - allowing free rotations
and lateral movement due to + (T)
loading and change in temperature
 Forces in the truss:

– tie is in tension (+)
– rafters are in compression (-)
Truss forces
 If more forces are present within
the length of the rafter 
bending stresses
 To avoid bending stresses, - -

- + -
diagonal members and vertical - -
posts can be added + +
 More diagonals and posts can

be added for larger spans in
order to avoid bending stresses
Alternative shape of a truss
 For a given loading find out the shape of a linear arch
(parabolic shape)
 Add a tie to relieve spreading of supports
 Highly unstable shape

Alternative shape of a truss
 Add web bracing (diagonals
and struts) in order to
provide stability for the
pinned upper chord
members
 If the shape of the truss
corresponds to a linear arch
web members are
unstressed, but they are
essential for stability of the
truss
 Reverse bowstring arches:
– advantage: longer members
are in tension
– disadvantage: limited
headroom underneath
Truss shapes
 Curved shape of the arch: difficult to fabricate  trusses
with parallel chords
 Trusses with parallel chords: web members (diagonals
and struts) carry forces whatever the loads
 Pratt truss:
– top chord in compression
– bottom chord and diagonals in tension
– economical design as
longer members
(diagonals) are in tension
Truss shapes
 Howe truss:
– bottom chord in tension
– diagonals in compression
 Warren truss:
– bottom chord in tension
– diagonals in tension and
compression
– economy of fabrication: all
members are of the same
length and joints have the
same configuration
Truss joints
 Pinned joints  statically
determinate structures  member
forces can be determined from
equilibrium only
 Rigid joints  small bending

stresses will be present, but which
are negligible due to the triangular
shape
 Traditionally trusses are designed

with pinned joints, even if members
are connected rigidly between them
Space trusses
 The most common plane truss
consists of a series of triangles
 The corresponding shape in three
dimensions: tetrahedron (a)
 The truss at (b) is a true space

truss
– theoretically economical in material
– joints difficult to realise and
expensive
 Two plane trusses braced with

cross members are usually
preferred
Statically indeterminate trusses
 Indeterminate trusses:
large variety
 Example (a): cross
diagonals in the middle
panel, so that one of
the diagonals will
always be in tension
 Example (b): Sydney

Harbour Bridge,
Australia - both
supports pinned
Beams
 Beam: a structure that supports
loads through its ability to resist
bending stresses
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519): the strength of a timber

beam is proportional to the square of its depth
 Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli

were the first to put together a useful
theory around 1750
Beams: analogy with trusses
 Forces in a
Pratt truss
loaded by a unit
central force
 Forces in a
Howe truss
 Forces in a
truss with
double diagonals
(reasonable estimate)
 Chords:
– The forces in the top and bottom chord members in any panel are
equal, but of opposite signs, and they increase with the distance
from the nearest support
– Chords have to resist the bending moment, proportional to the
distance from the nearest support
 Diagonals:
– The forces in the diagonal members are equal, but opposite in
sign, and have the same values in all panels
– Diagonals have to resist the shear forces, the same in all panels
 Bending and shear deformations in a truss
Steel plate girder
 Steel plate girder: heavy flanges and thin web welded
together, and reinforced by transversal stiffeners
 Unit vertical force at the midspan
 Top flange: in compression
 Bottom flange: tension
 Web: shear, with principal tension and compression
stresses similar to those in a truss
 After web
buckling, only
tensile loads are
resisted by the
web, plate girder
acting as a
Pratt truss
Beams: bending action
 Top flange in compression linear variation of
 Bottom flange in tension normal stress
 Normal stress proportional to distance from the neutral
plane
 Simplifications:
– Thin web, thick flanges  web has a small contribution to the
bending resistance (ignore it)
– Normal stress can be considered uniform on flanges
 Moment resistance
– Idealised double T beam: M = Ad/2
– Rectangular beam of the same area and depth:
M = bd2/6 = Ad/6
 The best
A/2
arrangement  F =  ·(A/2)
of material
M =  ·A·d/2
for bending
d
resistance:
 F =  ·(A/2)
away from A/2
the neutral axis

F =  ·(0.5d·b/2)
2d/3
M =  ·A·d/6
d
A
F =  ·(0.5d·b/2)

b
 Examples of efficient location of material for bending
resistance
– light roof beams (trusses)
– hot-rolled and welded girder

resistance
– panel construction
resistance
– corrugated steel sheet
resistance
– castellated joist
resistance
– columns requiring bending resistance in any direction: tubular
sections
Beams: shear stresses
 Simply supported beam of uniform rectangular cross-
section loaded by a concentrated central force W:
– can carry a moment M = bd2/6
– has a deflection 
 If the beam is cut in two parts along the neutral plane:
– sliding takes place between the two overlapped beams
– the two overlapped beams can carry a moment
M = 2[b(d/2)2/6] = bd2/12, half of the uncut beam
– the deflection of the two overlapped beams is 4
Beams: shear stresses
 In the uncut beam stresses should be present along the
neutral plane to prevent sliding of the lower and upper
halves of the beam: shear stresses
 Smaller stresses would be required to keep the unity of
action if the beam were cut above the neutral plane
 Shear stresses
– parabolic variation in a rectangular cross-section
– carried mainly by the web, on which they can be considered to be
constant for a steel double T beam
Structural shapes
 Simply supported beam
subjected to a uniformly
distributed load
 The "perfect" use of

A/2
material for bending
resistance in a beam with
idealised double T cross-
section (M = Ad/2):
parabolic variation of A/2
height
Structural shapes
 Simply
supported truss
subjected to a
uniformly
distributed load
 The "perfect" use

of material for
"bending" action:
parabolic
variation of
height
Structural shapes
 Bridge with a simply supported central span and two
cantilevered sides
 The shape of the truss must resemble the bending
moment diagram in order to make efficient use of material
in upper and bottom chords
 Quebec
railway bridge
Structural shapes
 Forth
bridge,
Scotland
 Anghel
Saligny
bridge,
Romania
Course 4
Structural action:
- prestressing
- plate and shell structures
Prestressing
 Prestressing: setting up an initial state of stress, that
makes the structure work better than without it
 Examples:
– wall plugs
– spider's web
– bicycle wheel
 Main use in structural engineering: prestressed concrete

Prestressing examples: wall plug
 A hole in the wall is filled with a wooden or plastic plug
 The screw driven into the plug squeezes the plug against
the sides of the hole, generating compressive stresses in
the plug and in the wall around it
 Compressive prestressing generates frictional resistance
to pulling out the screw
Prestressing examples: spider's web
 Spider's web threads: high tensile, but no compressive
resistance
 Spider pulls its threads tight, creating a tensile
prestressing
 A load in the centre of the web produces compressive
forces in the threads below it
 Without the tensile prestress,
the lower part of the web
would go slack, being
more prone to collapse
Prestressing examples: bicycle wheel
 Wire spokes are strong in tension
but weak in compression (due to
buckling)
 Spokes must be kept in tension
 When the wheel is assembled,
spokes are tightened up uniformly
by the turnbuckles at the rim
 Under a downward load on the
wheel, the spokes in the lower part
of the wheel tend to be subjected to
compression
 Tensile prestress in the spokes
must be higher than the
compression force to keep all the
spokes in tension
 Other types of loading on the wheel: due to braking and
due to taking a sharp corner
 Forces due to braking:
– could not be resisted if the spokes were arranged radiating from
the centre of the hub
– spokes are set at an angle to the radii, each pair forming a
triangulated system which is able to generate tensile and
compression forces which oppose the braking force
– tensile prestress ensures that all spokes are in tension
and active
 Forces due to cornering:
– force is imposed on the wheel at right
angles to its plane
– the spokes are inclined with respect to the
plane of the wheel, forming a triangulated
system, which resists the forces due to
cornering
– tensile prestress ensures that all spokes
are in tension and active
Other prestressing examples
 Pneumatic tire of cycle wheel
 Inflated membranes for storage spaces and sport halls
– air pressure inside is maintained above the atmospheric pressure
by blowers
– fabric of the membrane permanently in tension
Other prestressing examples
 A set of books: no tensile resistance
between the volumes
 The books can be moved if a
pressure is applied at the middepth:
– the row of books act as a simply
supported beam
– the pressure overcomes the tensile
stress in the lower part due to own
weight of the books, enabling them to act
as a unit
 The books can be moved with lower
pressure if it is applied somewhat
lower than the middepth: an upward
moment is introduced, which
counteracts the downward moment
due to own weight of the books
Reinforced concrete beams
 Concrete: weak in tension
 When loading is applied on a
simply supported beam, the
concrete cracks at the tension
side:
– Concrete active in compression
– Steel reinforcement active in
tension
– Only a small part of the concrete
cross-section resists the applied
loading
Prestressed concrete beams
 Concrete is kept in compression
by cables or rods
 The whole concrete cross-
section can be considered in
design
 Substantial economy in material
 If prestressing is applied in the
centroid of the cross-section:
– by choosing correctly the
prestressing force, the entire cross-
section can be kept in compression
– a large stress is present at the
compression side
 Position of prestressing force:
important
 If prestressing is applied at 1/3 of
the beam depth from the bottom
face:
– a negative moment due to eccentric
prestressing counteracts the
positive bending moment due to
applied moment
– the pestressing force needed to
keep the entire cross-section in
compression can be reduced
– the stress at the compression side is
reduced  the required concrete
strength can be reduced
 Bending moment due to dead weight in a simply
supported beam: parabolic shape
 The best arrangement of the prestressing tendons?
 a parabolic shape along the beam, in order to generate
bending moment M=Fe counteracting the bending
moment due to dead load
Prestressed concrete
 Type of prestress:
– Posttensioning: the prestressing force is applied after concrete
has been cast and has set, through tendons located in holes left
in concrete elements. The prestress is retained due to anchorage
of steel tendons at the end of the element.
– Pretensioning: prestressing wires are stretched over a long
length and the concrete is cast around them in steel forms. The
prestress is retained due to the bond between the concrete and
the steel wires.
 Problems related to prestressing:
– When the concrete sets up, it shrinks, leading to loss of
prestressing (in the case of pretensioning)
– Concrete shortens in time (creep) after it sets up due to
compression acting on it, leading to loss of compression
– High strength steel required for prestressing, in order to reduce
the loss of prestress due to shrinkage and creep
– Higher strength concrete is needed to resist higher compression
and to reduce the contraction due to creep and shrinkage
Plates
 Plates: a flat surface

element that acts in
bending in order to
resist out of plane
loading
 The simplest plate: a

flat slab spanning
between two supports
 It may appear to behave

like a wide beam, but it
is not as simple as that
One-way plates
 When a narrow beam bends, the material in the lower half
of the beam extends longitudinally  it contracts in the
transversal direction due to Poisson effect ( times the
longitudinal strain)
 The material in
the upper half of
the beam contracts
longitudinally 
it expands in the
transversal direction
 An anticlastic
curvature of the beam in the
transversal direction equal
with  times the longitudinal curvature
One-way plates
 In plates the anticlastic curvature is
suppressed due to large dimension in
the transversal direction (the deflected
shape is almost cylindrical, except
near the free edges)
 At any point of the beam there is a

transverse bending moment equal to 
times the spanwise bending moment
 Suppression of the transverse
curvature induces an additional
spanwise curvature
 In one-way plates reinforcement is
needed in both spanwise and
transverse direction
Two-way plates
 Two-way plates simply
supported on all four sides:
complicated interaction
between the two ways in
which a load is supported
 If a slab is more than about
4 times as long as it is
wide, the bending moment
at the center of the plate is
almost the same as in a
one-way plate supported
on longer edges. Why? 
 Stiffer structural action
(bending in the short
direction) attracts larger
forces
Stiffness in structural action
 A straight bar of length L and rectangular cross-section
can support a concentrated force P in two ways:
– as a column acting in compression
– as a cantilever acting in bending
 In the column the stress 1 is axial and uniform
 In the cantilever the
stress 2 has a linear
variation along the
bar and across the
cross-section 
the material is
far less efficient
Stiffness in structural action
 Column is much stronger than the beam: 2/1 = 6(L/h)
for L/h=20  2/1 = 120
 Column is much stiffer than the beam: 2/1 = 4(L/h)2
for L/h=20  2/ 1 = 1600 (P=k∙  k1/k2 = 1600)
 If the beam and the column are used in conjunction to
support the load P:
– the two members deflect by the
same ammount 
– P=k∙  P1=k1∙1; P2=k2∙2. If the deflection
is the same for the two members 1=2 
P1/k1 = P2/k2; P1/P2=k1/k2 = 1600
– the column carries a load of (1600/1601)P
– the beam carries a load of (1/1601)P
 Of the two alternative modes of action
open to this structure, it chooses the
column compression, because it is stiffer
Membrane action
 Some structures can support loads only in bending.
Example: simply supported beam
 Uniform loading:
– the neutral axis becomes curved
– roller support moves slightly toward the other end of the beam
Membrane action
 A beam pinned at both ends
 Uniform loading:
– the neutral axis becomes curved
– horizontal movement of the support is prevented  longitudinal
tension H develops  the beam begins to support load as a
slightly curved cable or catenary
Membrane action
 The catenary action is much stiffer than bending
 Beam action: stiffness remains constant
 Catenary action: stiffness increases with the square of
the deflection
 As the load increases, the portion of the load carried
axially (w1), as catenary, increases rapidly
 It can be shown that w1/w2 = 3.33(/h)2
w2 - the portion of the loading carried through bending.
When the deflection  ammounts to twice the depth of the
beam, w1/w2 = 13.33, so that the catenary action
ammounts to 13.33/14.33 = 0.93 of the total resistance to
load
 Membranes: surface elements in which loading is
resisted through direct (axial) stresses
Shells
 Shells: surface elements resisting loading through
bending and membrane action
 Examples:
– dome
– human skull
– turtle's armour
– bird egg
Shells
 Bird's egg: weak under a concentrated loading (breaking
against a cup's rim) but strong under distributed loading
(squeezing between ends with palms)
– distributed loading resisted through membrane action (stronger)
– concentrated loading resisted through bending action (weaker)
 Domes:
– used since ancient times
– capable of resisting through membrane
action a variety of distributed loading
Dome: structural action
 The shape of a cable changes as the
shape of the applied loading changes
 The same behaviour if a set of cables

are hanged around a circular
perimeter
– uniform loading: "bowl" shape
– larger loading toward the supports: the
"bowl" bulges toward supports and the
bottom rises slightly
– a different shape of the cable is needed in
order to resist the applied loading
through axial action only
 If a series of circumferential cables
are added, capable of resisting both
tension and compression
 When the load changes, the
circumferential cables prevent the
dome from changing its shape:
– circumferential cables near the rim are
put into tension
– those near the bottom are put into
compression
 A system formed by using enough cables in order to
obtain a surface approximates a thin-shelled dome
 Such a structures is capable of carrying a variety of
distributed loading through membrane action (stresses
which are uniformly distributed over the thickness of the
shell)
 A shell is capable of resisting loads either through
bending stresses or direct (membrane) stresses
 Membrane action is "preferred" by the dome,
as it is much stiffer for this action
 Ideally, for a membrane action
to take place in a shell, it must
be thin and its shape should be
similar to that assumed by a flexible
membrane under the same loading
 The heaviest load in many domes is their own weight
 In a hemispherical dome of a uniform thickness,
– the stresses 1 in the direction of meridians are compressive
throughout
– the circumferential stresses 2 are tensile near the rim: tensile
reinforcement needed to resist them
Shells: hyperbolic paraboloid
 Rectangular area to be covered:
(a) taking a portion of a sphere and
arching it between supports
 Rectangular area to be covered:

