2010/11

1.

1.1.

. ,
,
, .

.
,
.
, .
, , ,
( , , + , , ).
, .
. ,
,
(
.).
() :
1.
(, , )
( .) .
2.
.
3. (, ,
.).
4.
.
,
,

.
:
1. (1736-1806)
.
2. (1737-1798) (1745-1827)
.
.
3. (1777-1851)
.
4. (1775-1836)
.
5. (1791-1867)
, . .
,
.
:
1.
2.
3.
4.

1.2.

:
1. ()
2. ()
()
( ,
, .).
()

,

(
R = U / I itd.).
:
1.
2.

( ,
.).
( ).
.
:
)
)
)
)

-
- (
).

, .
()


(
.).
(,
),
(, ).

1.3.

,
, .,

.

. :
1. , x
2. , g
x :
x = x xo (1.1)
: x , x .
:
x x xo
g= = (1.2)
xo xo
/ (102), / (103)
m (106).
x .
:
=
:
) (
)
) x

( x = x xo ), ( xi = xi x )
(xi i ).

1.4.

,
, (, ,
.). ()
. (
1 kg).
( ).

.
:
x = x xo (1.3)
: x , x .
:
x
g= (1.4)
xo

k = x .

1.5.

. (,
.) .

. :
x = x xo (1.5)
: x ; x ;
:
x
g= (1.6)
xo
x max
, ,
( + , ). x max

,
( ).
:
x max
gg = (1.7)
xg

xg ,
. x ( x x g ),

x max
gx = (1.8)
x
gg,
. (1962)
0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2.5 5.

1.6.

()
.
( ) .
(
).
. ()
.

1.7.

,
:
)
)
)

1.7.1.

:
, , ,
.
,
.
.

1.7.2.

:
)
)
)
,
, .
:
) ( ,
).
) (
, .).
) ( ,
,
.).
) (
.)
:
1) ,
(),
2) (
,
).

, (
). .
.

1.7.3.

( , , )
.

, .
, ,
,
.
, .
( )
.

1.8.

:
)
)

( )
.


() .
,
, ,
.

1.8.1.

, :
)
)
:

)
)
)

1.8.2.

(
), ,
x1, x2,..., xi,... xn 1, xn. xo xmin xmax:
xo ( x min , x max ) (1.9)
.
:
x1 = x1 xo
x 2 = x 2 xo
.
xi = xi xo (1.10)
.
x n = x n xo
(1.10) :
x1 + x 2 + ... + x n = x1 + x 2 + ... + x n nxo (1.11)
:
1 1
xo = ( x1 + x 2 + ... + x n ) ( x1 + x 2 + ... + x n ) (1.12)
n n
, ,
:
1 n
x= xi
n i =1
(1.13)

(1.12) :
1 n
xo = x xi = x
n i =1
(1.14)

1 n
= xi
n i =1
(1.15)

. xi
, (1.14) :
xo = x (1.16)

:
) ,
, ;
)
.
) :
lim 0 (1.17)
n

xo x , .
.

( ), . :
n
f ( A ) = ( xi A ) 2 (1.18)
i =1

:
n
f , ( A ) = 2 ( xi A ) = 0 (1.19)
i =1

(1.19) :
n
xi = nA (1.20)
i =1

:
n
xi
i =1
A= =x (1.21)
n
n
xi
i =1
f ,, ( A ) = 2n > 0, A = x = ,
n
.

10


1.8.3.

N ,
, . :
1 N
=
N
xi (1.22)
i =1

= xo ,
.
( xo).
( ),
( n
). :
1 n
x= xi
n i =1
(1.23)

x
.
.
.

1.8.4.

(
) .
, n ,
. n
.
n
n 2 = ( x1 xo ) 2 + ( x 2 xo ) 2 + ... + ( xn xo )2 = ( xi xo )2 (1.24)
i =1

:
1 n 1 n
2 =
n i =1
( xi xo )2 = xi2
n i =1
(1.25)

2 . :

11


1 n 1 n
=
n i =1
( xi x o ) 2 =
n i =1
xi2 (1.26)

,
2 (2 = 12 + 22 + ...+ n2).
r :

1 1 n
r=
xo
=
xo

n i =1
( xi x o ) 2 (1.27)

( n ) xo .
,
:

i = xi x (1.28)
:
n n n 1
( xi ) 2 = ( x1 +x 2 + ... + x n ) 2 = xi2 + 2 xi xi +1 (1.29)
i =1 i =1 i =1

(1.29) :
n n
( xi ) 2 xi2 (1.30)
i =1 i =1

:
xi = xi xo = ( xi x ) + ( x xo ) = i + ( x xo ) (1.31)
:

xi2 = i2 + 2( x xo ) i + ( x xo )2 (1.32)
n n n
xi2 = i2 + 2( x xo ) i + n( x xo )2 (1.33)
i =1 i =1 i =1

n
i = 0 , :
i =1

2
n n n 1 n n 1 n
xi2 = i2 + n( x xo ) =
2
i2 + xi i2 + xi2
n i =1 n i =1
(1.34)
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

:
n n n
xi2 = n 1 i2 = nS 2 (1.35)
i =1 i =1

12


1 n 2 1 n
S2 =
n 1 i =1
i =
n 1 i =1
( xi x ) 2 (1.36)

S2 . n 1
. n xi je :

1 n 2 1 n
S= i =
n 1 i =1

n 1 i =1
( xi x ) 2 (1.37)

1 n 2 1 n
2
S= xi n xi
n 1 i =1
(1.38)
i =1

r :

S 1 1 n
r= =
n 1
( xi x ) 2 (1.39)
x x i =1

1.8.5.

N xo ,

1 N
=
N
( xi ) 2 (1.40)
i =1

1 n
S=
n 1 i =1
( xi x ) 2 (1.41)

1.8.6.

x xo

. .
.
:

13


n
nS 2 = ( xi xo ) 2 (1.42)
i =1

:
2
n n
nS = ( xi xo ) = ( xi xo
2 2
) (1.43)
i =1 i =1
:
n n
( xi xo ) = xi = S n (1.44)
i =1 i =1

n
xi nxo =S n (1.45)
i =1

1 n S

n i =1
xi x o = (1.46)
n
:
S
xo = x (1.47)
n
n
( S x ).

S 1 n
Sx = =
n( n 1 ) i =1
( xi x ) 2 (1.48)
n
:
x S x xo x + S x (1.49)

S , S x x ,

(68%) ,
, .
S x

( 10 n ). S x

x
. S ,
S x n.