(b) hyperbolic paraboloid - can
be obtained by taking a rectangular
grid of straight lines and lifting
one of the corners, so that
the lines would remain straight
 A flat surface becomes a curved
one, known as hyperbolic paraboloid
 Lines drawn diagonally are parabolas, humped
in one direction and sagging in the other direction
 Constructional
advantage that
elaborate formwork is
not needed
 Hyperbolic paraboloid
supports loads by
tension/compression, as
opposed to a plate,
acting in bending
 Given the opportunity, a
structure will support
loads by direct tension
and compression rather
than bending
Course 5
Structural action:
- Cable structures
- Multi-storey structures
Cable structures
 Cables - good resistance in tension, but no strength in
compression
 Tent:
– a cable structure consisting of a waterproofing membrane
supported by ropes or cables and posts
– cables must be maintained in tension by prestressing in order to
avoid large vibrations under wind forces and avoid collapse
Cables: roof structures
 Cables in a cable-supported roof
must be maintained in tension -
easily achieved if the roof is saddle-
shaped
 Example: hyperbolic paraboloid,
with curvatures in opposite senses
in directions at right angles
– cables hung in direction BD
– a second set of cables placed over
them, parallel to direction AC and put
into tension
– cables from the second set press down
on those from the first one, putting them
into tension as well  fully-tensioned
network
Cables: roof structures
 One of the first doubly curved
saddle-shaped cable supported
roof was the Dorton Arena in
Raleigh, North Carolina, built in
1952
 The building has dimensions of
92 m x 97 m
 The roof is suspended between
two parabolic arches in
reinforced concrete
intercrossing each other, and
supported by columns
 The cable network consists of
47 prestressed cables with
diameter varying from 19 mm to
33 mm
Suspension bridges
 Suspension bridges: the earliest method of crossing
large gaps
 Early bridges realised from a walkway suspended from
hanging ropes of vines
 To walk a lighter bridge of this type at a reasonable pace
requires a particular gliding step, as the more normal
walking step will induce travelling waves that can cause
the traveller to pitch (uncomfortably) up and down or
side-to-side.
Suspension bridges
 Suspension bridge realised following the simple design
of early bridges:
– cables (catenaries)
– light deck
– hangers suspending the deck on catenaries
 Lack of stability in high winds
 Very flexible under concentrated loads, as the form of the
cable will adapt to loading form
Suspension bridges
 Capilano Suspension Bridge, Canada
Suspension bridges
 Improved behaviour under traffic and wind loads:
stiffening trusses at the level of the deck, that distributes
concentrated loads over greater lengths
 Alternatively: restrain vertical movement of the

catenaries by inclined cables attached to the top of the
towers or inclined struts below the deck
Suspension bridges
 The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, Japan: 1991 m span
Suspension bridges
 Golden Gate Bridge, California, USA: 1280 m span
Suspension bridges
 Brooklyn Bridge, USA (the largest from 1883 until 1903):
486 m span
Suspension bridges: famous collapse
 Tacoma Narrows Bridge, USA, collapsed on November 7,
1940 due to wind-induced vibrations. It had been open for
traffic for a few months only before collapsing.
Cable-stayed bridges
 A cable-stayed bridge consists of one or more piers, with
cables supporting the bridge deck
 Basic idea: reduce the span of the beam (deck) several
times compared to the clear span between the piers
 Steel cable-stayed bridges are regarded as the most
economical bridge design for spans ranging between 200
and 400 m
 Shorter spans: truss or box girder bridges
 Larger spans: suspension bridges
Cable-stayed bridges
 Reducing the
span of a
beam greatly
improves the
maximum
stress and
deflection
Cable-stayed bridges: examples
 Rio-Antirio bridge in Greece. Longest span: 560 m.
Total length: 2,880 m.
Cable-stayed bridges: examples
 The Millau Viaduct, France. Longest span: 342 m.
Total length: 2,460 m.
Multi-storey buildings
 Why multi-storey buildings?
– large urban population
– expensive land
 Multi-storey buildings make more efficient use of land:

higher the building (more storeys) - larger the ratio of the
building floor area to the used land area
 Technological competition (very high buildings)
 Until the end of the 18th century most buildings of several

storeys in the Western world were made of:
– continuous walls of brick or stone masonry supporting the roof
– floors from timber beams
 The same structural system used in the Roman city of
Herculaneum
Multi-storey buildings: beginnings
 Beginning of the 19th century - forefront of the industrial
revolution in England:
– demand for large factory buildings of several storeys and large
clear floor areas
– cast iron available in bulk
– cast iron columns used instead of bearing walls and cast iron
beams instead of timber floor joists
 Elevator invented in USA in 1870, enabling much taller

office and apartment buildings to be constructed
 Most multi-storey buildings in USA were still making use

of masonry walls instead of columns
Multi-storey buildings: masonry
 Monadnock building in
Chicago
 Built between 1889 and 1891
 16 storeys, 60 m high
 Tallest masonry building
until today
 Walls at the ground floor:
almost 1.80 m thick,
occupying more than one-
fifth of the width of the
building
 Wall thickness: rule of
thumb - 0.3m3 of exterior
walls for each square meter
of floor
Multi-storey buildings: skeleton frames
 Home Insurance Building
 Built in 1884 and
demolished in 1931
 10 storeys, 42 m high
 Considered to be the first
skyscraper
 Exterior masonry walls
 Cast-iron columns
 Wrought-iron beams
 One of the first to make
use of steel skeleton frame
instead of masonry walls
 significant reduction of
dead weight (1/3 of that of
a masonry building)
Multi-storey buildings: skeleton frames
 Steel skeleton frames
– loads carried by a steel frame composed of columns and beams
rigidly connected between them
– large clear spaces
Traditional load-bearing wall construction
 Outside load-bearing
wall support:
– dead weight of the walls
and floors above
– live loads on the floors
– horizontal forces due to
wind pressure
 Columns support
gravity loads only
 To avoid tension on the
brick walls, the resultant
force must lie in the
middle third of the
thickness of the wall 
very thick walls in the
lower storeys
Load-bearing wall construction
 In modern load-bearing wall construction, lateral forces
due to wind are resisted by walls aligned in the direction
of the wind
 Such walls are much more effective, because they have a
much larger moment resistance
 Transverse walls acts as vertical cantilevers against
lateral forces
 In modern construction,
load-bearing walls
are from reinforced
concrete
Multi-storey buildings: gravity and lateral loads
 The load-bearing walls must be in the frames resisting
vertical loads only
same position in plan to act as a vertical
cantilever
 In order to provide clear floor spaces,
doors, corridors, lift wells and staircases
 Most buildings realised as a

combination of:
load-bearing walls
– load-bearing walls resisting lateral forces for lateral loads
– frames resisting gravity loads
load-bearing walls load-bearing walls
or braced frames or braced frames
frames resisting frames resisting

vertical loads only vertical loads only
Multi-storey buildings: gravity and lateral loads
 Lateral forces on external cladding are transmitted to the
bearing walls
– directly, through external cladding
– indirectly, via floors
 Floors must be stiff and strong in their plane in order to
allow lateral forces acting on gravity frames to be
transmitted to load-bearing walls
 Usually floors are realised from cast in place reinforced
concrete to give a monolithic slab over full plan of the
building
F F
stiff floor flexible floor

Multi-storey buildings: types of structures
 As the height of the building increases, the more
important are wind and earthquake loads in comparison
with gravity loading
– In a multi-storey building, acting as a vertical cantilever, bending
stresses at the base increase with the square of its height
– Wind loading increases with the height
– Earthquake loading increases with building weight
 Reinforced concrete structures:

– reinforced concrete frames
– load-bearing walls
 Steel structures:
– moment-resisting frames
– braced frames
Multi-storey buildings: types of steel structures
 Moment-resisting frames resist lateral
loads through flexural strength of
members
– clear spaces, but
– large deformations of the structure
– large stresses due to bending
 Braced frames resist lateral loads through

direct (axial) stresses in the triangulated
system
– obstruction of clear spaces, but
– small deformations (rigid structure)
– smaller stresses due to more efficient
structural behaviour
Multi-storey buildings: braced steel frames
 Concentrically braced frames with diagonal bracing
 Concentrically
V-braced frames
 Eccentrically
braced frames
Multi-storey buildings: steel structural systems
 Braced frame efficient in reducing lateral deformations at
the lower storeys, but becomes inefficient at upper
storeys due to overall cantilever-like effect
 Moment-resisting frame: uniform "shear-like"
deformations
 Combined moment-resisting frame and braced frame:
more rigid overall behaviour due to interaction between
the two systems
 Braced frame with central braced span:
– inner columns: large axial stresses due to truss action
– outer columns: small axial stresses
 Outrigger truss: outer columns
are "involved" into the truss-like
action (axial stresses) through
the outrigger truss
 Exterior framed tube:
closely spaced columns
at the exterior of the
building, rigidly
connected to deep
beams
 Acting like a giant
rectangular steel hollow
section
 Shear-lag effect - non-
uniform stresses on
web and flanges:
middle sections are not
very stressed
 Exterior framed tube:
World Trade Center,
New-York
 Exterior framed tube: World Trade Center, New-York
 Exterior framed tube: World Trade Center, New-York
 Bundled framed tube:
combination of multiple tubes
to reduce the shear lag effect
 Sears
Tower,
Chicago
 Exterior diagonal tube: giant
truss-like behaviour
 Exterior
diagonal
tube: John
Hancock
Center,
Chicago
Course 6
Structural action:
- Foundations
- General remarks on structural action
Foundations
 Most structures invariably rest on the ground
 The best solution would be to place the supports of a

structure on solid rock, but this is seldom possible
 In most cases solid rocks lies deep in the ground, with

softer and weaker soil layers above it
 Relatively high stresses in the superstructure have to be

safely transferred to the much softer and weaker soil.
This is done through foundations
Types of foundations
 Isolated footing
– Top soil layer is removed and a block of
concrete, wider than the one which rests
on it, is placed on the ground
– Plan dimensions of the isolated footing
need to be larger than the ones of the
column, in order to have lower stresses
at the foundation-soil interface
– Foundation dimensions should be large
enough to allow stresses acting on the
soil to be smaller than the soil strength
 Continuous footing: when the
structural member to be supported
by the foundation is a wall, the
footing is realised continuously
below the wall, following the
concept of the isolated footing
 Raft foundation:
– When the soil is very poor, larger
area is required for the foundation,
which extends over the full plan
dimension of the building
– Raft foundations were developed by
Romans, who built them from
hydraulic concrete several metres
deep
– Modern raft foundations are much
thinner, as they are realised from
reinforced concrete
– Raft foundations can be
constructed as a series of boxes,
with the walls in the basement
contributing to the strength of the
foundation and enabling thinner
slab
 Isolated and continuous footings, and raft foundations
are shallow foundations:
– placed relatively close to the surface of the ground
– loads are transferred from the building to the soil by providing
large enough area of the foundation in order to reduce stresses
below the ones allowed by the strength of the soil
 Pile foundations:
– Soil properties get better as the depth
increases. When the soil near the surface is
very poor, pile foundations can be used.
– Pile foundations are made of tree trunks (in
old times), steel or reinforced concrete (in
modern times)
– Loads are transferred to the soil through
shear stresses between the pile shaft and
the soil (major contribution) and
compression stresses at the bottom of the
pile (minor contribution)
– Piles are long, enabling them to reach
stronger and stiffer soil layers, or even
solid rock
– First pile foundations date back to Neolithic
period, and were made of tree trunks
 Pile foundations:
– Without pile foundations, cities like Venice
and Amsterdam, located due to strategic
and economic reasons on marshes could
not have been developed at all
– Wooden piles were usually of oak or, in the
sea, of greenheart from Central America,
which is particularly resistant to marine
borers
– Pile foundations can be installed by either
driving them into the ground (wooden, steel
and precast concrete) or drilling a shaft and
filling it with concrete
 Piles are deep foundations, in which
loads are transferred to the soil by
reaching deeper and stronger soil
layers.
 Cofferdam foundations
– Cofferdam is an enclosure beneath
the water constructed to allow
water to be displaced by air for the
purpose of creating a dry work
environment
– Were developed by Romans and
remained mainly unchanged until
the early 19th century
– Pneumatic caissons were then
invented, allowing underwater
foundations to be excavated,
keeping the water out by air
pressure. Difficult and expensive
to operate.
Failure of foundations
 Complete failures of foundations are rare, though they
may happen
– Example: Transcona grain silo, Winipeg , Canada. In October
1913, this grain silo started to tip over. It was loaded with over a
million bushels of wheat and was newly built. It continued to sink
slowly for over 12 hours until finally it was at an angle of 30
degrees from vertical but still intact. The wheat was emptied from
the bins, and work began to right it. By tunelling underneath it,
they built new foundations down to the bedrock and then pushed
it back into position. It is still in use today
Failure of foundations
 Complete failure of foundations are rare, though they may
happen
– Example: Tilting of apartment buildings at Kawagishi-Cho,
Niigata, produced by liquefaction of the soil during the 1964
Niigata Earthquake
Foundation soil behaviour
 The biggest problem of foundations is soil settlement,
especially the differential settlement, of various parts of a
structure, leading to cracking and distortion of the
superstructure
 Soil can vary greatly in composition from one point to
another, even under the same structure
 Soil properties are greatly affected by ground water
 Soil consists of a mass of solid particles (soil skeleton) of
sand and/or clay, more or less loosely packed, and the
spaces between them filled with water
 In an undisturbed soil the weight of the earth above is
carried by solid particles, and the water in pores is at
normal pressure of water at that level below the water
table
 Soil skeleton is much more compressible than water, and
when an additional load (e.g. from a building) comes onto
the ground,
– At first, the additional compressive stress in the soil is carried
entirely by water because it is stiffer than the soil skeleton
– The pore pressure increases and it is squeezed out sideways
from under the foundation
– Pore water pressure drops gradually back to normal values at that
depth, as the soil skeleton is compressed enough to carry itself
the loads
 In fine clays the water escapes slowly and the process of
consolidation under a foundation can take many years
 Problems due to settlement can arise when:
– Soil property changes at different points under the same structure
– When construction of the building proceeds fast (as is the case in
modern times)
– When an additional heavy load (e.g. a tower in old times) is added
after the bulk of the structure is completed and has settled
– Ground water is pumped out. Notorious instances: Venice and
Mexico-city
 Example: Venice
– Water supply in Venice originally came from mainland
– Starting from 1910, this was increasingly supplemented from
boreholes up to 300 m deep
– General subsidence of buildings (100-200 mm)  extremely

damaging to buildings as walls of most Venetian houses start at
only about 1 m above average sea level
 Example: Mexico-city:
– Most of the city is built on a soft bed 30-40 m deep of a dried-up
lake
– Building settlement reached constant levels and was not a
problem
– In the 19th century pumping started from deep wells to
supplement water supply
– Today the ground level in the centre of the city is more than 6 m
lower than it was in 1900
– Old buildings, sewers and water pipes much affected
General remarks on structural action
 [1] Structures support loads in
the most direct way open to
them
– bowstring truss: if the top chord
has the right shape for the given
loading, loads pass directly to the
support, ignoring the web
members
– a lateral load at the top of a
triangular tower is transmitted
down the two main members while
the inner bars are unstressed
 [1] Structures support loads in
the most direct way open to
them
– (a) the load applied at the top of a
column in the frame from the
figure goes directly to the
foundation through the column,
while the rest of structure is
virtually unstressed
– (b) if the direct path is interrupted,
the load path is much more
complicated, and the stresses and
deflections are greatly increased
– Rule: provide paths as simple and

as direct as possible for the loads
to pass to the supports
 Characteristics of a well-designed structure:
– elements are few and well-disposed
– their function is obvious, and
– the whole effect inspires confidence
 well conceived structure
 ill-conceived structure
 [2] The larger the structure,
– the more important is the own weight of the structure in
comparison with other loads
– the more important is that structural elements be arranged as
efficiently as possible
 Example: simply supported beam bridge
– moment larger at the midspan
– provide more material at the midspan
to increase the moment resistance
Mmax
– larger loads at the midspan
– larger moments
– inefficient structural configuration

– Bridges using simply-supported beams are most often of
constant cross-section and are used for small spans only
 Example: cantilever
bridge
– the moment due to dead
weight is largest at the
support
– the material must be

concentrated at the
supports
– a load near the support

produces only a small
increase in moment
– efficient structure for large

bridges
 [3] Statically indeterminate structures support loads in
the stiffest mode open to them
– very often, load paths can take two alternatives: direct
tension/compression or bending
– a thin plate loaded transversally supports loads by bending but
direct (membrane) action develops rapidly as the plate deflects
– thin shells support transverse loads as far as possible by
compressive membrane forces rather than bending
 [3] Statically indeterminate structures support loads in
the stiffest mode open to them
– sometimes simple change in a structure allows loads to be
carried in a more efficient way:
• portal frame with a concentrated load at the ridge develops bending
stresses
• if a tie is inserted between the two sides of the eaves level. The two
rafters and the tie form a triangulated structure. The loads are
transmitted through compression in the rafters, tension in ties,
compression in beams, with negligible bending.
 [4] Direct tension is preferable to direct compression
– it is rarely possible to avoid compression
– even in predominantly tension structures as suspension bridges,
tensile forces in cables must be balanced by compressive forces
in towers
– minimize the loss of efficiency due to compression by:
• keeping the compressive members short
• use a material (e.g concrete) with lower strength, and therefore more
stocky members less prone to instability
 [5] In statically indeterminate structures, the stiffer
elements will attract larger forces
– Example: portal frames are often
haunched near the corners
• further increase of bending moments
at the corners though actual stresses
reduce due increase of cross-section
Course 7
The process of structural design

Load paths

References
 ESDEP
http://www.esdep.org/members/master/wg01b/l0100.htm
 Load path visual aids:

http://www.ce.jhu.edu/steel/aisc_web/Visual_Aids/Animati
ons/building_design/index.html
 Tributary Areas and Load Diagrams by T. Bartlett Quimby

http://www.bgstructuralengineering.com/BGSMA/BGTrib
Area/BGSMA_TA_02.htm
Structures
 Civil engineering
structures: how to
design?
Design objectives
 Design is "the process of defining the means of
manufacturing a product to satisfy a required need"
– conceptual ideas, ideas and studies
– study of human intentions, communicated with
– detailed technical and drawings, words and
manufacture stages models
 In structural design, prime objectives are to ensure the

best possible:
– intended function of the construction,
– safe construction system,
– imaginative and delightful solution,
– completed on time and to the original budget cost
 These points could possibly be satisfied by either:
– simply making an exact copy of a previous artefact, or,
– "re-inventing the wheel", by designing every system and
component afresh.
Design objectives
 Re-using an existing design:
– not always suitable (e.g. need for larger spans, larger loads,
different function, etc.)
– need to improve a deficient design
– new materials
– boring
 Completely new design:
– not enough time - new theoretical ideas and innovations
invariably takes much time
– potential risks and errors
 The middle way:
– The solutions will incorporate components from both of
fundamental principles and recent developments
– However, throughout the Design Process it is prudent to maintain
a clear grasp of final objectives and utilise relatively simple
technical means and solutions
Design approach
 Many design methods exist
 Suggested approach:
– Recognise that a challenge
exists and clearly define the
overall objectives for a design.
– Research around the task and
investigate likely relevant
information (Analysis).
– Evolve possible solutions to
the task (Synthesis).
– Decide on, and refine, the best
solution (Evaluation),
establishing clear priorities for
action (in terms of
manufacture, construction,
operation and maintenance).
– Communicate decisions to
others involved in the task.
Design process
 The design process is
highly complex, as all
factors in the design
are interdependent to
a greater or lesser
degree
 All factors and
combinations must be
explored
comprehensively from
idea to detail, with
many compromises
having to be finely
balanced to achieve a
feasible solution
Development of a structural system: example
 Case study: two-lorry garage building with an office, toilet
and tea room
Development of a structural system: garage
 [1] Pose an initial concept that may well satisfy the
functions
– start by looking at the functions (performance) required and their
relationships
– generate a 'bubble' (or flow) diagram of relationships between
different functional areas to decide possible interconnections and
locations
– find suitable plan areas and minimum clear heights of each three-
dimensional 'volume of space'
– a possible plan layout may then
be indicated, noting any
particular complications of the
site, e.g. plan shape, proximity
of old buildings, slope or
soil consistency
– many other plan arrangements
will be possible and should be
considered quickly at this phase
functions
– The requirements
of each 'volume of
space' and its
interfaces must be
examined for all
functional, cost
and aesthetic
criteria, e.g. what
structural applied
live loads must be
resisted; what
heating, ventilating,
lighting and
acoustic
requirements are
likely to be desired
functions
– The main criteria
can easily be
recognised and
then followed up
and tested by
numerical
assessment.
– Incompatibilities
may be 'designed
out' by re-
arranging the
planned spaces or
making other
compromises.
functions
– Prepare a set of initial
assumptions for possible
materials and the
structural system
compatible with the
'volumes of space'
• 'Frame'
• 'Planar' or
• 'Membrane'
– Previous knowledge and
understanding of actual
constructions or
structural theory, as well
as the current availability
of materials and skills
functions
– Hypothesis: choose steel 'frame' system
– Elucidate and test your ideas by making quick 3D
sketches, or simple physical models, to explore
the likely compatibility and aesthetic impact
– A range of patterns viewed at different distances
from, all around, and inside the buildings must
be developed
• Long range - the skyline silhouette or "landscape"
pattern
• Middle distance - when the whole built object can
be seen
• Close up - when a detail is clearly seen
• Very close - when the texture of the materials can
be seen
functions
– All principal specialists (architects, engineers for
structure and environmental services, and also
major suppliers and contractors) collaborate and
communicate freely with each other - also with
the client - at this conceptual design phase
– Be prepared to modify the concept readily and
work quickly
– Timescale for an initial structural design
concept: minutes. But hours will be needed for
discussion and communication with others in
researching an initial complete design idea
 [2] Recognise the main structural systems and estimate
the necessary strength and stiffness
– Consider the applied live loads from roofs, floors or walls, and
trace the 'load paths' through the integral 3D array of elements to
the foundations
• Profiled steel decking
roof: the rainwater should
run to the sides
• Manufacturers' data table
will indicate both the
slope angle to be
provided (4° - 6°
minimum) and the
secondary beam (purlin)
spacing required.
the foundations
• The purlins must be
supported, by a sloped
main beam or truss,
usually spanning the
shorter direction in plan,
and supported by columns
stabilised in three
dimensions
• Wind loads on the longer
side of the building can be
resisted by cladding that
spans directly to the main
columns, or onto sidewall
rails spanning between
columns
the foundations
• The columns could resist
overturning by:
– cross-bracing (in this case
the large entry door would
be impeded).
– rigidly fixing the columns
to the foundation bases;
can the soil resist the extra
overturning effect at the
base?
– or rigidly fixing the tops of
the columns to the main
beams (creating 'portals')
and giving smaller, cheaper
"pin" base foundations.
the foundations
• Wind loads on the open
short side of the building
can be resisted by the
opening door spanning
top to bottom, or side to
side
• At the closed short side
the wind loads can be
resisted by cladding that
either spans directly
between secondary end
wall columns, or onto
rails to these columns
the foundations
• Roof bracings may be
required to transfer the
horizontal longitudinal
forces due to wind and
earthquake to the top of
the columns along
longitudinal walls
• These forces need to
reach the foundation 
vertical braces along the
longitudinal walls
– Identify the prime force actions (compression C; tension T;
bending B) in the elements and the likely forms of overall and
element deflections for all applied loadings both separately and
when combined.
– Have the elements drawn to an approximate scale
– At this phase the structural design becomes more definite and
takes longer. Timescale: minutes.
 [3] Assess loads accurately and estimate sizes of main
elements
– Evaluate loads
– Estimate action effects (forces and bending moments in structural
members)
– Estimate beam sizes (checking bending strength
and stiffness). Structure/service duct or
pipe integration may require beams to
be as shallow as possible, or
deeper and with holes in the web.
– Likely jointing methods must
be considered carefully: is
the beam to be simply
supported or fully continuous
and what are the fabrication,
erection and cost implications?
– Structural calculations are now being performed and the time
involved is more significant. Timescale: minutes/hours.
 [4] Full structural analysis, using estimated element sizes
with suitable modelling of joints, related to actual details
– The structural calculations and details are now progressing.
Timescale: hours/days.
– Iteration of phases 1-4 above will undoubtedly be required, in
particular to ensure that the early structural decisions are
compatible with the subsequent investigations concerning the
functional, environment, cost and aesthetic aspects.
 [5] Communicate Design Intentions through Drawings
and Specifications
– The structural design is now being finalised.
Timescale: days/weeks.
 [6] Supervise the Execution Operation
– The design ideas are now being put into operation. Timescale:
weeks/months
 [7] Conduct Regular Maintenance
– This is the operation phase. Timescale: years/decades
Course 8
Design codes:
- Structural Eurocodes
- Current Romanian codes
Code of Hammurabi
 The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved ancient law
code, created about 1760 BC in ancient Babylon.
 It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi.
 Only one example of the Code survives today, inscribed
on a basalt stone stele. Originally, several stelae would
have been displayed in temples around the empire.
 The text has been broken down by translators into 282
laws, but this division is arbitrary, since the original text
contains no divisional markers
Code of Hammurabi (excerpt)
...
 § 228. If a builder build a house for a man and complete it, (that man)
shall give him two shekels of silver per SAR of house as his wage.
 § 229. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its
construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and
cause the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to
death.
 § 230. If it cause the death of a son of the owner of the house, they
shall put to death a son of that builder.
 § 231. If it cause the death of a slave of the owner of the house, he
shall give to the owner of the house a slave of equal value.
 § 232. If it destroy property, he shall restore whatever it destroyed,
and because he did not make the house which he built firm and it
collapsed, he shall rebuild the house which collapsed at his own
expense.
 § 233. If a builder build a house for a man and do not make its
construction meet the requirements and a wall fall in, that builder
shall strengthen that wall at his own expense.
Building codes
 Many of the restrictions encountered in building design
are imposed by legal regulations
 The most important ones for structural engineers are
building codes, which represent a set of regulations
regarding:
– principles of structural design
– guidance in evaluation of loads on structures
– specific design provisions for different type of structures (steel
structures, reinforced concrete structures, foundations, etc.) and
building components (electrical system, HVAC, plumbing, etc.)
 In general, building-code requirements are the minimum
needed for public protection.
 Often, however, architects and engineers must design
more conservatively, to meet the client’s needs, produce
a more efficient building system, or take into account
conditions not covered fully by code provisions.
Forms of building codes
 Codes can often be classified as specifications type or
performance type
 Specifications type codes:
– names specific materials for specific uses and specifies minimum
or maximum dimensions,
– for example, "a brick wall may not be less than 40 cm thick".
 Performance type codes:
– Specifies required performance of a construction but leaves
materials, methods, and dimensions for the designers to choose.
– Performance-type codes are generally preferred, because they
give designers greater design freedom in meeting clients’ needs,
while satisfying the intent of the code.
 Most codes are rather a mixture of specifications and
performance type. The reason for this is that insufficient
information is currently available for preparation of an
entire enforceable performance code.
The Eurocodes: why?
 European continent was traditionally divided in many
countries, each with its own building design code  firms
were constrained to design/fabricate/construct for their
own country market
 With the advent of the European Union, it has developed
a single market through a standardised system of laws
which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the
freedom of movement of people, goods, services and
capital
 The objective of the European Commission is for “the

Eurocodes to establish a set of common technical rules
for the design of buildings and civil engineering works
which will ultimately replace the differing rules in the
various Member States”.
What are the Eurocodes?
 The Eurocodes are a set of European Standards (EN) for
the design of buildings and other civil engineering works
and construction products
 The Eurocodes are produced by the Comité Européen de
Normalisation (CEN).
 The Eurocodes embody National experience and research
output together with the expertise of CEN Technical
Committee 250 (CEN/TC250) and of International
Technical and Scientific Organisations and represent a
"world-class standard for structural design".
 Publication of the Eurocodes was completed in 2007.
Following CEN rules, the Eurocodes can be used in
parallel with National Standards until 2010, when all
conflicting National Standards should be withdrawn.
What are the Eurocodes?
 The Eurocodes cover in a comprehensive manner:
– all principal construction materials (concrete, steel, timber,
masonry and aluminium),
– all major fields of structural engineering (basis of structural
design, loading, fire, geotechnics, earthquake, etc.) and
– a wide range of types of structures and products (buildings,
bridges, towers and masts, silos, etc).
 The verification procedure in the Eurocodes is based on
the limit state concept used in conjunction with partial
safety factors. The Eurocodes allow also for design
based on probabilistic methods as well as for design
assisted by testing, and provide guidance for the use of
these methods.
The Eurocodes suite
The Eurocodes suite is made up by 10 European Standards
for structural design
 EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural design
 EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
 EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
 EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
 EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and
concrete structures
 EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
 EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
 EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
 EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
 EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures
Links between the Eurocodes
EN 1990
Structural safety, serviceability and durability
EN 1991
Actions on structures
EN 1992 EN 1993 EN 1994
EN 1995 EN 1996 EN 1999
Design and detailing
EN 1997 EN 1998
Geotechnical design Seismic design
EN Eurocode Parts and Packages
 Each of the codes (except EN 1990) is divided into a
number of Parts covering specific aspects of the subject
 In total there are 58 EN Eurocode parts distributed in the
ten Eurocodes (EN 1990 – 1999)
 All of the EN Eurocodes relating to materials have a Part
1-1 which covers the design of buildings and other civil
engineering structures and a Part 1-2 for fire design
 The EN Eurocode Parts have been grouped into

Packages, each of which must be published before the
implementation of that set of EN Eurocodes may begin
EN 1990: Basis of structural design
 EN 1990 establishes Principles and
Requirements for the safety, serviceability
and durability of structures, describes the
basis for their design and verification and
gives guidelines for related aspects of
structural reliability
 EN 1990 is intended to be used in conjunction
with EN 1991 to EN 1999 for the structural
design of buildings and other civil engineering
works, including geotechnical aspects,
structural fire design, situations involving
earthquakes, execution and temporary
structures. For the design of special
construction works (e.g. nuclear installations,
dams, etc.), other provisions than those in EN
1990 to EN 1999 might be necessary.
 EN 1990 is applicable for the design of
structures where other materials or other
actions outside the scope of EN 1991 to EN
1999 are involved.
 EN 1990 is applicable for the structural
appraisal of existing construction, in
developing the design of repairs and
alterations or in assessing change of use.
 EN 1990 may be used, when relevant, as a
guidance document for the design of
structures outside the scope of the
Eurocodes EN 1991 to EN 1999, for:
– assessing other actions and their combinations;
– modelling material and structural behaviour;
– assessing numerical values of the reliability
format.
EN 1991: Actions on structures
 EN 1991 (Eurocode 1) provides
comprehensive information on all actions
that should normally be considered in the
design of buildings and other civil
engineering works, including some
geotechnical aspects.
 EN 1991 is intended to be used in
conjunction with EN 1992 to EN 1999 for the
structural design of buildings and other civil
engineering works.
 EN 1991 is divided into four main parts:
– Part 1: General actions
– Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges
– Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery
– Part 4: Silos and tanks
EN 1991: Actions on structures
EN 1991-1-1:2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions -
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
Actions on structures exposed to fire
Snow loads
Wind actions
Thermal actions
Actions during execution
Accidental actions
EN 1991-2:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 2: Traffic loads on
bridges
EN 1991-3:2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 3: Actions induced by
cranes and machinery
EN 1991-4: 2006 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 4: Silos and tanks
EN 1992: Design of concrete structures
 EN 1992 (Eurocode 2) applies to the design of
buildings and other civil engineering works in
plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete.
 Eurocode 2 is concerned with the requirements
for resistance, serviceability, durability and fire
resistance of concrete structures.
– Part 1-1 gives a general basis for the design of
structures in plain, reinforced and prestressed
concrete
– Part 1-2 deals with the design of concrete structures
for the accidental situation of fire exposure
– Part 2 gives a general basis for the design and
detailing of bridges in reinforced and prestressed
concrete
– Part 3 covers additional rules for the design of
concrete structures for the containment of liquids or
granular solids and other liquid retaining structures
EN 1992: Design of concrete structures
EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -

Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1992-1-2:2004 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -
Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire design
EN 1992-2:2005 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -
Part 2: Concrete bridges - Design and detailing
rules
EN 1992-3:2006 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -
Part 3: Liquid retaining and containment
structures
EN 1993: Design of steel structures
 EN 1993 (Eurocode 3) applies to the design
of buildings and other civil engineering
works in steel.
 EN 1993 is concerned with requirements for
resistance, serviceability, durability and fire
resistance of steel structures.
 EN Eurocode 3 is wider in scope than most
of the other design EN Eurocodes due to the
diversity of steel structures, the need to
cover both bolted and welded joints and the
possible slenderness of construction.
 EN 1993 has 20 parts covering common
rules, fire design, bridges, buildings, tanks,
silos, pipelined piling, crane supported
structures, towers and masts, chimneys etc.
EN 1993-1-1:2005 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for buildings
General rules - Structural fire design
General rules - Supplementary rules for cold-formed
members and sheeting
General rules - Supplementary rules for stainless
steels
General rules - Plated structural elements
Strength and stability of shell structures
Strength and stability of planar plated structures
subject to out of plane loading
Design of joints
Fatigue
Material toughness and through-thickness properties
Design of structures with tension components
General - High strength steels
EN 1993-2:2006 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 2: Steel
bridges
Towers, masts and chimneys – Towers and masts
Towers, masts and chimneys – Chimneys
Silos
Tanks
Pipelines
EN 1993-5:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 5: Piling
EN 1993-6:2007 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures - Part 6: Crane
supporting structures
EN 1994: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures
composite structures and members for
buildings and other civil engineering works

resistance of composite structures.
 EN 1994 is intended to be used in conjunction

with:
– EN 1992: Eurocode 2 - Design of concrete
structures and
– EN 1993: Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures
EN 1994: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures
EN 1994-1-1:2004 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete

structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings
EN 1994-1-2:2005 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures – Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire
design
EN 1994-2:2005 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete
structures – Part 2: General rules and rules for
bridges
EN 1995: Design of timber structures
buildings and other civil engineering works in
timber (solid timber, sawn, planed or in pole
form, glued laminated timber or wood-based
structural products) or wood-based panels
jointed together with adhesives or
mechanical fasteners
EN 1995-1-1:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures -

Part 1-1: General - Common rules and rules for
buildings
EN 1995-1-2:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures -
Part 1-2: General - Structural fire design
EN 1995-2:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures -
Part 2: Bridges
EN 1996: Design of masonry structures
buildings and other civil engineering works,
or parts thereof, in unreinforced, reinforced,
prestressed and confined masonry.
 The execution is covered to the extent that is
necessary to indicate the quality of the
construction materials and products that
should be used and the standard of
workmanship on site needed to comply with
the assumptions made in the design rules.
EN 1996-1-1:2005 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures - Part 1-1: General rules
for reinforced and unreinforced masonry structures
EN 1996-1-2:2005 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures - Part 1-2: General rules -
Structural fire design
EN 1996-2:2006 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures - Part 2: Design
considerations, selection of materials and execution of masonry
EN 1996-3:2006 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures - Part 3: Simplified
calculation methods for unreinforced masonry structures
EN 1997: Geotechnical design
 EN 1997 (Eurocode 7) applies to the
geotechnical aspects of the design of
buildings and other civil engineering
works
 Numerical values of actions on buildings
and other civil engineering works to be
taken into account in design are provided
in EN 1991 for the various types of
construction, whereas actions imposed by
the ground, such as earth pressures and
by ground water, shall be calculated
according to the rules of EN 1997.
EN 1997-1:2004 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 1:
General rules
EN 1997-2:2007 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 2:
Ground investigation and testing
EN 1998: Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
 EN 1998 Eurocode 8 applies to the design
and construction of buildings and other
civil engineering works in seismic regions.
 Its purpose is to ensure that in the event of
earthquakes
– human lives are protected;
– damage is limited;
– structures important for civil protection remain
operational.
 The random nature of the seismic events
and the limited resources available to
counter their effects are such as to make
the attainment of these goals only partially
possible and only measurable in
probabilistic terms.
resistance
 The extent of the protection that can be
provided to different categories of buildings,
which is only measurable in probabilistic
terms, is a matter of optimal allocation of
resources and is therefore expected to vary
from country to country, depending on the
relative importance of the seismic risk with
respect to risks of other origin and on the
global economic resources.
 Special structures, such as nuclear power
plants, offshore structures and large dams,
are beyond the scope of EN 1998.
resistance
 EN 1998 contains only those provisions that,
in addition to the provisions of the other
relevant EN Eurocodes, must be observed for
the design of structures in seismic regions. It
complements in this respect the other EN
Eurocodes.
EN 1998-1:2004 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance – Part 1:
General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
Bridges
Assessment and retrofitting of buildings
Silos, tanks and pipelines
Foundations, retaining structures and geotechnical aspects
Towers, masts and chimneys
EN 1999: Design of aluminium structures
 EN 1999 Eurocode 9 applies to the design of
buildings and other civil engineering and
structural works in aluminium.
resistance of aluminium structures.
EN 1999-1-1:2007 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures

- Part 1-1: General structural rules
- Part 1-2: Structural fire design
- Part 1-3: Structures susceptible to fatigue
- Part 1-4: Cold-formed structural sheeting
- Part 1-5: Shell structures
EU legislation for construction works and products
 The Construction Products Directive (Council Directive
89/106/EEC) aim is to breakdown artificial barriers to
trade throughout the European Union and is intended for
products placed on the market
 According to the Construction Products Directive,
construction products suitable for construction works
need to satisfy the following six essential requirements
as appropriate:
– mechanical resistance and stability
– safety in case of a fire
– hygiene, health and the environment
– safety in use
– protection against noise
– energy economy and heat retention
EU legislation for construction works and products
 The Eurocodes provide common design methods,
expressed in a set of European standards, which are
intended to be used as reference documents for Member
States to:
– prove the compliance of building and civil engineering works or
parts thereof with Essential Requirement n°1 Mechanical
resistance and stability (including such aspects of Essential
Requirement n°4 Safety in use, which relate to mechanical
resistance and stability) and a part of Essential Requirement n°2
Safety in case of fire, including durability
– express in technical terms , these Essential Requirements
applicable to the works and parts thereof;
– determine the performance of structural components and kits
with regard to mechanical resistance and stability and resistance
to fire, insofar as it is part of the information accompanying CE
marking
Implementation of the Eurocodes
 When an EN Eurocode Part is made available by CEN
(Date of Availability), National Authorities and National
Standards Bodies should:
– translate the Eurocode Part in authorised national languages
– set the Nationally Determined Parameters to be applied on their
territory
– publish the National Standard transposing the EN Eurocode Part
and the National Annex
– adapt their National Provisions so that the EN Eurocode Part can
be used on their territory
– promote training on the Eurocodes
 The implementation of an EN Eurocode Part has three
phases:
– Translation period (max 1 year). The National Standards Bodies
may start the translation of a Eurocode Part in authorised national
languages at the latest at the Date of Availability.
– National Calibration period (max 2 years). The Member States
should fix the Nationally Determined Parameters. At the end of
this period, the national version of the EN Eurocode Part with the
National Annex will be published by the National Standards
Bodies. Also, the Member States should adapt the National
Provisions so that the Eurocode Part can be used on their
territory.
– Coexistence period. During the coexistence period, which starts
at the end of the National Calibration period, the Eurocode Part
can be used, just as the presently existing national system can
also be used. The coexistence period of a Eurocode Package will
last up to a maximum time of three years after the national
publication of the last Part of a Package. Member States shall
make sure that all the Parts of the related Package can be used
without ambiguity on their territory by adapting their National
Provisions as necessary.
 All conflicting National Standards in a Package should be
withdrawn a maximum of 5 years after the Date of
Availability of the last available Part in the Package
 Following CEN rules, the Eurocodes can be used in
parallel with National Standards until 2010, when all
conflicting National Standards will be withdrawn
National Standards
 The National Standard transposing the EN Eurocode Part,
when published by a National Standards Body, will be
composed of the EN Eurocode text preceded by the
National Title page and by the National Foreword and
generally followed by the National Annex
 The National Standards Bodies should normally publish
the National Annex, on behalf of and with the agreement
of the competent National Authorities
National Standards: National Annex
 The National Annex (NA) may contain directly, or by
reference to specific provisions,
– information on the Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) to
be used for the design of buildings and other civil engineering
works to be constructed in the country concerned.
– It may also contain decisions on the application of informative
annexes and reference to non-contradictory complementary
information
 A National Annex is not necessary if a Eurocode Part
contains no choice open for Nationally Determined
Parameters, or if a Eurocode Part is not relevant for the
Member State (e.g. EN 1998 for seismic design for some
countries)
National Standards: NDPs
 Eurocodes "recognise the responsibility of regulatory
authorities in each Member State and have safeguarded
their right to determine values related to safety matters at
national level where these continue to vary from State to
State".
 National choice is provided by the Eurocodes with sets of
recommended values, classes, symbols and alternative
methods to be used as NDPs.
 The NDPs account for possible differences in
geographical or climatic conditions, or in ways of life, as
well as different levels of protection that may prevail at
national, regional or local level.
 When the Eurocodes are used for the design of
construction works, or parts thereof, the NDPs of the
Member State on whose territory the works are located
shall be applied.
Current Romanian codes
 Standards issued and maintained by ASRO - Asociaţia de
Standardizare din România (Romanian Standards
Association): "SR-EN“, "STAS", "SR"
 Application of standards issued by ASRO are optional (law
39/1998 and 355/2002). Application of standards can become
compulsory only when stipulated by a technical regulation
issued by an authority
 Authority - Ministry of Regional Development and Public
Administration (Ministerul Dezvoltarii Regionale si
Administratiei Publice - MDRAP)
 MDRAP issues a list of technical regulations in force, most
available in "Buletinul Constructiilor" published by URBAN-
INCERC (Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare în
Construcţii, Urbanism şi Dezvoltare Teritorială Durabilă)
 Current design codes in Romania are in continuous
evolution, as new European standards are implemented
Some of the current Romanian codes
 CR 0-2012: “Cod de proiectare. Bazele proiectării
construcţiilor”
 CR 1-1-3/2012: ”Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acţiunii
zăpezii asupra construcţiilor”
 CR 1-1-4/2012: “Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acţiunii
vântului asupra construcţiilor”
 P 100-1/2013: “Cod de proiectare seismică – Partea I –
Prevederi de proiectare pentru clădiri”
Course 9
Actions on structures:
permanent loads, imposed loads and snow loads

EN 1990: Classification of loads
 Actions are classified by their variation in time as follows:
– permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed
equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by
shrinkage and uneven settlements;
– variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams
and roofs, wind actions or snow loads;
– accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, or impact from vehicles.
 Actions can also be classified

– by their origin, as direct or indirect,
– by their spatial variation, as fixed or free, or
– by their nature and/or the structural response, as static or
dynamic.
 Permanent action is one that is likely to act throughout a
given reference period and for which the variation in
magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the
variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until
the action attains a certain limit value
 Variable action is one for which the variation in

magnitude with time is neither negligible nor monotonic
 Accidental action is usually of short duration but of

significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given
structure during the design working life
 Certain actions, such as snow loads, may be considered
as either accidental and/or variable actions, depending on
the site location
 Actions caused by water may be considered as

permanent and/or variable actions depending on the
variation of their magnitude with time
 Direct action: a set of forces (loads) applied to the

structure
 Indirect action: a set of imposed deformations or
accelerations caused for example, by temperature
changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or
earthquakes
 A fixed action is one that has a fixed distribution and
position over the structure or structural member such
that the magnitude and direction of the action are
determined unambiguously for the whole structure or
structural member if this magnitude and direction are
determined at one point on the structure or structural
member
 A free action is one that may have various spatial
distributions over the structure
 An action should be described by a model, its magnitude
being represented in the most common cases by one
scalar
NOTE: For some actions and some verifications, a more
complex representation of the magnitudes of some
actions may be necessary.
Permanent actions: EN 1991-1-1
 The self-weight of construction works is classified as a
permanent fixed action
 Permanent action is one which is likely to act throughout

a given reference period and for which the variation in
magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the
variation is always in the same direction (monotonic) until
the action attains a certain limit value
 Examples of permanent actions:

– self-weight (or dead load) of structures,
– fixed equipment and road surfacing,
– and indirect actions caused by shrinkage and uneven settlements
 Normative references: EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-
weight, imposed loads for buildings
 The total self-weight of structural and non-structural
members should be taken into account in combinations
of actions as a single action.
 The self-weight of new coatings and/or distribution
conduits that are intended to be added after execution
should be taken into account in design situations.
 The source and moisture content of bulk materials should
be considered in design situations of buildings used for
storage purposes.
 The self-weight of the construction works should be
represented in most cases by a single characteristic
value and be calculated on the basis of the nominal
dimensions and the characteristic values of the densities.
 The self weight of the construction works includes the
structure and non-structural elements including fixed
services as well as the weight of earth and ballast.
 Non-structural elements include:
– roofing;
– surfacing and coverings;
– partitions and linings;
– hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs;
– wall cladding;
– suspended ceilings;
– thermal insulation;
– fixed services.
– roofing;
– surfacing and coverings;

– partitions and linings;
– hand rails,
safety barriers,
parapets and kerbs;
– wall cladding;
– suspended ceilings;
– thermal insulation;
– fixed services
 Fixed services include:
– equipments for lifts and moving
stairways;
– heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) equipment;
– electrical equipment;
– pipes without their contents;
– cable trunking and conduits.
 Characteristic values of self-weight are determined using
– nominal dimensions (from architectural plans and details) and
– characteristic values of densities (obtained from Annex A to
EN 1991-1-1 or manufacturer)
 For manufactured elements such as flooring systems,
facades and ceilings, lifts and equipment for buildings,
data may be provided by the manufacturer
 For determining the effect of the self-weight due to

movable partitions, an equivalent uniformly distributed
load shall be used and added to the imposed load
Self-weight: example
CARPET FLOOR
RAISED FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
Specific
Thickness, Weight,
weight,
mm kN/m2
kN/m3
CARPET FLOOR ON RAISED
0.40
FLOOR SYSTEM
LEVELING MORTAR 30 21.0 0.63
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB 150 25.0 3.75
TOTAL 4.78
Imposed loads on buildings - EN 1991-1-1
 Imposed (or live) loads on buildings are those arising
from occupancy, including:
– normal use by persons;
– furniture and moveable objects (e.g. moveable partitions, storage,
the contents of containers);
– vehicles;
– anticipating rare events, such as concentrations of persons or of
furniture, or the moving or stacking of objects which may occur
during reorganization or redecoration
 Imposed loads shall be classified as variable free actions
 The imposed loads are modelled by uniformly distributed
loads, line loads or concentrated loads or combinations
of these loads.
 For the determination of the imposed loads, floor and
roof areas in buildings should be sub-divided into
categories according to their use.
Imposed loads on buildings - EN 1991-1-1
 Heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology
rooms, boiler rooms etc) are not included in the loads
given in EN 1991-1-1. Loads for heavy equipment should
be agreed between the client and/or the relevant
Authority.
 Generally, imposed loads are considered as uniformly
distributed. To ensure a minimum local resistance of the
floor structure a separate verification shall be performed
with a concentrated load. The concentrated load shall be
considered to act at any point on the floor (over an area
with a shape which is appropriate to the use and form of
the floor)
qk Qk
Imposed loads on buildings: Categories
 Areas in
residential, social,
commercial and
administration
buildings are
divided into
categories
according to their
specific uses
 Dynamic effects
shall be considered
where it is
anticipated that the
occupancy will
cause significant
dynamic effects
Imposed loads on buildings: load values
 Characteristic values qk for uniformly distributed load
and Qk for concentrated load are assigned to each
category. Recommended values are underlined.
Imposed loads on buildings: load values
 Romanian National Annex to SR EN 1991-1-1:2004
Imposed loads on buildings
 Where necessary qk and Qk should be increased in the
design (e.g. for stairs and balconies depending on the
occupancy and on dimensions). Where no value is
specified in the code, informatively, the loads on stairs
and balconies can be increased by 1.0 kN/m2.
Imposed loads on buildings: movable partitions
 Provided that a floor allows a lateral distribution of loads,
the self-weight of movable partitions may be taken into
account by a uniformly distributed load qk which should
be added to the imposed loads of floors. This defined
uniformly distributed load is dependent on the self-weight
of the partitions as follows:
– for movable partitions with a self-weight ≤ 1.0 kN/m wall length:
qk =0.5 kN/m2
qk =0.8 kN/m2;
qk =1.2 kN/m2
 Heavier partitions should be considered in the design
taking account of:
– the locations and directions of the partitions;
– the structural form of the floors
 Imposed loads are free actions:
– the most unfavourable spatial distribution shall be considered
– in practice, several "chessboard" distributions are considered in
addition to the uniform distribution
uniform distribution chessboard distribution 1 chessboard distribution 2

 EN 1991-1-1 contain provisions for calculation of
characteristic values of loads for the following types of
use of buildings:
– Residential, social, commercial and administration areas
– Areas for storage and industrial activities (including actions
induced by forklifts, actions induced by transport vehicles)
– Garages and vehicle traffic areas (excluding bridges)
– Roofs
 Additionally, horizontal loads on parapets and partition
walls acting as barriers need to be considered in design.
 Normative references: EN 1991-1-1: Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-
weight, imposed loads for buildings
Snow load: normative references
 Normative references
– EN 1991-1-3: Eurocode 1 - Actions on structures -
Part 1-3: General actions - Snow loads
– CR 1-1-3/2012: Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acţiunii zăpezii
asupra construcţiilor
 EN 1991-1-3 and CR 1-1-3-2012 give guidance to
determine the values of loads due to snow to be used for
the structural design of buildings and civil engineering
works
Snow load: special cases
 The two codes does NOT give guidance on specialist
aspects of snow loading, for example:
– impact snow loads resulting from snow sliding off or falling from
a higher roof;
– the additional wind loads which could result from changes in
shape or size of the construction works due to the presence of
snow or the accumulation of ice;
– loads in areas where snow is present all year round;
– ice loading;
– lateral loading due to snow (e.g. lateral loads exerted by drifts);
– snow loads on bridges.
 In regions with possible rainfalls on the snow and
consecutive melting and freezing, snow loads on roofs
should be increased, especially in cases where snow and
ice can block the drainage system of the roof
Snow load: classification and characteristics
 Generally, for the purpose of applying EN 1990, snow
loads are classified as variable, fixed, and static actions.
 Snow load may be treated as accidental in two cases:
– In particular situation of a snow fall which has an exceptionally
infrequent likelihood of occurring
– In particular situation of a snow deposition pattern which has an
exceptionally infrequent likelihood of occurring
 Snow action is modelled as a

gravity (vertical) load applied
on roofs of buildings, acting
per unit area of horizontal projection
Snow load on the ground
 The characteristic value of snow load on the ground (sk)
is based upon the probability of 0.02 being exceeded for a
reference period of one year. This is equivalent to a mean
return period of 50 years.
 CR 1-1-3-2013 gives ground snow load map of Romania,
representing characteristic values of snow load on
ground, for altitudes below 1000 m
 For higher altitudes, the following relations can be used
to obtain characteristic values of snow load on ground:
Snow load on the ground
Snow load: nature of load
 Snow can be deposited on a roof in many different
patterns. Properties of a roof or other factors causing
different patterns can include:
– the shape of the roof;
– its thermal properties;
– the roughness of its surface;
– the amount of heat generated under the roof;
– the proximity of nearby buildings;
– the surrounding terrain;
– the local meteorological climate, in particular its windiness,
temperature
– variations, and likelihood of precipitation (either as rain or as
snow).
Snow load
 Two primary load
arrangements should be
considered when modelling
snow action:
– undrifted snow load on the roof:
load arrangement which describes undrifted
the uniformly distributed snow snow
load on the roof, affected only by
the shape of the roof, before any drifted
redistribution of snow due to snow
other climatic actions.
– drifted snow load on the roof: load
arrangement which describes the
snow load distribution resulting
from snow having been moved
from one location to another
location on a roof, e.g. by the
action of the wind.
Snow load: code procedure
 Snow load on the roof in the persistent/transient design
situation is determined as follows:
s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 Is is the importance – exposure factor for snow load