14


Sx S r
rx = = = (1.50)
x x n n
:
(
xo = x 1 rx ) (1.51)

68%, .

1.9.

( ,
),
.
1: .
1, 2,..., n, ,
.
Si, i :
C
pi = (1.52)
S i2
.
:
p1 S12 = p 2 S 22 = ... = p n S n2 (1.53)
= 1 ,
.
:
p1 x1 + p 2 x 2 + ... + p n x n 1 n
x= = p i xi (1.54)
p1 + p 2 + ... + p n n

p
i =1
i
i =1

:
p1 S12 + p 2 S 22 + ... + p n S n2 1 n
S =
2
= pi S i2 (1.55)
p1 + p 2 + ... + p n n

p
i =1
i
i =1

2: ,
. xi

15


fi ,
:
f 1 x1 + f 2 x 2 + ... + f n x n 1 n
x= = f i xi (1.56)
f 1 + f 2 + ... + f n n

f
i =1
i
i =1

1 n
S=
n 1 i =1
f i ( xi x) 2 (1.57)

n
n = f i .
i =1

1.8.4 1.8.6.

1.10.

.
,
.

, ,
. , (
) ,
,
, .
,
.

1.10.1.

n x n
x1, x2,..., xi,... xn 1, xn,
xi .
( ) . fi xi,
:

16


1 n
x= f i xi
n i =1
(1.58)

:
n
fi =n (1.59)
i =1

xi
fi
. :
n
f1 f 2 f f 1 n
+ + ... + i + ... + n = f i = 1 (1.60)
n n n n n i =1

f i = f ( xi ) ,

fi
= f ( xi ) .
n

1.1. 1.2.

1.10.2.

,

.

,
.

17


,
:
- ( x min ,...x max );

- m, m n + 1 , n
;
- ;
- .
.
,
,
.
f r,i fi
Wi = = (1.61)
x nx
: x = xi xi 1 .

1.3. 1.4.

i
:
f r,i
Ai = Wi xi = xi = f r,i (1.62)
xi
:
m m 1 m 1
Am = Ai = f r,i = fi = m = 1 (1.63)
i =1 i =1 m i =1 m

18


1.10.3.

:
a) , f(x)
b) , F(x)
f(x)
.
n , x 0 .
f(x). f(x) ,
:
P( xi < X < xi + dx )
f ( x ) = lim (1.64)
dx0 dx
:
P( xi < X < xi + dx ) = f ( x )dx (1.65)

( xi < X < xi + dx ) .
[x1,x2] Px1 ,x 2 je:
x2
Px1 ,x2 = P( x1 < X < x 2 ) = f ( x )dx (1.66)
x1

x1 = x2 = + Px1 ,x 2 je:

+
P( < X < + ) = f ( x )dx = 1 (1.67)

:
P( x1 < X < x 2 ) = P( x1 X < x 2 ) = P( x1 < X x 2 ) = P( x1 X x 2 ) (1.68)
, .
F(x1)
x1 ( ,+ ):

19


x1
F ( x1 ) = P( x1 < X ) = f ( x )dx (1.69)

x,
0 1, :
dF ( x )
f(x)= (1.70)
dx
:
x2 x2 x1
Px1 ,x2 = P( x1 < X < x 2 ) = f ( x )dx = f ( x )dx f ( x )dx (1.71)
x1

P( x1 < X < x 2 ) = F ( x 2 ) F ( x1 ) (1.72)

:
+
= xf ( x )dx (1.73)

, :
+
= ( x )
2
f ( x )dx (1.74)

, ,

. ,

.
( n ), xi
fr,i
P.

1.10.4.

, ,
,
( ):

20


( x )2
1
f(x)= e 2 2 (1.75)
2
N(,). ( )

x S, n . n > 30

x S (1.75).
:
1) f(x) , x;
2) f(x) ( )
( , ).

1.5. = 0.5, 1 2
1
3) ,
2
x = .
4) f ( x + ) = f ( x ) ,
x = , f ( x ) = 0 .
5) :
+ ( x )
2

1
P( < X < + ) = e 2 dx = 1
2
(1.76)
2

6) (x1,x2) je:
x2 ( x )
2

1
P( x1 < X < x 2 ) = Px1 ,x2 = e 2
2
dx (1.77)
2 x1

7) :

21


x1 ( x )
2

1
F ( x1 ) = e 2

2
dx (1.78)
2

1.10.5.

Px1 ,x 2 , (1.77)

, .
. , ,
. (1.77) X
Z :
x
Z= (1.79)

N(0,1),
x1 x2
(z1,z2), : z1 = z2 = je:

2
z2 z z2
1
Pz1 ,z2 = e 2 dz = ( z )dz (1.80)
2 z1 z1

F(z1) je:
2
z1 z
1
F ( z1 ) =
2
e 2 dz (1.81)

(z):
z2
1
( z ) = e 2 (1.82)
2
x
z = (

)
N(0,1) (z).
(1.80) :
z u2
1
( z ) =
2 e 2 du (1.83)
0

22


1.6. (z)

(z) .
:
1) ( 0 ) = 0
2) ( + ) = 0.5
3) (z) , . ( z) = (z)
4) F(x) N(,), tada je:
x
F ( x ) = 0 .5 + (1.84)

:
2
z2 z
1
Px1 ,x2 = P( x1 < X < x 2 ) = P( z1 < Z < z 2 ) =
2
e 2 dz (1.85)
z1

:
2 2
z2 z z1 z
1 1
Px1 ,x2 = e 2 dz e 2 dz = ( z 2 ) ( z1 ) (1.86)
2 0 2 0

:
1) ( z1 , z 2 ) , z1 > 0 z 2 > 0 ( 1.7. ), :
z2 z2 z1
Pz1 ,z2 = ( z )dz = ( z )dz ( z )dz = ( z 2 ) ( z1 )
z1 0 0

2) ( z1 , z 2 ) , z1 < 0 z 2 > 0 ( 1.7. ), :

z2 0 z2
Pz1 ,z2 = ( z )dz = ( z )dz + ( z )dz = ( z1 ) + ( z 2 )
z1 z1 0

23


3) ( , z ) , z > 0 ( 1.7. ), :
z 0 z
Pz1 ,z2 = ( z )dz = ( z )dz + ( z )dz = 0.5 + ( z )
0

4) ( , z ) , z < 0 ( 1.7. ), :
z 0 z
Pz1 ,z2 = ( z )dz = ( z )dz ( z )dz = 0.5 ( z )
0

1.7.