 i is the snow load shape coefficient, depending on the
shape of the roof
 sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground,
depending on geographic location of the building and on
altitude
 Ce is the exposure coefficient, accounting for the degree
in which wind sweeps the snow from the roof
 Ct is the thermal coefficient, defining the reduction of
snow load on roofs as a function of the heat flux through
the roof, causing snow melting
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 Is is the importance – exposure factor for snow load
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground,
depending on geographic location of the building and on
altitude
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 The thermal coefficient Ct is used to account for the

reduction of snow loads on roofs with high thermal
transmittance (> 1 W/m2K), in particular for some glass
covered roofs, because of melting caused by heat loss
 For most building structures, the roofs do not fit the

above condition, having a lower thermal transmittance,
and, therefore, Ct = 1.0
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 Ce is the exposure coefficient, accounting for the degree
in which wind sweeps the snow from the roof, and
depends on the topography at the building site
 s = Is  i  Ce  Ct  sk
 i is the snow load shape coefficient,
depending on the shape of the roof
 Roof shape coefficients are available for
undrifted and drifted snow
 Example: monopitch roofs
– Values for roof shape coefficients apply
when the snow is not prevented from sliding
off the roof.
– Where snow fences or other obstructions
exist or where the lower edge of the roof is
terminated with a parapet, then the snow
load shape coefficient should not be reduced
below 0.8
 Example: pitched roofs
– case (i): undrifted snow
– case (ii): drifted snow
– case (iii): drifted snow
 Example: multi-span roofs
– case (i): undrifted snow
– case (ii): drifted snow
 Further guidance is available in codes for roof shape
coefficients for:
– Cylindrical roofs
– Roof abutting and close to

taller construction works
• s – snow load shape
coefficient due to sliding
of snow from the upper roof
• w – the snow load shape
coefficient due to wind
 Roof shape coefficients are also specified for local
effects:
– drifting at projections and obstructions;
– the edge of the roof;
– snow fences
 Drifting at projections and obstructions:
– in windy conditions drifting of snow can occur on any roof which
has obstructions as these cause areas of aerodynamic shade in
which snow accumulates
– accumulation of snow due to
parapets at roof edges can
be modeled using this procedure
 Snow overhanging the edge of a
roof: the design of those parts of
a roof cantilevered out beyond
the walls should take account of
snow overhanging the edge of the
roof, in addition to the load on
that part of the roof
 Snow loads on snowguards and
other obstacles: under certain
conditions snow may slide down
a pitched or curved roof. The
sliding mass of snow need to be
considered for the design of the
obstacles preventing this
movement.
Course 10
Actions on structures:
Wind loads
Other loads

Wind loading: normative references
 Normative references
– EN 1991-1-4: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4:
General actions - Wind actions
– CR 1-1-4/2012: Cod de proiectare. Evaluarea acţiunii vântului
asupra construcţiilor.
 Wind action is classified as variable fixed actions

according to EN 1990
Nature of wind loading
 Wind represents masses of air moving mainly
horizontally (parallel to the ground) from areas of high
pressure to ones of low pressure
 Wind generates pressures on external (and also internal)
surfaces of structures
 The main effect of wind is a horizontal loading on
buildings (especially high-rise)
 The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response
of the structure), depends on the size, shape and
dynamic properties of the structure.
Basic value of mean wind velocity
 The reference value of the wind velocity, vb, is the
characteristic 10 minutes mean wind velocity,
irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m
above ground level in open country terrain with low
vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with
separations of at least 20 obstacle heights.
 Reference values of wind velocity are determined for
annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02, which is
equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years.
 For design purposes, basic values of wind velocity are
obtained from maps and tables given in codes (CR 1-1-
4/2012).
Reference wind pressure
 Reference wind pressure qb is the wind pressure
corresponding to the reference value of the wind velocity
vb
1
qb    vb2
2
where:
 is the air density, which depends on altitude,
temperature, latitude and season. The recommended
value for design is 1.25 kg/m3
 For design purposes, reference wind pressure are
obtained from maps and tables given in codes (CR 1-1-4 /
2012).
Reference wind pressure
Mean wind velocity: gradient height
 The mean wind velocity at great
heights above the ground is
constant and it is called the
gradient wind speed.
 Near the ground the mean wind
velocity is decreasing much due to
frictional forces caused by the
terrain, being equal with zero at the
ground level.
 There is a boundary layer within
which the wind speed varies from
zero to the gradient wind speed
(mean wind velocity increases with
height).
Mean wind velocity: gradient height
 The thickness of the boundary layer (gradient height)
depends on the ground roughness. Larger the
roughness, larger the gradient height.
Mean wind velocity: terrain categories
 Terrain roughness is described aerodynamically by the
roughness length, z0, expressed in meters. It represents a
measure of the dimensions of eddies of turbulent wind at
the ground surface.
Mean wind velocity: variation with height
 The mean wind velocity profile within the atmospheric
boundary layer can be described by a logarithmic law:
vm  z   cr  z   vb
  z 
kr  z0  ln   for zmin  z  zmax
cr  z     z0 
 c zz z  zmin
 r min 
 where:
cr(z) is a roughness factor
z - height above ground
z0 – roughness length
Mean wind velocity: variation with height
 The terrain factor kr(z0) is given by the relationship:
0,07
 z0 
kr  z0   0,189   
 0, 05 
Mean wind pressure: variation with height
 The roughness factor cr(z) is
2
used to describe the variation of qm  z   c
r  z   qb
wind pressure with height
Wind turbulence
 Wind velocity varies with time as shown in the figure
below. This variation with respect to the mean wind
velocity is called turbulence and is generated by the
eddies caused by the wind blowing over obstacles
Wind turbulence
 The turbulence intensity I(z) at height z is defined as the
standard deviation of the turbulence divided by the mean
wind velocity.
v
Iv  z  
vm  z 
 The turbulence intensity I(z) at height z can be expressed
as:
 
 for zmin  z  zmax  200m
 2.5ln z
Iv  z   
 z 0
for z  zmin
 I v  z  zmin 
Wind turbulence
 Wind turbulence decreases with height above ground
Wind turbulence: gust factor
 The gust factor cpq(z) is the ratio between the peak
pressure (due to wind turbulence) and mean pressure
(due to mean wind velocity)
 The gust factor cpq(z) can be determined as:
c pq  z   1  2 g  I v  z   1  7  I v  z 
where:
g = 3.5 is the amplitude factor
Iv(z) is the turbulence intensity at height z
Wind turbulence: gust factor
Wind pressure at height z
 Wind pressure at height z above ground can be obtained
by considering the effects of mean wind velocity, wind
turbulence, and topography on the reference pressure qb
(at the ground level)
– Mean wind velocity increases with height above ground. The
effect of mean wind velocity on wind pressure profile is
accounted through the roughness factor cr(z)
– Wind turbulence decreases with height above ground. The effect
of wind turbulence on wind pressure at height z is accounted
through the gust factor cpq(z)
– Isolated hills and other local topographical accidents can affect
the mean wind velocity. In design this effect is accounted through
the orography factor co. It need not be considered when the slope
is less than 5% (co=1.0).
 Effect of topography
 Wind pressure at height z can be obtained as:
q p  z   ce  z   qb
 The product between the gust factor, the roughness

factor and the topographical factor is called the exposure
factor, and is denoted by ce(z):
ce  z   co2  cr2  z   c pq  z 
ce  z   co2  cr2  z   c pq  z 
Nature of wind loading
 Wind actions act directly as pressures on the external
surfaces of enclosed structures and, because of porosity
of the external surface, also act indirectly on the internal
surfaces.
 They may also act directly on the internal surface of open
structures. Pressures act on areas of the surface
resulting in forces normal to the surface of the structure
or of individual cladding components.
 Additionally, when large areas of structures are swept by
the wind, friction forces acting tangentially to the surface
may be significant.
 The wind action is represented by a simplified set of
pressures or forces whose effects are equivalent to the
extreme effects of the turbulent wind.
Wind effects on structures
 Wind effects on structures can be classified as follows:
– static or quasistatic response
– turbulence induced vibrations
– vortex induced vibrations
– galloping
– flutter
– response due to interference of nearby structures
Wind effects on structures
 Most buildings are not
streamlined, and are called bluff
bodies in aerodynamics.
– drag force, in the direction of the flow
FD = CD q
– lift force, perpendicular to flow
direction
– torsion moment
 For bluff bodies, wind flow
separates and causes the
formation of the so-called "wake"
– pressure on the windward side
– suction on the leeward side
– suction/pressure on lateral surfaces
Wind pressure on surfaces
 Wind pressure w(z) on rigid exterior and interior surfaces
of the structure at height z above ground are obtained as:
we   Iw  c pe  q p  ze  wi   Iw  c pi  q p  zi 
where:
Iw – the importance factor
qp(ze) – peak wind pressure at level ze
ze – reference height for external pressure.
cp – aerodynamic pressure coefficient (cpe for exterior
surfaces; cpi for internal surfaces)
 Pressures are considered positive (+)
 Suction is considered negative (-)
 The total pressure on a structural element is obtained as
the algebraic sum of pressures on one side and suction
on the other side
Wind pressure on surfaces
 Wind pressure w(z) on rigid exterior and interior surfaces
of the structure at height z above ground are obtained as:
we   Iw  c pe  q p  ze  wi   Iw  c pi  q p  zi 
Aerodynamic pressure coefficients
 Aerodynamic pressure coefficients depend on:
– geometry of the structure/element
– size of the structure/element
– terrain roughness
– wind direction with respect to the structure
– Reynolds number
– etc.
Pressure coefficients: loaded area
 Aerodynamic pressure coefficients cpe for buildings and
parts of buildings depend on the size of the loaded area
A, which is the area of the structure, that produces the
wind action in the section to be calculated
– Values for cpe,1 are intended for the design of small elements and
fixings with an area per element of 1 m2 or less such as cladding
elements and roofing elements. Values for cpe,10 may be used for
the design of the overall load bearing structure of buildings.
– Due to non-uniform
action of wind, peak
pressure on a small
area is higher than
the peak overall
pressure on a large
area (for which
some portions
are loaded less)
Press. coeff.: vertical walls of rect. plan buildings
 The reference heights, ze, for rectangular plan buildings
depend on the aspect ratio h/b and are always the upper
heights of the different parts of the walls
 Reference heights are used to compute the exposure
factor ce(z)
 Three cases:
– A building, whose height h is less than b should be considered to
be one part.
– A building, whose height h is greater than b, but less than 2b, may
be considered to be two parts, comprising: a lower part extending
upwards from the ground by a height equal to b and an upper part
consisting of the remainder.
– A building, whose height h is greater than 2b may be considered
to be in multiple parts, comprising: a lower part extending
upwards from the ground by a height equal to b; an upper part
extending downwards from the top by a height equal to b and a
middle region, between the upper and lower parts, which may be
divided into horizontal strips with a height hstrip (max hstrip = b)
 Depending on geometry and position with respect to wind
direction, different regions of vertical walls are assigned
different names, with corresponding values of pressure
coefficients cp
 Depending on geometry and position with respect to wind
direction, different regions of vertical walls are assigned
different names, with corresponding values of pressure
coefficients cp
Pressure coefficients
 Similar procedure are specified in the code for roofs of
buildings (of different geometry), canopies, isolated
vertical walls, fences etc.
Wind forces method
 For structures like signboards, lattice structures and
scaffoldings, flags, etc. wind actions is modelled as a
resultant force
Fw   Iw  cd  c f  q p  ze   Aref
where:
Iw – the importance factor
qp(ze) – peak wind pressure at level ze
ze – reference height for external pressure.
cf - wind force coefficient
cd - dynamic response coefficient
Aref - reference area perpendicular on wind direction
Other loads: traffic loads on bridges
– In practice a highway bridge is loaded in a
very complex way by vehicles of varying
sizes and groupings.
– In order to simplify the design process this
real loading is typically simulated by two
basic imposed loads - a uniformly
distributed load and a knife edge load -
representing an extreme condition of
normal usage.
– The design is then checked for a further
load arrangement representing the
passage of an abnormal load.
– The magnitudes of all these loads are
generally related to the road classification,
the highway authority's requirements and
the loaded length of the bridge.
Other loads: traffic loads on bridges
– Railway bridge design must take account of static loading and
forces associated with the movement of vehicles.
– As for highway bridges, two models of loading are specified for
consideration as separate load cases. They represent ordinary
traffic on mainline railways and, where appropriate, abnormal
heavy loads. They are expressed as static loads due to stationary
vehicles and are factored to allow for dynamic effects associated
with train speeds up to 300km/h.
– Eurocode 1 also gives guidance on the distribution of loads and
their effects and specifies horizontal forces due to vehicle motion.
Centrifugal forces associated with the movement around curves,
lateral forces due to oscillation of vehicles (nosing) and
longitudinal forces due to traction and braking are included.
– Other aspects of bridge loading which need to be considered
include accidental loads and the possibility of premature failure
due to fatigue under traffic loading.
Other loads: crane loads
– For buildings fitted with travelling overhead cranes, the loads due
to the crane itself and the lifted load are considered separately.
– The self weight of the crane installation is generally readily
available from the manufacturer, and the load lifted corresponds
to the maximum lifting capacity of the crane.
– When a load is lifted from rest, there is an associated acceleration
in the vertical direction, which causes an additional force. This
force is in addition to the normal force due to gravity, and is
generally allowed for by factoring the normal static crane loads.
– Movements of the crane, both
along the length and across the
width of the building, are also
associated with accelerations
and retardations, this time in
the horizontal plane. The
associated horizontal forces
must be taken into account
in the design of the
supporting structure.
Other loads: wave loading
– For offshore structures in deep waters, wave loads can be
particularly severe. The loads arise due to movement of water
associated with wave action. These movements can be described
mathematically to relate forces to physical wave characteristics
such as height and wavelength.
– The treatment is therefore
similar to wind loads in
that these physical
characteristics are
predicted and
corresponding forces on
the particular structural
arrangement then
calculated. These
calculation procedures
are, however, very
complicated and must
realistically be performed
on a computer.
Other loads: temperature effects
 Exposed structures such as bridges may be subject to
significant temperature variation which must be taken
into account in the design.
 If it is not provided for in terms of allowing for expansion,
significant forces may develop and must be included in
the design calculations. In addition, differential
temperatures, e.g. between the concrete deck and steel
girders of a composite bridge, can induce a stress
distribution which must be considered by the designer.
Other loads: retained material
 Structures for retaining and containing material (granular
or liquid) will be subject to a lateral pressure.
 For liquids it is simply the hydrostatic pressure. For
granular material a similar approach can be adopted, but
with a reduction in pressure depending on the ability of
the material to maintain a stable slope - this is the
Rankine approach.
 Ponding of water on
flat roofs should be
avoided by ensuring
adequate falls
(1:60 or more) to gutters.
Other loads: seismic loads
 Seismic actions on structures are due to strong ground
motion.
 They are a function of the ground motion itself and of the
dynamic characteristics of the structure.
 Strong ground motion can be measured by one of its
parameters, the peak ground acceleration being the
parameter most usually adopted for engineering
purposes.
Other loads: accidental loads
 Accidental actions may occur as a result of accidental
situations. The situations include fire, impact or
explosion. It is very difficult to quantify these effects.
 In many cases it may be preferable to avoid the problem,
for instance by providing crash barriers to avoid collision
from vehicles or roof vents to dissipate pressures from
explosions.
 Where structures such as crash barriers for vehicles and
crowds must be designed for 'impact' the loading is
treated as an equivalent static load.
Course 11
EN 1990:
Design requirements
The limit state method