1.10.6.

n
( x1 = , x 2 = + ) ,

, (1.78),
z1 = 1 z 2 = 1 .
(z) (1.86)
( z) = (z) :
x2 z2 1
P( < X < + ) = f ( x)dx = ( z )dz = 2 ( z )dz = 2(1) = 0.6826 (1.87)
x1 z1 0

(1) = 0.3413 ( ). 68.26%

( x1 = , x 2 = + ) .
:
P( 2 < X < + 2 ) = 0.9545 = 95.45%
P( 3 < X < + 3 ) = 0.9973 = 99.73%
P( 4 < X < + 4 ) = 0.9999 = 99.99%

24


1.8.

1.9.7. , ,

m :

1 N
m=
N
( xi ) 2 (1.88)
i =1

, N
m = ( z = 1)
68.26%.

( , + ) , = 0.5 z = 0.674,
= 0.674.

, . :
1 n
= xi
n i =1
(1.89)

.
= 0.7986, = 57%.
3 ( z = 3,
= 99.73%), 3.

.

25


1.10.8.

.
( ),
1/(2n), :

i xi x
= > R( n ) (1.90)

R(n) 1/(2n).
1 2n 1 19
: n = 10 P = 1 = = = 0.95 = 2 ( z ) ,
2n 2n 20
( z ) = 0.475 , . z = 1.96 = R( 10 ) . xi x > 1.96 , i
95% (1.96).
.
,
x ,
. i R( n ) ,

i = xi x > R( n ) , .

x
.

1.10.9.

. ,
, ,

.
-
X :
X = X 1 + X 2 + ... + X n (1.91)

26


Xi ,
2, Z :
X x X n n
Xi
Z= = = (1.92)
x n i =1 n
n N ( 0 ,1 ) .
X 1 , X 2 ,... + X n
2,

X :
X 1 + X 2 + ... + X n
X = (1.93)
n

N ( , ).
n

1.10.10.

,
() (
). ,
,

(. ).
( n )

,
N ( , ) ,

x N ( , ) , n > 30,
n
:

P x k < < x+k (1.94)
n n
:

27


P x < k = 2(k ) (1.95)
n
() z = k, :
x
k= (1.96)

n
, P = 2 ( k )
:

xk < < x+k (1.97)
n n
:

1 68.26%
x < < x+
n n
1.65 90% 1.65 1.65
x < < x+
n n
1.96 95% 1.96 1.96
x < < x+
n n
3 99.73% 3 3
x < < x+
n n

,
.
,
, n1 , n2 ,...nm ,
:
n1 n2 nm
( x1i x1 )2 + ( x2i x 2 )2 + ... + ( xmi x m )2
i =1 i =1 i =1
S2 = (1.98)
( n1 1 ) + ( n 2 1 ) + ... + ( n m 1 )

1.11.

,
.

28


,
,
.
, :
) ;
) ;
) .

1.11.1.

x1, x2,..., xi,... xn, :
y = f ( x1 , x 2 ,...xi ,..., x n ) (1.99)

, :
y = f (x) (1.100)
x x,
, :
y + y = f ( x + x) (1.101)
x << x,
, x dx d,
(1.101) :
y + dy = f ( x + dx) (1.102)
(1.102) :
f ' ' ( x)
y + dy = f ( x) + f ' ( x)dx + ( dx )2 + ... (1.103)
2
, :
dy = f ' ( x)dx (1.104)
:
y = f ' ( x)x (1.105)
(1.105)

29


.
(1.104) (1.105) :
y f ' ( x)dx
gy = = = d (ln y ) = d [ln f ( x)] (1.106)
y y

xi, (1.99),
xi,
xi << xi, ,
,
:
n f ( xi )
y = xi (1.107)
i =1 xi
:
y
gy = = d [ln f ( x1 , x 2 ,...xi ,..., x n )] (1.108)
y

, ,
, (1.107)
,
. (1.107) , :
j= n
2
n y i = n -1
y y
(y )2 = xi + 2
xi x j (1.109)
i =1 xi i =1 xi x j

j=i +1

, (1.109)
:
2 2 2
y y y
y x1 + x 2 + ... + x n (1.110)
x1 x 2 x n

.

30


1.11.2.

xi (1.99)
( xi n ),
.
xi xi . (1.99)

y xi , xi.
si xi,

xi si
(1.110):
2 2 2 2
y y y n y
s y = s1 + s 2 + ... + s n = si (1.111)
x1 x2 xn i =1 xi
:
2
sy y si
n
ry = = (1.112)
y i =1 xi y

1.11.3.

,
.
,
xi, max,
xi.
(1.107) xi, xi, max:
n y
y max = xi,max (1.113)
i =1 xi

,
:

31


y = y y max (1.114)

(1.113),
,
.
:
2
n y
y N,max = xi,max (1.115)
i=1 xi
(1.115) 95%,
99 %.

32


1) 90 mA. 90.4 mA.

.

:
I = I I o = 90 mA - 90.4 mA = -0.4 mA
:
I 0.4 mA
g= =- = 0.0044
Io 90.4 mA
:
I 0.4 mA
g= 100% = - 100% = 0.44%
Io 90.4 mA

2) 10 .
10.15 .
.

:
R = R Ro = 10 - 10.15 = -0.15
:
R 0.15
g= =- = 0.0148
Ro 10.15
:
R 0.15
g= 100% = - 100% = 1.48%
Ro 10.15

33


3) 4 mA. .
1 20 mA, 2.5 5 mA.
.

:
I max
K = 100
Ig

:
K1 I 1g 1 20 mA
I 1 max = = = 0.2 mA
100 100
:
K 2 I 2g 2.5 5 mA
I 2 max = = = 0.125 mA
100 100
:
I 1 max 0.2 mA
g1 = = 100% = 5%
I 4 mA
I 2 max 0.125 mA
g2 = = 100% = 3.125%
I 4 mA
, ,

,
.

4) e
: 10.332 V, 10.247 V, 10.395 V, 10.376 V, 10.347 V, 10.332 V, 10.183 V,
10.268 V, 10.425 V, 10.258 V.

: , ,
,
, 68%.

34


i xi xi x ( xi x) 2
[V] [V] [V2]
1 10.332 0.0157 0.00024
2 10.247 0.0787 0.00480
3 10.395 -0.0693 0.00092
4 10.376 0.0597 0.00619
5 10.347 0.0307 0.00356
6 10.332 0.0157 0.00024
7 10.183 -0.1333 0.01777
8 10.268 -0.0483 0.00233
9 10.425 0.1087 0.01182
10 10.258 -0.0583 0.00340
103.163 0.000 0.0513

1.
1 n 103.163 V
x=
n i =1
xi =
10
= 10.3163 V

2.

1 n 1
S=
n 1 i =1
( xi x) 2 =
9
0.0513 V 2 = 0.07549 V

3.
S 0.07549 V
r= = = 0.0073
x 10.3163 V
S 0.07549 V
r (%) = 100% = 100% = 0.73%
x 10.3163 V
4.
S 0.07549 V
Sx = = = 0.02387 V
n 10
5.
Sx 0.02387 V
rx = = = 0.0023
x 10.3163 V
Sx 0.02387 V
rx (%) = 100% = 100% = 0.23%
x 10.3163 V

35


6. 68%
( )
xo = x 1 rx = 10.3163 (1 0.0023) V

5) :

1 2 3
1 29.99 29.92 30.12
2 30.02 30.07 30.13
3 30.01 28.85 30.15
4 30.00 30.13 30.12
5 30.03 30.27 30.11
6 29.97 29.85 30.10
7 29.99 30.03 30.09
8 30.00 29.80 30.11
9 30.00 31.13 30.13
10 29.98 29.28 30.12
11 30.00 29.85 30.12
12 30.00 30.24 30.11

:
1) R1 = 29.999 S1 = 0.01621

2) R2 = 29.951 S 2 = 0.55057

3) R3 = 30.117 S 3 = 0.01545
( 1 3 )
, .
p1 S12 = p 2 S 22 = p 3 S 32
2 = 1, :
S 22 S 22
p1 = = 1153.61 p3 = = 1269.89
S12 S 32
:
p1 R1 + p 2 R2 + p3 R3
R= = 30.048
p1 + p 2 + p3

36


p1 S12 + p 2 S 22 + p 3 S 32
S= = 0.01936
p1 + p 2 + p 3

6) 46 :

R [] 970 980 990 1000 1010 1020

1 9 6 18 10 2

:
, , ,
,
68%.

1.
n
1
R= n
f i Ri =
f
i =1
i
i =1

1
= (1 970 + 9 980 + 6 990 + 18 1000 + 10 1010 + 2 1020 ) = 997.17391
46
2.

1 n
S=
n 1 i =1
f i ( Ri R) 2 = 12.05

3.
S 12.05
r= = = 0.01208
R 997.2
S
r (%) = 100% = 1.208%
R
4.
S 12.05
SR = = = 1.776
n 46
5.

37


SR 1.776
rR = = = 0.00178
R 997.2
Sx
rx (%) = 100% = 0.178%
x
6. 68%
( )
Ro = R 1 rR = 997.17391 (1 0.00178)

7) 50 .
R = 100.054
S = 2.19 m.
.
a) 100. 050 < R < 100.055 .

b) 95% R R ,
R .

) R1 = 100.050
R2 = 100.055 je:
R2 ( R R)2
1
P( R1 < R < R2 ) =
S 2 e
R1
2S 2
dR

R1 R R R
: z1 = = 1.83 z2 = 2 = 0.46 ,
S S
:
z2 z2
1
P( z1 < z < z2 ) =
2 e
z1
2
dz = ( z2 ) + ( z1 ) = 0.1772 + 0.4664 = 0.6438

64.38%
100. 050 < R < 100.055 .
R R R R
) : z1 = =
S S
R + R R R
z2 = = . :
S S

38


(
P R R < R < R + R = P )
R
<z<
R R
= 2 = 0.95
S S S
R R
: = 0.475 . = 1.96 ,
S S
R = 1.96 S = 4.3 m .

8) .
0.15
S = 0.06 A.
0.20 .

xo
xsi xsl,
xi = xo + x si + x sl

, . xsi= const.
:
1 n 1 n
x= i o si n
n i =1
x = x + x +
i =1
x sl

, :
1 n
lim
n n

i =1
x sl = 0

:
x xo + x si

0.20 , .
Io 0.20 :
I o 0.20 A < I < I o + 0.20 A

I 0.35 A < I < I + 0.05 A

:
I 0.35 A I 0.35 A I + 0.05 A I 0.05 A
z1 = = = 5.83 z 2 = = = 0.83
S 0.06 A S 0.06 A

39


:
P( I 0.35 A < I + 0.05 A) = (-5.83 < I < 0.83)= (0.83)-(-5.83) = 0.2967 + 0.5= 0.7967
79.67%
0.20 .

R2 R3
9) R x = .
R4
r2 = 0.02%, r3 = 0.01%, r4 = 0.01%, a
g2 = 0.02%, g3 = -0.01%, g4 = -0.01%. O
Rx .

Rx :
4
R x R R R R R R R2 R3 R4
R x = Ri = 3 R2 + 2 R3 2 2 3 R4 = 2 3 + =
i=2 Ri R4 R4 R4 R4 R2 R3 R4
R R3 R4
= R x 2 +
R2 R3 R4

Rx :
R x R2 R3 R4
= + = g 2 + g 3 + g 4 = 0.02%
Rx R2 R3 R4
Rx :
2 2 2 2
R
4
2 R 2 R x 2 R x 2
S x = x S i = x S 2 + S 3 + S 4
i = 2 Ri R2 R3 R4
:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
R x R R R x R R R x R R R
= 3 = x , = 2 = x = 2 2 3 = x
R2 R4 R2 R3 R4 R3 R4 R4 R4
Rx :
2 2 2
S2 S3 S 4
S x = Rx + +
R2 R3 R4
Rx :

40


Sx S 2 S 2 S 2
rx (%) = 100% = 2 + 3 + 4 100% = r22 + r32 + r42 = 0.025%
Rx R2 R3 R4

10) .
,
:
R1 = 405 S1 = 0.01

R2 = 405 S 2 = 0.01

R3 = 200 S 3 = 0.01

) R S .
) 68%
R R , R .