 EN 1990 establishes principles and requirements for the
safety, serviceability and durability of structures,
describes the basis for their design and verification and
gives guidelines for related aspects of structural
reliability
 EN 1990 is intended to be used in conjunction with EN
1991 to EN 1999 for the structural design of buildings and
civil engineering works, including geotechnical aspects,
structural fire design, situations involving earthquakes,
execution and temporary structures
 EN 1990 is applicable for the design of structures where
other materials or other actions outside the scope of EN
1991 to EN 1999 are involved
 EN 1990 is applicable for the structural appraisal of
existing construction, in developing the design of repairs
and alterations or in assessing changes of use
Design requirements
 A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way
that, during its intended life, with appropriate degrees of
reliability and in an economical way it will have adequate:
– structural resistance [strength] (the structure should be safe for
people and contents, sustaining all actions and influences likely
to occur during execution and use)
– serviceability (remain fit for the use for which it is required - the
deformations, deflections and vibrations should not be too large)
– durability (a structure should continue to resist environmental
influences and be usable after an extended period of time and
usage)
– fire resistance (in the case of fire, the structural resistance shall
be adequate for the required period of time)
– robustness (a structure should not be damaged by events such
as explosion, impact, and the consequences of human errors, to
an extent disproportionate to the original cause)
Design requirements: strength and stiffness
 Structural resistance and serviceability are usually
mutually dependent. In many cases a structure that has
sufficient resistance will have also a sufficient stiffness.
However, the use of higher strength materials, improved
technologies, and advanced analytical techniques,
together with more emphasis on economy leads to more
slender structures.
 For example, a large span structure may have the
sufficient strength, but not the required stiffness.
 Therefore both strength and serviceability requirements
should be checked.
Design requirements in the case of fire
 Effect of fire on structures:
– reduce the strength and stiffness of
materials due to temperature
– impose large deformations
Design requirements in the case of fire
 During fire it is necessary to ensure the load-bearing
capacity and the structural integrity for a defined period
of time in order to:
– permit evacuation of occupants
– afford appropriate protection to fire-fighting services
– protect the building and adjoining property from fire spread
 The "required period of time" is dependent on the:
– use of the building
– height of the building
– size of the building or
compartment
Design requirements: robustness
 A structure shall be
designed and executed
in such a way that it will
not be damaged by
events such as:
explosion, impact, and
the consequences of
human errors, to an
extent disproportionate
to the original cause
Design requirements: robustness
 Potential damage shall be avoided or
limited by appropriate choice of one
or more of the following:
– avoiding, eliminating or reducing the
hazards to which the structure can be
subjected;
– selecting a structural form which has low
sensitivity to the hazards considered;
– selecting a structural form and design
that can survive adequately the
accidental removal of an individual
member or a limited part of the structure,
or the occurrence of acceptable localised
damage;
– avoiding as far as possible structural
systems that can collapse without
warning;
– tying the structural members together.
Design requirements: reliability
 Reliability is the ability of a structure
or a structural member to fulfill
the specified requirements, during
the design working life, for which it
has been designed.
 Reliability is usually expressed in
probabilistic terms.
 In a narrow sense, reliability is the probability that the
structure will not exceed specified limit states (strength
or serviceability requirements) during a specified
reference period.
 The reliability required for structures by EN 1990 should
be achieved:
– by design in accordance with EN 1990 to EN 1999 and by
– appropriate execution and quality management measures
Design requirements: the design working life
 The design working life is the time for which a structure
(or part of it) is to be used for its intended purpose with
anticipated maintenance, but without major repair being
necessary
Design requirements: the design working life
 The present state of knowledge is insufficient to enable
precise prediction of the life of a structure. The behaviour
of materials and structures over extended periods of time
can only be estimated. The likely period of maintenance
of the structure or time of replacement of various
components of a structure can, however, be determined.
 The notion of design working life is useful for:
– the selection of design actions (snow, wind, etc.) and the
consideration of material property deterioration (corrosion,
fatigue or creep)
– estimation of life-cycle cost to evaluate relative economics of
different solutions (comparison of different design solutions and
choice of materials, with different initial and maintenance costs)
– developing management procedures and strategies for
systematic maintenance and renovation of structures
Design requirements: durability
 The durability of a structure is its ability to remain fit for
use during the design working life given appropriate
maintenance. The structure should be designed in such a
way that no significant deterioration is likely to occur
within the period between successive inspections. The
need for critical parts of the structure to be available for
inspection, without complicated dismantling, should be
part of the design.
 "Performance indicator"
can be expressed in
various units: mechanical
(e.g. strength), financial,
etc. as a function of time.
 Initially, upon building completion,
– building performance remain constant for a period of time (e.g.
steel structures), or
– building performance can increase with time (e.g. concrete
structures in which concrete strength grows)
 After a certain period of time, the performance of a
building decreases (e.g. corrosion of steel, carbonation of
concrete). Some type of damage may occur, like
corrosion of reinforcement steel in reinforced concrete
elements, wide cracks in reinforced concrete members
which remain open, or fatigue cracks in steel members.
 If no maintenance is performed at this stage, damage to
the structure increases and its condition worsens,
progressing to possible structural failure.
 If the structure is repaired, a reliability level is ensured
above the serviceability level.
 In this context, durability requirement from EN 1990 has
the following meaning: at the end of its design working
life, the reliability level of the structure should not be
below the serviceability level.
Principles of limit states design: general
 Limit states: states beyond which the structure no longer
fulfils the relevant design criteria. In other words, limit
states are idealisations of undesirable events or
phenomena. Each limit state is associated with a certain
performance requirement imposed on a structure.
 Two categories of limit states need to be considered:
– Ultimate limit states (ULS)
– Serviceability limit states (SLS)
 Ultimate limit states: states associated with collapse or
with other similar forms of structural failure
 Serviceability limit states: states that correspond to

conditions beyond which specified service requirements
(deflections, vibrations, cracks) for a structure or
structural member are no longer met
 According the traditional concept
of limit states, a structure is
assumed to be fully satisfactory
up to a certain value of load effect
E0, and beyond this point the
structure is assumed to be fully
unsatisfactory.
 It may be difficult to define
precisely a distinct value E0,
separating the desirable and
undesirable structural conditions.
In these cases, a gradual loss of
the ability of the structure to
perform adequately provides a
more realistic concept.
 The nature of ULS is essentially different from the nature
of SLS:
– Infringement of ULS leads always to structural failure, implying
the need to demolish or repair the structure. Infringement of SLS
does not usually leads to such fatal consequences for the
structure, and the structure may normally be used after the
removal of those actions which caused the infringement.
– The criteria of ULS involve parameters of the structure and
appropriate actions only. The criteria of SLS are additionally
dependent on the requirements of clients and users (sometimes
subjective), and on the characteristics of the installed equipment
and non-structural elements
 The difference between the ULS and SLS result in
separate formulation of reliability conditions, and
different levels of reliability assumed in the verification of
both limit states.
 In some cases verification of one limit state may be
omitted if sufficient information is available to ensure that
the requirements of one limit state are met by satisfying
the other limit state. For example, in the case of
reinforced concrete beams satisfying the ULS condition,
the verification of deflection can be omitted provided the
span/depth ratio is less than 18 for highly stressed
concrete or less than 25 for lightly stressed concrete.
 Not all undesirable effects or phenomena can be easily
classified into ULS or SLS. For example,
– in the case of a railway bridge, some SLS of the deck can be
considered as ULS for the supported track: significant
deformation of the track may cause the derailment of a train with
loss of human life;
– vibration of a building floor or a footbridge may be very
uncomfortable, or even dangerous to human health, without being
structurally damaging.
Principles of limit states design: design situations
 Design situations: sets of physical conditions
representing the real conditions occurring during a
certain time interval for which the design will
demonstrate that relevant limit states are not exceeded:
– Persistent design situations
– Transient design situations
– Accidental design situations
– Seismic design situations
 Persistent design situations, which
refer to the conditions of normal
use, which can include extreme
conditions from wind, snow,
imposed loads, etc. These are
generally related to the design
working life of the structure.
 Transient design situations, which
refer to temporary conditions
applicable to the structure, e.g.
during execution or repair. For
example, for the maintenance of a
bridge, a lane of the carriageway
may be temporarily closed for
normal traffic, modifying the
conditions of use of the buildings.
 Accidental design situations,
which refer to exceptional
conditions applicable to the
structure or to its exposure, e.g.
to fire, explosion, impact or the
consequences of localised
failure.
 Seismic design situations,

which refer to conditions
applicable to the structure when
subjected to seismic events.
 The variation of actions, environmental influences and
structural properties which will occur throughout the
design working life of a structure should be considered
by selecting distinct situations representing a certain
time interval with associated hazards or conditions.
 The selected design situations shall be sufficiently severe

and varied so as to encompass all conditions that can
reasonably be foreseen to occur during the execution and
use of the structure.
 Different levels of reliability may be applicable for

different design situations.
Principles of limit states design: ULS
 The limit states that concern the safety of people, and/or
the safety of the structure are classified as ultimate limit
states. In some circumstances, the limit states that
concern the protection of the contents are classified as
ultimate limit states (examples: chemicals, nuclear
materials or masterpieces in a museum).
 Generally, the first occurrence FORCE
DISP.
of a ULS is equivalent to failure.
 In some cases (e.g. when
excessive deformations
FORCE
STATE PRIOR
are decisive) due to the difficulty TO COLLAPSE
of computing analytically the COLLAPSE
collapse of a structure or a
structural element, ultimate limit
states can be defined for DISPLACEMENT
simplicity as states prior to collapse.
Principles of limit states design: ULS
 The following ultimate limit states shall be verified where
they are relevant:
– loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it, considered as
a rigid body;
– failure by excessive deformation, transformation of the structure
or any part of it into a mechanism, rupture, loss of stability of the
structure or any part of it, including supports and foundations;
– failure caused by fatigue (relevant for bridges and marine
platforms) or other time-dependent effects.
Principles of limit states design: SLS
 Serviceability limit states
concern:
– the functioning of the
structure or structural
members under normal use,
– the comfort of people,
– the appearance of the
construction works.
 Taking into account the

dependency of load
effects, it is useful to
distinguish between
reversible and irreversible
limit states
 Reversible serviceability limit states:
– are not exceeded when the load that caused the infringement are
removed
– examples: temporary deflections, excessive vibrations
– the first infringement does not lead to failure or loss of
serviceability
 Irreversible serviceability limit states:
– remain permanently exceeded even when the loads that caused
infringement are removed
– examples: permanent local damage or unacceptable deformations
– the first infringement of the limit state is decisive
– the design criteria are similar to those of ultimate limit states
 The verification of serviceability limit states should be
based on criteria concerning:
– deformations that cause damage to finishes or non-structural
members or affect the appearance, the comfort of users, or the
functioning of the structure (including the functioning of
machines or services),
– vibrations that cause discomfort to people, or that limit the
functional effectiveness of the structure
– damage that is likely to adversely affect the appearance, the
durability, or the functioning of the structure.
Principles of limit states design
 The design procedure using the limit state method
consists in setting up structural and load models for the
relevant ultimate and serviceability limit states which are
considered in various design situations and load cases.
 The aim of the limit state design is to verify that no limit
state is exceeded when relevant design values for
actions, for materials or products, and for geometrical
properties are used in appropriate structural and load
models.
 The verification of structural reliability is done using
– the method of partial factors, or
– as an alternative, using probabilistic methods (applied to unusual
structures, line nuclear power stations).
Principles of limit states design: structural model
Principles of limit states design: structural model
pinned rigid
connection connection
Principles of limit states design: load model
 Example: real imposed loads modelled as uniformly
distributed
Course 12
EN 1990:
Basic variables
The partial factor method

EN 1990: Basic variables
 The design procedure using the limit state method
consists in setting up structural and load models for the
relevant ultimate and serviceability limit states which are
considered in various design situations and load cases.
 Basic variables needed to set up structural and load

models
– Actions and environmental influences
– Material and product properties
– Geometrical data
Variability of loads
 Loads change in time.
 What loads to design a structure for?
 Most loads are determined today based on
measurements taken over time
 Example: maximum
wind speed measured
over 5-min periods in
each month between
1884 and 1950 in New
York at a height
of 140 m.
 Histogram
 Theoretical distribution
Fractiles
 A p-fractile is defined as the x-value of the distribution
which includes p*N observations, with 0<p<1 and N being
the number of observations.
 Example : the 0.1-fractile of the distribution shown below
is 14.6, as it includes 10% of all observations (starting
from the left)
 Loads are probabilistic variables (not deterministic)
 Basic value of a load can be defined in probabilistic terms
only, e.g. "for annual probabilities of exceedence of 0.02,
which is equivalent to a mean return period of 50 years".
 A larger or smaller
probability of the loads
being exceeded can
be considered in design
(corresponding to
smaller or larger
mean return periods)
 Smaller or larger design loads
 More or less economical structure

 The engineer can never be absolutely sure that the loads
he designs his structure for will not be exceeded in its
lifetime.
Actions and environmental influences: classification
 The aim of the classifications is to identify the similar or
dissimilar characteristics of various actions and to enable
the use of appropriate theoretical action models and
reliability elements in structural design.
 Actions are classified by their variation in time as follows:
– permanent actions (G), e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed
equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by
shrinkage and uneven settlements;
– variable actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams
and roofs, wind actions or snow loads;
– accidental actions (A), e.g. explosions, or impact from vehicles.
 Actions can also be classified
– by their origin, as direct or indirect,
– by their spatial variation, as fixed or free, or
– by their nature and/or the structural response, as static or
dynamic.
Characteristic values of actions
 Characteristic value of an action (Fk) is a principal
representative value of an action
 When Fk can be fixed on statistical bases, it is chosen so
as to correspond to a prescribed probability of not being
exceeded on the unfavourable side during a "reference
period" taking into account the design working life of the
structure and the duration of the design situation.
Depending on the available data and experience, the
characteristic value of an action is specified as a mean,
upper or lower value.
 In some cases there is a lack in statistical data
concerning various actions. Under these circumstances,
actions can be evaluated based on a fairly subjective
assessment, judgment, or decision, and are assigned
nominal values.
Permanent actions: characteristic values
 Usually there is sufficient
statistical data for permanent
actions, in particular for self-
weight of traditional structural
materials
 If the variability of a permanent
action is small, a single
– the self weight of a bridge
characteristic value can be deck has a small
considered: the mean value (G) variability because the
 If the variability of a permanent execution of the bridge is
action cannot be considered as strictly controlled by
competent personnel
small, two values are used: an
– the self-weight of items
upper value Gk,sup (representing such as vehicle parapets,
0.95 fractile) and a lower value waterproofing, coatings,
Gk,inf (representing 0.05 fractile) railway ballast, etc., has a
large variability
Variable actions: characteristic values
 For variable actions, the characteristic value (Qk)
corresponds to either:
– an upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded
(the most common case) or a lower value with an intended
probability of being achieved, during some specific reference
period;
– a nominal value, which may be specified in cases where a
statistical distribution is not known
 The volume of statistical data for the most common
variable actions allows assessment of their characteristic
values by a probabilistic approach
 Two elements are used to define the characteristic value
of the load:
– the reference period during which the extreme is observed
(maximum or minimum), and
– the intended probability with which these extreme values should
not exceed the characteristic value
Variable actions: reference period
 Variable action versus time
 The reference period  (e.g. 1 year)
Variable actions: reference period
 During each reference period  the variable action Q
reaches a maximum value Qmax (e.g. the annual extreme).
 A sequence of values Q1,max, Q2,max, Q3,max, … can be
obtained
 The distribution of these values of Qmax is indicated in the
right figure by a probability density function Qmax(Q)
 The characteristic value Qk can then be defined by the
requirement that it will be exceeded by Qmax (e.g. annual
extremes) only with a limited probability (e.g. p=0.02)
 Thus, the characteristic value Qk is the p-fractile of the
extremes values Qmax.
Variable actions: characteristic values
 In general, the characteristic value of environmental
loads and imposed loads on building floors for persistent
design situations is based on an intended probability of
the value not being exceeded of 0.98, and a reference
period of 1 year.
 The probability p of the characteristic value being
exceeded and the reference period are linked by the
equation:  
T  
ln 1  p  p
where T is the return period (expected period between
two subsequent occurrences of the characteristic value).
 Example: for a probability of the characteristic value
being exceeded p=0.02 and a reference period of 1 year,
the return period of the characteristic value is
T1/0.02=50 years
Other representative values of variable actions
 In addition to the characteristic values of actions, other
representative values for actions are used:
– The combination value 0Qk - takes into account the reduced
probability of the simultaneous occurrence of two (or more)
independent actions. It is associated with the combination of
actions for ultimate and irreversible serviceability limit states.
– The frequent value 1Qk - is primarily associated with the frequent
combination in the reversible serviceability limit states and
ultimate limit states involving accidental actions.
– The quasi-permanent value 2Qk - is primarily used for
assessment of long-term effects, for example creep effects in
prestressed concrete elements. It is also used for the
representation of variable actions in accidental and seismic
combinations of actions (ultimate limit states) and for verification
of frequent and quasi-permanent combinations (long-term effects)
of serviceability limit states.
Other representative values of variable actions
Material and product properties
 A material property is usually determined from
standardized tests performed under specified conditions.
 It is sometimes necessary to apply a conversion factor to
convert the test results into values that can be assumed
to represent the behaviour of the structure or the ground.
 For traditional materials (e.g. steel and concrete),
previous experience and extensive tests are available,
and conversion factors are well-established and available
in codes.
 The properties of new materials should be established
from an extensive testing program, including tests on
complete structures, revealing the relevant properties
and conversion factors.
Variability of material properties
 The strength of a structure cannot be predicted with
absolute confidence
 Structural materials, whether natural or man-made, vary
in quality and strength
 Example: result of
compression test on
303 cubes of concrete
of supposedly the same
strength, made during
a certain period of
construction.
 A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of results, which

can be expressed mathematically using the "normal" or
Gauss rule.
Variability of material properties
 The strength of concrete specimens taken from a built
structure will be even worse, due to insufficient
compaction of concrete for example.
 Tests specimens drilled
from hardened concrete
will show much greater
variation in strength then
the specimens taken
during the mixing process,
as well ass a lower
average strength.
 Basic properties of a material or product:
STRESS
– strength: mechanical property of a DUCTILITY
material indicating its ability to resist