) :
R1 R2 R3
R=
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
:
R1 R2 R3
R= = 100.621
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
:
2 2 2 2
3 R R R R
S = S i = S1 + S 2 + S 3
i =1 Ri R1 R2 R3
:

( ) (
R R2 R3 R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R2 + R3
= =
) R2 R3 ( ) 2
R
=
2

R1 (
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
2
) (
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3 ) 2
R1

R ( ) (
R R R R + R1 R3 + R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 + R3
= 1 3 1 2 =
) R1 R3 ( )
2
R
=
2

R2 (
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
2
) (
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3 )
2
R2

41


( )
R R1 R2 R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1 + R2
= =
( R1 R2 ) ( )
2
R
=
2

R3 (
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
2
) R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3 ( ) 2
R3
:
2 2 2 4 4 4
R R R 1 1 1
S = S1 + S 2 + S 3 = S1 R () 2
+
R R
+ = 0.0027
R
R1 R2 R3 1 2 3
) :
R R R R R + R R R
z1 = = z2 = = .
S S S S
:

( R
P R R < R < R + R = P )<z<
R R
= 2 = 0.68
S S S
R R
: = 034 . = 0.99 ,
S S
R = 0.99 S = 0.027 . 68% :
(100.621 0.027) .

10)
1.5.
6 V, 50 mA. 10 A, 100 mA.

:
V 6V
R= = = 120
I 50 mA
:
KV Vg 1.5 10 V
Vmax = = = 0.15 V
100 100
:
KA Ig 1.5 100 mA
I max = = = 1.5 mA
100 100
:

42


R R V 1
R = I max + Vmax = 2 I max + Vmax = 6.6
I V I I
:

R I Vmax
g R (%) = 100% = max + 100% = 5.5 %
R I V
: (120 6.6) .

43


2.

2.1.

.
.
:
)
)
)
)

(
.
.

.

.

.

.

. , ,

, .

2.2.

(SI)
( ). ,
,

44


,
, 2107 .
.. .

2.2.1. -

,
.

2.1.

Slika 2.1.

(1)
(2) (3). ,
(3) ,
. ,
(5), (4).
, m.
F
Fm = mg , g .
I W
:

45


1
W= (L1 + L2 + L3 )I 2 + (M 12 + M 13 )I 2 = 1 LI 2 + MI 2 (2.1)
2 2
L1 , L2 , L3 1,2 3, , 12
(1) (2), 13 (1)
(3), L = L1 + L2 + L3 M = M 12 + M 13 .
(2.1) I
W, L M
. W
.
.
,
I, ,
dx . :
dW = F dx (2.2)
F (1), dW
(1).
dx (1) :
dW d 1 2 2
F= = LI + MI (2.3)
dx dx 2
(1) dx, I
L, M
. (2.3) :
W M
F= =I2 (2.4)
x x
F m,
( Fm = mg ), (2.4) :

M
mg = I 2 (2.5)
x
(2.5) :

mg
I= (2.6)
M
x
m,
g, M,

46


x, . g m
M
,
x
, ,
,
.
e 1 . F
l, d :

I 2l
F = o (2.7)
2d
:

F I2
= o (2.8)
l 2d
F N
1 d = 1 m l = 1 m = 2 10 7 .
l m
N
o = 4 10 7 .
A2
,
, a
.
4106,
103. ,
,
I U R ( 2.2).

2.2.

47


. Ja
r, R
U ( G). :

mg
U = RI = R (2.9)
M
x
U
I (
R
U R), R
, U.

2.2.2.

(. )
,
:

M
=
(2.10)
G

: M - G - .


. M

B ( M B ), M B ( M B ).
.

v. v
.

W = 2MB (2.11)

B. ,
W = 2MB. W

48


v. ( )
:
W = hf (2.12)
h . (2.11) (2.12)
:
2 MB
f = (2.13)
h
v f,

M
, .
, :
h
G= (2.14)
4
(2.13) (2.14) :
1 M 1 1
f = B= B = p (2.15)
2 G 2 2
:
p = B (2.16)

, a f v.
v :
p
f = (2.17)
2
(2.17) ,
.
(2.17) :
B = Kf (2.18)
2
: K = .

= 2.67522( 1 5 10 6 ) 1081 / Ts , K = 2 = 2.348758( 1 5 10 6 ) 10 8 Ts .

2.3.

49


2.3.

1
. ,
, 2 (
), 3
f, . 4
I
1, 3 :
NI
B = A o r (2.19)
L
L , je , r
, .
5 3.
U
2.3.
R
( ). Ka
I = Sf , 6 . ,
, 7, 8
9,
, . I = Sf .

50


:
) ( , ,
).
) .
)
.

2.3.

, SI
(V).
.
,
.

2.3.1.

1893. , 1908. .
2.4. (1) , (2)
(12.5% Cd+87.5% Hg). j
e (3) (Hg2SO4), ,
(4) (CdSO4 + 8/3 H2O ).
,
.
H, (5) (CdSO4)
. 20 1.01865 V.
t ( t) :
8 8
Cd + Hg 2SO 4 + H 2 O = CdSO 4 H 2 O + 2Hg
3 3
CdSO4 (5)
, , .

51


Et = E 20 K1( t 20 ) K 2 ( t 20 )2 + K 3 ( t 20 )3 (2.20)

V V V
: K1 = (41 2.6) o
, K 2 = 0.95 o 2
, K 3 = 0.01 o 3 , E 20 = 1.01865V
C C C

2.4.

(
.), 0.01 .

.
) 5 , ,
24 2-5 V
.
) 0.1 3 ,
2-5 V .
.
300-1000 ,
1n 0.3-10 V.
.

52


, (
) 3V
10-15 .
( n )

.
4 .
4 40 ,
,
.

2.3.2. E
( )

, 1962. .
" "
1 nm, , f,
U. :
h
U= f = cf (2.21)
2e
(2.21)
110-8 ( ).
" " (Sn - SnO - Sn, Ta - Ta,
Sn - SnO - Pb .) :
)
)
) (o, )
" "
.
I, , :
h
Uo = c f = f (2.22)
2e

53


f .
f ,
, Uo.
f = 10 GHz, Uo = 20.68 V.
n = 50 ,
U = nU o 1034V .
f (n) , .:
h
U = nU o = n f (2.23)
2e

2.5. ( " "

Sn - SnO - Sn 10 GHz, 1.2

:
1)
h
c = ,
2e
.
2) ,
.
h
3) c = ,
2e
.

54


2.4.

(SI)
( ).
,
, (
V
= ). .
A

(BIPM) ,
.
,
. ,
,

1 10 7 .

2.4.1.

:
)
)
) , a
)
:
1. 84% , 12% 4% .
0.43106 m 20 ,
1 V / oC, 1105 / .
1888. .
2. 1965.
74.5% , 20% , 2.75% 2.75% .
NSL.
1.33106 m,

55


1105 / .
,

, .
3.
, , ,
, , .
0.01%,
0.001%.

2.4.2.

2.6. R je . o, L
() , C

.

2.6.

.
L .
L ,
o. ,
2.6, :
1
( R + j L )
j C
Z= (2.24)
1
R + jL +
j C

56


(2.24) :

R L( 1 2 LC ) R 2 C
Z = Rekv + jX ekv = + j (2.25)
( 1 2 LC ) 2 + ( RC ) 2 ( 1 2 LC ) 2 + ( RC ) 2

, :
L
tg = ( 1 2 LC ) RC = (2.26)
R
:
L
= ( 1 2 LC ) RC (2.27)
R
. , L ,
: 1 >> 2 L , (2.25) (2.27) :
R
Rekv (2.28)
1 + ( RC )2

L R 2C
X ekv (2.29)
1 + ( RC )2
L
= RC (2.30)
R

L L
(2.30) = RC , R = ,
R C
,
o.
L
> RC , R ,
R
L
, < RC , R
R
. 500 .

, .
, (R L
,
, ).
,

57


( 1927. ,
1928. ).
:

n2 = 4kTRF (2.31)

: , k (k = 1.3810-23 /), R
, F Hz.

() 2.7,
N(t).
:
E Neff = 4kTRF (2.32)

2.7. ()

2.4.3.

L
,
( 2.8).
( ).

2.8.

( ),
( 2.9).

58


,
.
, .

2.9. -

,

( 2.10). ,
,
.
( 100 ). ,
.

2.10.

2.4.4. E

.
1 , ( )
. .

. (,
.), 1106 .
,
, .
10 .

59


10 ,
,
, (1104 ),
(2.11).

2.11.

( 2),
( 1).
. ,
, .
,
. .

2.4.5. E

1980. , Si
MOSFET ( 2.12) (18.9) (1.5),
.
1985. .

2.12. Si MOSFET

60


,
,
:
h
RH = (2.33)
e 2
: = 1,2,3......
(GaAs/AlGaAs, InAs/AlSb .). Si MOSFET
2.13.

2.13. Si MOSFET

1980.
h
106 ( = 6453.204 0.005 ).
4e 2
1108. ,
,
,
, .

2.5. E

(SI)
( F).

C
( F = ).
V
.

61


2.5.1.

,
,
2.14.

2.14. : )
, )

, ,
.
,
.

,
. 2.14.
Rp Rr,
.
,
R,
L. R L
.
.
, 2.14..
,
2.14..
2.14.. :

Rp R p jCR 2p
Z = R + jL + = R + j L + (2.34)
1 + jCR p 1 + 2 C 2 R 2p

62


1 + 2 C 2 R 2p >>1, :

1 1 1
Z = Rekv + = R+ 2 2 j L (2.35)
jC ekv C Rp C

1 C
: Rekv = R + C ekv = . Rekv Cekv
2
C Rp2 1 2 LC

1
. f o = , Cekv
2 LC
. f < fo,
:
C
C ekv = (2.36)
2
f
1
fo
f > fo :

f 2
Lekv = L 1 o (2.37)
f

( ).
2.14..
R ( 2.15.).

2.15. ) 2.14..
)

/2.
/2 ( / 2 ), . . 2.15..

63


. 104 102,
IR IC, .:
IR 1
tg = = (2.38)
I C C p R p

2.14..
r Rr ( 2.16.).

2.16.. UR UC, .:
UR
tg = = C r R r (2.39)
UC

2.16. ) 2.14..
)

r , Rr R :

C r = C p ( 1 + tg 2 ) C p (2.40)

Rr = R p tg 2 (2.41)

:
P = UI cos = UI sin U 2 C sin U 2 C (2.42)

.

2.5.2. -

64


( 2.17), ,
( ):
C '1 C ' 2
exp + exp = 1 (2.43)
o o
.
C '1 = C '2 = C ' :
o
C' = ln 2 (2.44)

:
o
C = l C' = l ln 2 (2.45)

2.17.

2.18. -
. 1,2,3 4 .
, (5 6)
. 2.43
l,
5 6, .
:
o
C = C13 = C 24 = l ln 2 (2.46)

2.18.

65


l
.
()

(), c 2 o o = 1 .

o = 4 10 7 N/A 2 ,

4109.
8109.
1107.

66


3.

3.1.

. ,
,
.
.
:
)
)
: (
) , , ,
, , , ( ).
, ,
(, , .).
:
)
)


.
. ,
.

3.2.

3.2.1.

3.1.
,
. Kao .

67


3.1.

D.
,
.
D,
D. :
R1 I1 = R3 I 3 (3.1)

R 2 I 2 = R4 I 4 (3.2)
I1 = I 2 I 3 = I 4 , :

R1 R2
= (3.3)
R3 R4
:
R1 R4 = R2 R3 (3.4)
,
(3.3) (3.4). R1 ,
:
R2 R3
R1 = (3.5)
R4
R2
R3 R
, R3 2 .
R4 R4

68


U ,


.

, .

U
, .

.
: 10x1000 , 10x100 , 10x10 , 10x1 , 10x0.1
3.2. 0.1 ,
0.1 11111 . R3/R4
100, 10, 1, 1/10, 1/100.
0.02%.

3.2.

R3/R4,
R2. R2 R2
(R2 = 0.1 3.2),

69


,
. , 3.3, R2
1, R2 + R2 2.
R2
. 3.3. :
1
R2 = R 2 + R2 (3.6)
1 + 2

3.3. R2

, R1,
R2 .
,
. 3.4

.
, .

3.4.

(R1=0) , :
( R1 + r ) R4 = R2 R3 (3.7)

70


R1 R1
r1. :
( R1 + R1 + r r1 ) R4 = R2 ( R3 + r1 ) (3.8)
(3.7) (3.8) :
R1 R4
r1 = (3.9)
R 2 + R4
R1.
( 3.5) .
R2,
.

3.5.