STRENGTH
actions, usually given in units of stress
STIFFNESS
– stiffness: the force necessary to
produce a unit displacement, STRAIN
characterizing the elastic response of the material/product
– ductility: capacity to deform into the plastic range, without
significant loss of strength
 Examples of characteristic values of material/product
properties:
– strength used to check the resistance of a structure that should
respond in the elastic range: lower value is relevant
– stiffness used to estimate deflections and deformations of the
structure: the mean value is relevant
– ductility used to prevent collapse of a structure due to excessive
plastic deformations: lower value relevant
 In design calculations properties
of structural materials and
products are represented by
characteristics values.
 Generally characteristic values
are obtained from statistical data,
corresponding to a prescribed
probability of not being infringed.
– Usually the lower value of material property is unfavourable, and
the 5% fractile (Xk,inf) is considered as the characteristic value.
– For some properties, the mean value (x) is most appropriate.
 When enough statistical data is not available, a nominal
value can be used in design.
Geometrical data
 Geometrical variables describe the shape, size and
overall arrangement of structures, structural members
and cross-sections.
 No structure can be erected without some deviations of
form, shape and dimension from the ones assumed in
design
 Example: steel sections are rolled under
very careful control, but some variation
in thickness and depth cannot be avoided.
 Concrete formwork may be slightly out in dimensions.
 Load-bearing walls in a multi-storey building may be out
of alignment one above the other.
Variability of geometrical properties
 In design, account should be taken of the possible
variation of their magnitudes, which depend on the level
of workmanship in the manufacture and execution
process.
 In most cases the geometrical data is represented by
characteristic values,
– Corresponding to values specified in design specifications, and
which are nominal values.
– Where their statistical distribution is sufficiently known, values of
geometrical quantities that correspond to a prescribed fractile of
the statistical distribution may be used.
 In some cases (e.g. imperfections) geometrical data is
represented directly by their design values
Structural analysis
 Generally, any structural model should be regarded as an
idealization of the structural system.
 A simplified model should take account of significant
factors and neglect the less important ones.
 The following is a list of factors that may be important for
the structural model:
– geometric properties (e.g. structural configuration, spans, cross-
sectional dimensions, deviations, imperfections)
– material properties (e.g. strength, constitutive relations, time and
stress state dependence, plasticity, temperature and moisture
dependence)
– actions (e.g. direct or indirect, variation in time, spatial variation,
and static or dynamic)
 The appropriate structural model should be chosen
based on previous experience and knowledge of
structural behaviour.
Verification by the partial factor method: general
 Assessment of the reliability of structures in Eurocodes
is based on the concept of limit state design and
verification by the partial factor method.
 Using this method, a structure is considered to be
reliable if no relevant limit state is exceeded for all
selected design situations, when using the design values
of basic variables (actions, material properties and
geometrical data) in the design models.
 Critical combinations of actions should be identified and
used in order to obtain the design values of action
effects. Example: a combination of permanent loading
due to self weight, snow load and wind load need to be
considered for design of a roof panel of an industrial hall.
Verification by the partial factor method: general
 Actions that cannot occur simultaneously due to physical
reasons, should not be considered together in
combination
Example: snow and live loads need not be considered
simultaneously on the terrace of a multistorey building,
because they cannot act simultaneously with their
extreme values (just the maintenance personnel will be
on the roof in the event of a heavy snow).
 Action effects (E) represent the response of the structure
to actions applied on it. Examples:
– action effects on structural members: internal force, moment,
stress, strain
– action effects on the whole structure: deflection, rotation
The partial factor method: design values
 The design value Fd of an action F can be expressed in
general terms as:
Fd = f · Frep
with
Frep =  · Fk
where:
Fk is the characteristic value of the action.
Frep is the relevant representative value of the action.
f is a partial factor for the action which takes account of
the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the action
values from the representative values.
  is either 1,00 or 0, 1 or 2.
– the combination value 0Qk
– the frequent value 1Qk
– the quasi-permanent value 2Qk
 For a specific load case the design values of the effects
of actions (Ed) can be expressed in general terms as:
Ed = Sd · E {f,i · Frep,i ; ad} i1
where:
ad is the design values of the geometrical data;
Sd is a partial factor taking account of uncertainties:
- in modelling the effects of actions;
- in some cases, in modelling the actions.
E {f,i · Frep,i ; ad} is the effect of action for the design
value of the force Fd and the design geometrical
characteristics ad
 In most cases, the following simplification can be made:
Ed = E {F,i · Frep,i ; ad} i1
with: F,i = Sd · f,i
F factor accounts for both uncertainties in action values
and uncertainties in modelling of actions
 Ed = E {F,i · Frep,i ; ad} i1  The design value of the
effect of actions Ed is determined by applying the
representative values of actions Frep,i amplified by the
partial factors F,i on the model of the structure
characterised by the geometry ad.
 Ed = E {F,i · Frep,i ; ad} i1  The design value of the
effect of actions Ed is determined by applying the
representative values of actions Frep,i amplified by the
partial factors F,i on the model of the structure
characterised by the geometry ad.
 Example:
 F,1 F rep,1 (Gd =  F,G Grep)
Design values of permanent ( F,G Grep)
and imposed ( F,Q Qrep) actions  F,2 F rep,2 (Qd =  F,Q Qrep)
+
Geometrical data ad (beam span L) ad (L)
=
Action effects Ed (benfing moment M Ed)
Ed (M Ed)
 Where a distinction has to be made between favourable
and unfavourable effects of permanent actions, two
different partial factors shall be used (G,inf and G,sup).
Examples:
– when estimating the effect of permanent and snow loads on a
roof, both loads have the same direction of action (gravitational),
therefore the design value of the permanent load should be
considered with the upper value G,sup · Gk
– when estimating the effect of permanent and wind loads on a roof,
if wind produces suction, the two loads have opposite direction of
action, therefore the design value of the permanent load should
be considered with the upper value G,inf · Gk, as it reduces the
effect of the wind load
 The design value Xd of a material or product property can
be expressed in general as:
Xd = (Xk/m)
where:
Xk is the characteristic value of the material property;
 is the mean value of the conversion factor taking into
account
– volume and scale effects,
– effects of moisture and temperature, and
– any other relevant parameters;
m is the partial factor for the material or product property
to take account of:
– the possibility of an unfavourable deviation of a material or
product property from its characteristic value;
– the random part of the conversion factor .
 Design values of geometrical data such as dimensions of
members that are used to assess action effects and/or
resistances may be represented by nominal values:
ad = anom
 Where the effects of deviations in geometrical data (e.g.
inaccuracy in the load application or location of supports)
are significant for the reliability of the structure (e.g. by
second order effects) the design values of geometrical
data shall be defined by:
ad = anom  a
where:
a takes account of:
– the possibility of unfavourable deviations from the characteristic
or nominal values;
– the cumulative effect of a simultaneous occurrence of several
geometrical deviations.
 The design resistance Rd can be expressed in the
following form
where
Rd is a partial factor covering uncertainty in the
resistance model, plus geometric deviations if these are
not modelled explicitly;
Xd,i is the design value of material property i.
 The following simplification may be made:
where : M,i = Rd · m,i

 For members made of a single material (e.g. steel), the
design resistance may be obtained directly from the
characteristic value of a material or product resistance
Rk, without explicit determination of design values for
individual basic variables, using
 Principle of checking safety of the structure:
Ed Rd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as
internal force, moment or a vector representing several
internal forces or moments;
Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance.
Frequency Resistance
of Rd
occurence Effect of actions
Ed
Ed  Rd Effect of actions (Ed )

or Resistance (Rd)
Course 13
EN 1990:
The partial factor method (cont.)

Ultimate limit states
 The following ultimate limit states shall be verified as
relevant:
– EQU: Loss of static equilibrium;
– STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation;
– GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the
strengths of soil or rock are significant in providing resistance;
– FAT: Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
 EQU: Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any
part of it considered as a rigid body, where:
– minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of actions
from a single source are significant, and
– the strengths of construction materials or ground are generally
not governing;
 Example: a bridge deck launched with a counterweight
where loss of static equilibrium may be possible
 STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the
structure or structural members, including footings, piles,
basement walls, etc., where the strength of construction
materials of the structure governs;
 Example: failure of a beam supporting a floor due to
excessive stresses
Mmax
 GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground
where the strengths of soil or rock are significant in
providing resistance;
Example: resistance of foundations like footings, piles,
etc.
 FAT: Fatigue failure of the structure or structural
members.
Examples: Cracks developing in steel bridges due to
repetitive loading generated by traffic
Verifications of static equilibrium and resistance
 When considering a limit state of rupture or excessive
deformation of a section, member or connection (STR
and/or GEO), it shall be verified that
Ed Rd
where:
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as
internal force, moment or a vector representing several
internal forces or moments;
Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance.
ULS: Combination of actions
 For each critical load case, the design values of the
effects of actions (Ed) shall be determined by combining
the values of actions that are considered to occur
simultaneously
 Each combination of actions should include:
– a leading variable action, or
– an accidental action.
 Where the results of a verification are very sensitive to
variations of the magnitude of a permanent action from
place to place in the structure, the unfavourable and the
favourable parts of this action shall be considered as
individual actions
 Combinations of actions for persistent or transient
design situations (fundamental combinations)
 The general format of effects of actions
and can be simplified as:
 The combination of action in curly braces {} can be

expressed as:
where
"+" implies "to be combined with"
 implies "the combined effect of"
 Gk,j - characteristic permanent action j
 G,j - partial safety factor for permanent load Gk,j
 P - prestressing
 P - partial safety factor for prestressing action P
 Qk,1 - leading variable action

 Q,1 - partial safety factor for variable load Qk,1
 Qk,i - variable action i

 Q,i - partial safety factor for variable load Qk,i
 0,i - takes into account the reduced probability of the
simultaneous occurrence of two (or more) independent
variable actions
 Combinations of actions for accidental design situations
Ad - design value of the accidental action
 Combinations of actions for seismic design situation
AEd - design value of the seismic action

– permanent actions are taken with characteristic values
– seismic action is taken with design value
– variable loads are taken with the quasi-permanent value 2Qk
 Partial factors for actions and combinations of actions:
 and  factors are obtained from EN 1990 or CR0-2012:
– permanent actions: G,sup = 1.35
– permanent actions: G,inf = 0.9
– variable actions: Q = 1.5
– 0,i = 0.7, with the exception of loads in storage facilities, water
pressure, etc, when 0,i = 1.0
 Example of fundamental load combinations
 The partial factors for properties of materials and

products should be obtained from EN 1992 to EN 1999
Serviceability limit states
 At the SLS it shall be verified that:
Ed  Cd
where:
– Cd is the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability
criterion.
– Ed is the design value of the effects of actions specified in the
serviceability criterion, determined on the basis of the relevant
combination
 Serviceability limit states in buildings should take into
account criteria related, for example, to floor stiffness,
differential floor levels, storey sway or/and building sway
and roof stiffness.
 Stiffness criteria may be expressed in terms of limits for
vertical deflections and for vibrations.
 Sway criteria may be expressed in terms of limits for
horizontal displacements.
 EN 1990: "The serviceability criteria should be specified
for each project and agreed with the client".
 Schematic representation of vertical deflections:

– wc - Precamber in the unloaded structural member
– w1 - Initial part of the deflection under permanent loads of the
relevant combination of actions
– w2 - Long-term part of the deflection under permanent loads
– w3 - Additional part of the deflection due to the variable actions of
the relevant combination of actions
– wtot - Total deflection as sum of w1, w2, w3
– wmax - Remaining total deflection taking into account the
precamber
 Horizontal displacements can be
represented schematically:
– u - Overall horizontal displacement
over the building height H
– ui - Horizontal displacement over a
storey height Hi
SLS: Combination of actions
 Three categories of combinations of actions are
proposed in EN:
– characteristic (normally used for irreversible limit states, e.g. for
exceeding of some cracking limits in concrete)
– frequent (is normally used for reversible limit states) and
– quasi-permanent (is normally used for assessment of long-term
effects)
 The appropriate combinations of actions should be
selected depending on serviceability requirements and
performance criteria imposed for the particular project,
the client or the relevant national authority
SLS: Combination of actions
 Characteristic
combination
 Frequent
combination
 Quasi-permanent
combination
 For serviceability limit states the partial factors M for the

properties of materials should be taken as 1.0 except if
differently specified in EN 1992 to EN 1999.
 Examples of
limiting
values for
vertical
deflections
 Examples of limiting values for horizontal deflections
Example: multistorey frame
 Objective: design using the partial factor method a steel
multistorey frame
 For the design of the structure, the STR category of limit

states is relevant
Self-weight (Gk,1) Dead load on floors (Gk,2) Exterior cladding (Gk,3)
 The following
actions can be
identified:
– Permanent loads Gk Snow load (Sk) Wind load (Wk)
– Imposed loads Qk
– Snow load Sk
– Wind load Wk
– Seismic action Aed
Imposed load -
Imposed load (Qk,1) Seismic load (Aed )
chessboard (Qk,2)
 Of the four possible design situations,
– Persistent design situations,
– Transient design situations, most
– Accidental design situations, relevant
– Seismic design situations.
 Two categories of limit states need to be considered:
Persistent design Seismic design

situation situation
ULS SLS ULS SLS

Load cases (combinations of actions)
 Persistent design situation
– Ultimate limit states (ULS) 
– Serviceability limit states (SLS) 
 Seismic design situation

– Ultimate limit states (ULS)
– Serviceability limit states (SLS)  see EN 1998-1

• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Qk,1
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Qk,2
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Sk,1 check
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Wk strength and
• 0.9(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Wk stability of
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Qk,1 + 1.05Sk members
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Sk + 1.05Qk,1 and
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Qk,1 + 1.05Sk + 1.05Wk connections
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Sk + 1.05Qk,1 + 1.05Wk
• 1.35(Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 1.5Wk + 1.05Qk,1 + 1.05Sk
• (Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Qk,1
check beam
• (Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Qk,2
deflections
• (Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Sk,1
• (Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Wk check lateral storey
• (Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + Wk + 0.7Qk,1 + 0.7Sk deformations
 Seismic design situation

– Ultimate limit states (ULS) check strength, stability
• (Gk,1 + Gk,2 + Gk,3) + 0.4(Qk,1 + Sk) + Aed and ductility of members
and connections
– Serviceability limit states (SLS)  check lateral storey

displacements determined according to specific requirements of
EN 1998-1
Course 14
Building design, construction and maintenance