:
a l b
R1 = R2 = R2 (3.10)
b b
,
R1 b.
R1 :
dR1 l
R1max = bmax = R2 2 bmax (3.11)
db b
bmax b
. ( ) :
R1 max l
g R1 % = 100% = bmax 100% (3.12)
R1 b(l b)
b( l b ) , . :

71


d [b( l b )]
=0 (3.13)
db
l
b = . R2
2
.

, 0.5 mm 1 mm, 0.5 m 1 4 .
R2 . 0.5%
2.5%.

y x:
y
S MY = lim (3.14)
x 0 x

, .
(SMI), (SMU) (SMP).
R1, ,
I U P
: S MI = , S MU = , S MP = .
R1 R1 R1

.
:
I
S M = S MI S I = = (3.15)
R1 I R1
:

SM = (3.16)
R1
R1

3.1
3.6. RTh
3.1 D, U
( 3.6). :

R1 R2 ( R3 + R4 ) + R3 R4 ( R1 + R2 )
RTh = (R1 R2 ) + (R3 R4 ) = (3.17)
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )

72


UTh C D ( 3.6):

R1 R3 ( R1 R4 R2 R3 )
U Th = U = U (3.18)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4 ( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )

3.6.

I5, D 3.1. :

U Th R1 R4 R2 R3
I5 = =U (3.18)
RTh + R5 R5 ( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 ) + R1 R2 ( R3 + R4 ) + R3 R4 ( R1 + R2 )

je I 5 = 0 , o :

R1 R4 R2 R3 = 0 (3.19)

R1 R1,
I5.
R1 R4
I 5 U (3.20)
R5 ( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 ) + R1 R2 ( R3 + R4 ) + R3 R4 ( R1 + R2 )
,
, ,

( R5 ).
D :
R1 R4 R2 R3
U CD = R5 I 5 U (3.21)
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )

R1 R1 (R1<< R1)
UCD:

73


R1 R4
U CD U (3.22)
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )
:
U CD 1
S MU = =U (3.23)
R1 R R
1 + 2 1 + 3
R1 R1 R4

:
R1 R3
= =m (3.24)
R2 R4
:
1 m
S MU = U =U (3.25)
1
( 1 + )(1 + m ) ( 1 + m )2
m
:
dS MU
=0 (3.26)
dm
m = 1, R1 = R2 R3 = R4 .
, ,
.
,
RG
D.
( 3.7):
R1 R2 R R
RCD = + 3 4 (3.27)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4

3.7. D

74


RG = RCD (
),
.

( 104)
(1,2) (1,2) ( 3.8).
Rx R2 R2 ,

Rx R3 R3 .

R2 R3 .

Rx 1 ,

Rx 2 ,
. 3.8
.
,
.
.

3.8.

3.2.2.

() 0.1 .
3.9. Rx , Re .

75


R1 R3 , R2 R4 ,

. :
R1 I 2 = R x I1 + R3 I 3 (3.28)

R2 I 2 = Re I1 + R4 I 3 (3.29)

( R3 + R4 )I 3 = Rk ( I1 I 3 ) (3.30)
(3.30) :
Rk I1
I3 = (3.31)
R3 + R4 + Rk
(3.28), (3.29) (3.30) :

R1 R4 Rk R1 R3
R x = Re + (3.32)
R2 R3 + R 4 + Rk R2 R4
R1 R3
= , (3.32) :
R2 R4
R1
R x = Re (3.33)
R2

R1 R3
= ,
R2 R4

Rk ,

Rx Re .

3.9.

76


R1 R
3
R2 R4

, Re .

106 10
0.01%.
, 108 .

, ,
R3, R4 Rk R, Rb Rc, :
R3 Rk R4 Rk R3 R4
Ra = Rb = Rc =
R3 + R4 + Rk R3 + R4 + Rk R3 + R4 + Rk
R1, R2, Rx + Ra Rb + Re,
a R5 + Rc

3.3.

3.10.
Z 1 , Z 2 , Z 3 Z 4 , U
D ( 300z,
, ).

3.10.

77


Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z 3
I 5 =U (3.34)
Z 5 ( Z 1 + Z 2 )( Z 3 + Z 4 ) + Z 1 Z 2 ( Z 3 + Z 4 ) + Z 3 Z 4 ( Z 1 + Z 2 )

I 5 = 0 , :

Z1Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 (3.35)

Z = R + jX , (3.35) :
( R1 + jX 1 )( R4 + jX 4 ) = ( R2 + jX 2 )( R3 + jX 3 ) (3.36)
:
R1 R4 X 1 X 4 + j( R1 X 4 + R4 X 1 ) = R2 R3 X 2 X 3 + j( R2 X 3 + R3 X 2 ) (3.37)
(3.37) :
R1 R4 X 1 X 4 = R2 R3 X 2 X 3 (3.38)

R1 X 4 + R4 X 1 = R2 X 3 + R3 X 2 (3.39)

.

Z = Ze j . (3.35) :

Z 1 e j 1 Z 4 e j 4 = Z 2 e j 2 Z 3 e j 3 (3.40)
:

Z1 Z 4 e j( 1 + 4 ) = Z 2 Z 3 e j( 2 + 3 ) (3.41)

:
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 (3.42)

1 + 4 = 2 + 3 (3.43)
:
)
)
,
. :
1)
2)

, .

78


) (3.36) :
Z3
R1 + jX 1 = ( R2 + jX 2 ) (3.44)
Z4

Z3
(
Z4
), R2 X 2 .
) (3.36) :
R1 + jX 1 = Z 2 Z 3 ( G4 + jB4 ) (3.45)

Z 2 Z 3 (
), G4 B4 .
) (3.36) :
Z4
G1 + jB1 = ( G2 + jB2 ) (3.46)
Z3

Z4
(
Z3
), G2 B2 .
) (3.36) :
1
G1 + jB1 = ( R4 + jX 4 ) (3.47)
Z2Z3

Z 2 Z 3 ( ),
R4 X 4 .

,
.

y x:
y
S MY = lim (3.48)
x 0 x

,
.
, , .
:

79


y
S MY (3.49)
x

.
, ,
:
U CD
S MU = (3.50)
Z1
Z1
:
1
S MU = U (3.51)
Z 2 Z
1 + 1 + 3
Z 4
Z 1

:
Z2 Z4
= =K (3.52)
Z1 Z 3
:
1 K
S MU = U =U =U A (3.53)
1 ( 1 + K ) 2
( 1 + K )1 +
K

K , . K = Ke j ,

A :
K
A= (3.54)
1 + 2 K cos + K 2
= 1 = ,
. ( Z1 = Z 2 Z 3 = Z 4 ),

.
= .
,
, .

,

80


,
.


.
, .

.

3.4.

( 3.11),
( 1841. ),
.

3.11.

R
R.

x R2.
3.11. :
E p = I p ( R p + R ) + I1 R1 (3.55)

E x = I1 ( R1 + R2 ) + I p R1 (3.56)

81


E x ( R p + R ) E p R1
I1 = (3.57)
( R1 + R2 )( R p + R ) R12

:
E x ( R p + R ) = E p R1 (3.58)

:
E x = I p R1 (3.59)

x
.
R1 Ip. R1 ,
Ip.
3.12,
.

3.12.

1 1
R .
:
E e = I p R1 (3.60)

R1 ,
Ip :
Ee
Ip = (3.61)
R1

82


1 2
R2, , :
E x = I p R2 (3.62)

Ip :
R2
E x = Ee (3.63)
R1
R ( 2 )
, .
R 2.
()
( 1899. ).
3.13.

3.13.

R, Ip
R, ,
:
U x = I p Re (3.64)

Ip ,
. (
). ,
.
,
. Ix
R ( 3.14).

83


3.14.

:
Ux
Ix = (3.65)
Re
Rx
R (
3.15).
Rx R, . Ux U,
:
Ux
R x = Re (3.66)
Ue

3.15.

(SK)
(SKI) (Sg):
I1
S K = S KI S g = (3.67)
E x I1
I1 k
x x. (3.57) :

I1 Rp + R
= (3.68)
E x ( R1 + R2 )( R p + R ) R12

84


I1 k R1 R1.
:
)
)
)
)
, 3.12.
I ,

, . , I
, 3.16,
R .

3.16.

1, R
, :
Ee
Ip = (3.69)
Re
2
:
R2
E x = R2 I p = E e (3.70)
Re

85


, ,
I . I
1.
I
( 3.17) .

3.17.

1.
R .
= 1.0186 V ( ) R ( 10180 +
10 x 1 ) I:
Ee
Ip = = 0.1 mA (3.71)
Re

(6 ).
2 :
R I ( 11 x 1000 ) 1000 0.1 V

R II ( 9 x 1000 ) 1000 0.01 V

R III ( 11 x 10 ) 10 0.001 V

R IV ( 9 x 10 ) 10 0.0001 V

RV ( 10 x 0.1 ) 0.1 0.00001 V

86


RV

D. RV

40000 , 4 V.
3.15. , D ,
RII 1000 RI ,

900 ,
10900 .
,
:
V
E x = Ri 10 4 V (3.72)
i =1

1.1 V.
.
3.18.
, D .
100 k,
100 , 1 k 10 k.
11 V, 110 V,
1110 V. ,
, .

3.18.

87


3.4.

,

. (
),
,
(
).
, ,
,
,
.

3.19. : ) );

( )
3.19. .
1, ,
R, 2 ( )
R1, I p1

, . I p1
2, ,

88


2, R2
R2, :
E j M
I p2 = I p1 (3.73)
Z R' '

: E -
2, - ,
2, R = R2 + R2
, ,
R, I p 2

I p1 /2.

I p1

R1 I p 2 R2,

K1 K2 U k

U 1 , 1 , U 2 ,
K2 :
U k = U1 +U 2 (3.74)

U 1 U 2 /2. 1 2
, .:
U x = U k = ( U 1 + U 2 ) (3.75)

U x = U 12 + U 22 (3.76)

U2
tg = (3.77)
U1

Ux

I p1 ( ), K1 K2 (3.73).

(0.05 0.1)%,
0.02%.

89


4.

, ,
.

4.1.

. ( 4.1) :


.

4.1.

()

B . I ( N)
:

F = N I ( l x B ) (4.1)
,
:
F = N I l B (4.2)
1:
M1 = F h = N I l B h (4.3)
h , S = lh
.
:

90


o = NSB (4.4)
(4.3) (4.4) 1
I :
M1 = o I (4.5)
a
2 .
M 2 = D (4.6)
D ,
.
1.
, D.
25 mA.
:
M1 + M 2 = 0 (4.7)
:
o I = D (4.8)
(4.8) :
D
I= = Ci (4.9)
o
I D
Ci = =
o
A
( ).
rad
rad
( ):
A
1 o
Si = = = (4.10)
Ci I D
I Rg,
:
U = Rg I (4.11)

,
:

91


U = Rg I = Rg Ci = C u (4.12)

C u = Rg Ci

. :
1 S
Su = = = = i (4.13)
C u U Rg I Rg

:
)
) ( )
) ( )
,
, 1 0.1 , .
,
51011.
.
, 50 Hz
.
,
( ).
.
, .
1000
50 + 50 .
(
105).
0.1 0.5
(
, ).

(
= 0.4%/1/),
(
).

92


( ),
, 0.2%
.

Rk ( 4.2),
.

4.2.

Rg
Rk, U :
U
Ig = (4.14)
Rg + Rk

Rg
. :
I g Rg
gI = = (4.15)
Ig Rg + Rk

. g I = 1%
10 ,
:
4 10 3 10
Rk = Rg 1 = 3Rg (4.16)
10 2

, 1%, 10 ,
,
.
4.3 ( )
R2 R4
R3 ().

93


4.3.

:
U
Ig = (4.17)
R4
( R g + R2 + R3 ) + R g + R2
R3
R2 R4 , :
I g I g
I g = R3 + Rg (4.18)
R3 Rg

(4.18) Ig = 0 :

R3 Rg
R4 ( R g + R2 ) = Rg ( R3 + R4 ) (4.19)
R3 Rg

Rg R3 , :
R3 Rg
= (4.20)
R3 Rg

(4.19) (4.20) :

R4 Rg
= (4.21)
R3 R2
,
, .
.

4.2.

25 m.

.

94


,
.

4.2.1.

, 25 m.
R ( 4.4)
I o ,
.

4.4.

4.4 :
Ra ( I I g ) = RG I g (4.22)

:
Rg
Rk
RG
R
Ig
I
(4.22)
:
RG I g
Ra = (4.23)
I Ig

,
,

95


(
,
).
() ( 4.5)
.
.

4.5.

4.5. :
Ra1 ( I1 I g ) = ( RG + Ra 2 + Ra 3 )I g (4.24)

:
Ra1 I1
Ig = (4.25