Principles
 A building is an assemblage that is firmly attached to the
ground and that provides total or nearly total shelter for
machines, processing equipment, performance of human
activities, storage of human possessions, or any
combination of these
 Building design is the process of providing all
information necessary for construction of a building that
will meet its owner’s requirements and also satisfy public
health, welfare, and safety requirements
 Architecture is the art and science of building design. It is
primarily driven by the creative manipulation of mass,
space, volume, texture, light, shadow, materials, program,
and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction and
technology, in order to achieve an end which is aesthetic,
functional and often artistic.
Principles
 Engineering design is driven primarily by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical
and scientific principles
 Building construction is the process of assembling
materials to form a building
 Building design may be legally executed only by persons
deemed competent to do so by the state in which the
building is to be constructed. Competency is determined
on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass
a written test of design skills
– Architects: persons legally permitted to practice architecture
– Engineers: experts in specific scientific disciplines and are legally
permitted to design parts of buildings; in some cases, complete
buildings (structural, mechanical, electrical engineers)
Principles
 Building construction is generally performed by
labourers and craftspeople engaged for the purpose by
an individual or organization, called a contractor.
 The contractor signs an agreement, or contract, with the
building owner under which the contractor agrees to
construct a specific building on a specified site and the
owner agrees to pay for the materials and services
provided.
Principles of building design
1. The building should be constructed to serve purposes
specified by the client.
2. The design should be constructable by known techniques
and with available labour and equipment, within an
acceptable time.
3. The building should be capable of withstanding the
actions due to environment and normal usage for a
period of time specified by the client.
4. Both inside and outside, the building should be visually
pleasing.
5. No part of the building should pose a hazard to the safety
or health of its occupants under normal usage, and the
building should provide for safe evacuation or refuge in
emergencies.
6. The building should provide the degree of shelter from
the environmental actions and of control of the interior
environment - air, temperature, humidity, light, and
acoustics - specified by the client and not less than the
minimums required for safety and health of the
occupants.
7. The building should be constructed to minimize adverse
impact on the environment.
8. Operation of the building should consume a minimum of
energy while permitting the structure to serve its
purposes.
9. The sum of costs of construction, operation,
maintenance, repair, and anticipated future alterations
should be kept within the limit specified by the client.
 The ultimate objective of design is to provide all the
information necessary for the construction of a building.
 This objective is achieved by the production of drawings,
or plans, showing what is to be constructed,
specifications stating what materials and equipment are
to be incorporated in the building, and a construction
contract between the client and a contractor.
 Designers also should observe construction of the
building while it is in process. This should be done not
only to assist the client in ensuring that the building is
being constructed in accordance with plans and
specifications but also to obtain information that will be
useful in design of future buildings.
Design procedure
 Design usually starts when a client recognizes the need
for and economic feasibility of a building and engages an
architect, a professional with a broad background in
building design.
 The architect, in turn, engages consulting engineers and
other consultants
– structural engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
load-bearing walls, floors, roofs, foundations, and skeleton
framing needed for the support of buildings and building
components
– mechanical engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
plumbing, elevators, escalators, horizontal walkways, conveyors,
installed machinery, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
– electrical engineer: a specialist having the knowledge to design
electric circuits, electric controls and safety devices, electric
motors and generators, electric lighting, and other electric
equipment
Design procedure
– for buildings on a large site, the architect may engage a
landscape architect as a consultant
– for a concert hall, an acoustics consultant may be engaged; for a
hospital, a hospital specialist; for a school, a school specialist
 The architect does the overall planning of the building
and incorporates the output of the consultants into the
contract documents
 The architect determines what internal and external
spaces the client needs, the sizes of these spaces, their
relative locations, and their interconnections  shown in
floor plans
 Major responsibilities of the architect are enhancement of
the appearance inside and outside of the building and
keeping adverse environmental impact of the structure to
a minimum. The exterior of the building is shown in
drawings, called elevations.
Design procedure
 The location and orientation of the building is shown in a
site plan.
 The architect also prepares the specifications for the
building. These describe in detail the materials and
equipment to be installed in the structure.
 In addition, the architect, usually with the aid of a lawyer
engaged by the client, prepares the construction
contract.
Stages of building design
1. Preliminary stage: development of a program (a list of
client's requirements) by the architect and client. Getting
a city-planning certificate from local authorities.
2. Conceptual stage: the architect translates requirements
into spaces, relates the spaces and makes sketches,
called schematics, to illustrate the concepts. When
sufficient information is obtained on the size and general
construction of the building, a rough estimate is made of
construction cost.
3. Design development: the architect and consultants work
out more details and show the results in preliminary
construction drawings and outline specifications. A
preliminary cost estimate utilizing the greater amount of
information on the building now available is then
prepared.
Stages of building design
4. Contract documents phase: production of construction
drawings and specifications, which are incorporated in
the contract between the client and a builder and
therefore become legal documents. The design may
need to be revised for the final cost estimates to fit into
the budget. A building permit need to be obtained from
local authorities.
5. Construction stage: after the client has approved the
contract documents, the architect helps the owner in
obtaining bids from contractors or in negotiating a
construction price with a qualified contractor
– For private work, the owner generally awards the construction
contract to a general contractor. This contractor may perform
some, all, or none of the work. Usually, much of the work is let
out to specialists, called subcontractors.
– For public work, there may be a legal requirement that bids be
taken and the contract awarded to the lowest responsible bidder.
Construction procedure
 Construction is performed by contractors
– they need to satisfy the requirements of the client and the
building designers
– however, their primary objective is to make profit  contractors
must prepare bid prices based on accurate estimates of
construction costs
– after the contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish
and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labour, and
supervision required for construction
 The client compensates the contractors for construction
costs and services
 A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for
construction of a building, and may engage
subcontractors
 Subcontractors have contracts with the general
contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor
– a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing
– an electrical contractor installs the electrical system
– a steel contractor erects structural steel, and an elevator
contractor installs elevators
 Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the
owners contracts separately with specialty contractors,
called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and
coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid
directly by the owner.
 Sometimes also, the owner may award a contract to an
organization for both the design and construction of a
building. Such organizations are called design-build
contractors.
 Administration of the construction procedure often is
difficult  some owners seek assistance from an expert,
called a professional construction manager, with
extensive construction experience, who receives a fee.
 The construction manager negotiates with general
contractors and helps select one to construct the
building. Managers usually also supervise selection of
subcontractors.
 During construction, they help control costs, expedite
equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on
schedule.
 Owners also engage an inspector who has the
responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the
requirements of the contract documents and is performed
under safe conditions
 Inspections also are made by representatives of one or
more governmental agencies. They have the
responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal
requirements and have little or no concern with detailed
conformance with the contract documents. Such legal
inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain
stages of construction.
Building costs
 Construction cost of a building usually is a dominant
design concern
 If construction cost exceeds the owner’s budget, the

owner may cancel the project
 Costs that occur after completion of the building (such as

property taxes and insurance) often are proportional to
the initial cost
Building costs
 Before construction of a building starts, the owner
generally has to make a sizable investment in the project.
– The major portion of this expenditure usually goes for purchase
of the site and building design.
– Remaining preconstruction costs include those for feasibility
studies, site selection and evaluation, surveys, and program
definition.
 The major portion of the construction cost is the sum of
the payments to the general and prime contractors.
 Remaining construction costs usually consist of interest
on the construction loan, permit fees, and costs of
materials, equipment, and labour not covered by the
construction contracts.
 The occupancy costs covers costs of moving
possessions into the building and start-up of utility
services, such as water, gas, electricity, and telephone.
Building costs
 The initial cost to the owner is the sum of
preconstruction, construction, and occupancy costs.
 After the building is occupied, the owner incurs costs for
operation and maintenance of the buildings. Such costs
are a consequence of decisions made during building
design.
 Life-cycle cost is the sum of initial, operating, and
maintenance costs.
 Often, post-construction costs are permitted to be high
so that initial costs can be kept low
– the design makes artificial lighting necessary when daylight could
have been made available
– the extra heating and air conditioning are necessary because of
inadequate insulation of walls and roof
– frequent repairs may be needed because of poor choice of
materials during design
Building costs
 Generally, it is life-cycle cost that should be minimized in
building design rather than construction cost, enabling
the owner to receive the greatest return on the
investment in the building.
 Nevertheless, construction cost frequently is a dominant
concern in design, because the client establishes a
construction budget independent of life-cycle cost.
Reasons:
– the client does not have adequate capital for an optimum building
and places too low a limit on construction cost. The client hopes
to have sufficient capital later to pay for the higher operating and
maintenance costs or for replacement of undesirable building
materials and installed equipment.
– The client’s goal is a quick profit on early sale of the building, in
which case the client has little or no concern with future high
operating and maintenance costs for the building.
Building legislation
 Many of the restrictions encountered in building design
are imposed by building regulations:
– Dealing with administration and enforcement. They cover
licenses, permits, fees, certificates of occupancy, safety,
projections beyond street lines, alterations, maintenance,
applications, approval of drawings, stop-work orders.
– Specifying requirements for design and construction in detail.
They give requirements for structural components, lighting,
HVAC, plumbing, gas piping and fixtures, elevators and
escalators, electrical distribution, stairs, corridors, walls, doors,
and windows.
– Requirements for fire-protection purposes. Objective - to delay or
prevent spread of fire over large portions of the building
• set allowable floor areas
• restrict building height and number of stories
• limit the occupant load, or number of persons allowed in a building or
room to permit rapid egress
 Zoning regulations are established by local authorities to
protect the health, welfare, and safety of the public
 Zoning primarily regulates land use by controlling types
of occupancy of buildings, building height, and density
and activity of population in specific parts of a
jurisdiction
 Zoning regulations are usually developed by a planning
commission and administered by the commission or a
building department. Land-use controls adopted by the
local planning commission for current application are
indicated on a zoning map.
 Zoning map divides the jurisdiction into districts, shows
the type of occupancy, such as commercial, industrial, or
residential, permitted in each district, and notes
limitations on building height and bulk and on population
density in each district.
 The planning commission usually also prepares a master
plan as a guide to the growth of the jurisdiction. A future
land-use plan is an important part of the master plan. The
commission’s objective is to steer changes in the zoning
map in the direction of the future land-use plan.
 In the vicinity of airports, zoning may be applied to

maintain obstruction-free approach zones for aircraft and
to provide noise-attenuating distances around the
airports. Airport zoning limits building heights in
accordance with distance from the airport.
 Control of Building Height. Zoning places limitations on
building dimensions to limit population density and to
protect the rights of occupants of existing buildings to
light, air, and aesthetic surroundings.
– establishment of a specific maximum height or number of stories,
– limitation of height in accordance with street width,
– setting minimums for distances of buildings from lot lines, or
– relating total floor area in a building to the lot area or to the area
of the lot occupied by a building
 In addition to building and zoning codes, building design
and construction must comply with many other
regulations. These include those of the local or state
health, labour, and fire departments; local utility
companies; and local departments of highways, streets,
sewers, and water. These agencies may require that
drawings for the building be submitted for review and
that a permit be granted before construction starts.
Building design and construction regulations RO
source: http://www.beniks-constructii.ro/informatii-utile.php
1. Stabilirea terenului pentru realizarea unei constructii
Pentru a putea fi folosit in scopul construirii, terenul
trebuie sa indeplineasca urmatoarele conditii:
– Sa fie in intravilanul localitatii (atunci când nu este introducerea in
intravilan se face prin P.U.Z.)
– Sa nu se afle in circuitul agricol (atunci când este in circuitul
agricol, scoaterea se face dupa trecerea in intravilan)
– Sa aiba o cale de acces auto si pietonala
– Sa se incadreze intr-o zona care sa permita functiunea ce se da
constructiei
– Sa aiba asigurate utilitatile (energie electrica, alimentare cu apa,
gaze)
– Sa aiba forma si dimensiunile minime conform reglementarilor
urbanistice locale
2. Obtinerea certificatului de urbanism (CU)
Certificatul de Urbanism in vederea construirii (CU) se
obtine de la primarie, directia de urbanism. CU contine
"regulile" pe care trebuie sa le urmeze proiectantul pentru
realizarea unei constructii pe terenul in cauza. Mai exact,
CU stabileste anumiti parametri tehnici ai terenului
(inaltimea maxima a cladirii, procentul de teren ce poate fi
ocupat de cladire, pozitia pe teren, etc) destinatii admise
ale cladirii (locuinta, birouri, comert, etc) precum si
avizele necesare pentru Autorizatia de Construire (apa,
canalizare, gaze, pompieri, mediu, etc). Avizele necesare
difera de la o zona la alta si de la un teren la altul.
3. Elaborarea proiectului
La intocmirea unui proiect sunt stabilite mai multe faze de
elaborare a acestuia:
– Studiu de (pre)fezabilitate
– Proiect pentru Autorizatia de Construire (P.A.C.)
– Proiect tehnic (P.T.)
– Detalii de executie (D.D.E.)
Proiectul Tehnic (PT) este piesa principala din dosarul depus pentru
obtinerea Autorizatiei de Construire si se realizeaza urmand
specificatiile din Certificatul de Urbanism. Proiectul tehnic se
realizeaza de catre un proiectant si trebuie sa fie aprobat si
stampilat de "verificatori" stabiliti prin lege: verificatorul de
arhitectura (arhitect), verificatorul de rezistenta (inginer
constructor) si verificatorul de pompieri. Proiectul trebuie sa
obtina de asemenea un numar de avize, mentionate prin
Certificatul de Urbanism (apa, canalizare, mediu, pompieri, etc).
4. Obtinerea Autorizatiei de Construire (AC) de la Primarie
pe baza Certificatului de Urbanism, a proiectului si a
avizelor de construire
Autorizatia de Construire este actul absolut necesar
pentru inceperea oricarei lucrari de constructii.
Autorizatia de Construire se obtine de la primarie, directia
de urbanism pe baza proiectului tehnic si a avizelor de
construire. Dosarul (documentatia) care se depune in
vederea emiterii autorizatiei de construire cuprinde
urmatoarele documente:
– cerere pentru emiterea autorizatiei de construire completata cu
elementele de identificare si datele tehnice conform P.A.C.
– actul doveditor al titlului asupra imobilului, care sa ii confere
solicitantului dreptul de executie a lucrarilor de constructii (in
copie legalizata)
– certificatul de urbanism (in copie)
– proiectul pentru autorizarea executarii lucrarilor de construire
P.A.C., inclusiv referatele de verificare si, dupa caz, raportul de
expertiza tehnica semnate si stampilate in original
– fisele tehnice pentru obtinerea avizelor cerute prin certificatul de
urbanism, necesare emiterii acordului unic, precum si, dupa caz,
documentatiile tehnice necesare emiterii avizelor si acordurilor
care sunt in competenta de obtinere a emitentului
– avizele si acordurile obtinute de solicitant, altele decât cele din
competenta de obtinere a emitentului, stabilite prin certificatul de
urbanism (in copie)
– declaratie pe propria raspundere privind inexistenta unor litigii
asupra imobilului
– documentul de plata a taxei de emitere a autorizatiei de construire
– documentele de plata a taxelor legale pentru avizele si acordurile
necesare emiterii acordului unic, conform listei avizelor si
acordurilor necesare, comunicate o data cu certificatul de
urbanism (in copie)
5. Anuntarea inceperii lucrarilor la Primarie si la Inspectia
de Stat in Constructii si inceperea constructiei
Lucrarile de construire pot incepe numai dupa ce a fost
obtinuta Autorizatia de construire (A.C.) si au fost
anuntate (cu minim 5 zile inainte de inceperea lucrarilor)
Primaria locala si Inspectoratul de Stat in Constructii
(I.S.C.).
– La inceperea lucrarilor, la locul constructiei trebuie sa existe un
panou de identificare a santierului de constructii pe care sunt
inscrise date despre lucrare (denumire si adresa obiectiv,
beneficiar, proiectant, constructor, nr. autorizatie, termen de
executie, data inceperii si finalizarii constructiei).
– Formularele necesare, inclusiv formularul "model panou", se
elibereaza de catre Primaria locala, o data cu eliberarea
autorizatiei de construire.
6. Executia constructiei
– In perioada executiei constructiei proiectantului ii revine obligatia
de a urmari realizarea pe santier a fazelor determinante
specificate in documentatia de autorizare.
– Realizarea constructiei in regie proprie conduce la obtinerea unor
costuri mai scazute dar implica riscul unor erori grave, generate
de necunoastere, folosirea de personal slab sau deloc calificat,
aprecieri eronate ale calitatii si cantitatilor de materiale
– Realizarea constructiei cu o firma specializata poate asigura
calitatea lucrarilor de constructie si garantii din partea
constructorului privind calitatea lucrarilor executate si incadrarea
in termenele de executie planificate
– Lucrarile de constructie trebuie supravegheate de catre un
diriginte de santier independent.
– Eventualele modificari fata de proiectul aprobat de primarie se pot
face prin dispozitii de santier intocmite de proiectant si emiterea
unei noi Autorizatii de Construire pentru modificare de tema de
proiectare.
7. Intocmirea cartii tehnice a constructiei
Se realizeaza pe parcursul executarii lucrarilor si contine
toate actele si documentatiile privind constructia inclusiv
eventualele dispozitii de santier.
8. Receptia constructiei
Receptia constructiilor se face pe baza proiectului tehnic
(P.T.) prin proces verbal de receptie, intocmit de catre o
comisie formata din:
– reprezentantul Inspectoratului de Stat in Constructii (I.S.C.)
– reprezentantul autorizatorului (primariei) printr-un membru al
compartimentului Disciplina in Constructii
– reprezentantul proiectantului, prin arhitect si inginerul proiectant
al structurii de rezistenta
– reprezentantul beneficiarului prin dirigintele de santier. Cu
aceasta ocazie proiectantul da o declaratie de conformitate prin
care se atesta ca imobilul supus receptiei este conform
proiectului

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Basis of Structural Design

COURSE 1. INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURES. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS.

Course notes are available for download at

 "Modern" materials: Portland cement concrete, steel,

 Problem: how long a bar of

 First to realise this: Galileo Galilei

 Aircrafts must carry loads and must be capable of being

 Steel: elastic region

 factor of safety = ultimate strength / design stress

High strength Moderate

Structural action: cables and arches

Course notes are available for download at

– Plates and shells

 The simplest chain structure

 If the load direction is reversed

 Linear arch (funicular shape) - the shape for which under

 Circle - the easiest way

Structural action: trusses and beams

Course notes are available for download at

Linear arch supporting a Relieving of support

 Forces in the truss:

 To avoid bending stresses, - -

 More diagonals and posts can

 Highly unstable shape

 Rigid joints  small bending

 Traditionally trusses are designed

 The truss at (b) is a true space

 Two plane trusses braced with

 Example (b): Sydney

 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519): the strength of a timber

 Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli

– hot-rolled and welded girder

 The "perfect" use of

 The "perfect" use

 Main use in structural engineering: prestressed concrete

 Plates: a flat surface

 The simplest plate: a

 It may appear to behave

 At any point of the beam there is a

 The same behaviour if a set of cables

 Rectangular area to be covered:

 Alternatively: restrain vertical movement of the

 Multi-storey buildings make more efficient use of land:

 Until the end of the 18th century most buildings of several

 Elevator invented in USA in 1870, enabling much taller

 Most multi-storey buildings in USA were still making use

 Most buildings realised as a

frames resisting frames resisting

stiff floor flexible floor

 Reinforced concrete structures:

 Braced frames resist lateral loads through

 The best solution would be to place the supports of a

 In most cases solid rocks lies deep in the ground, with

 Relatively high stresses in the superstructure have to be

– General subsidence of buildings (100-200 mm)  extremely

– Rule: provide paths as simple and

– inefficient structural configuration

– the material must be

– a load near the support

– efficient structure for large

The process of structural design

Course notes are available for download at

 Load path visual aids: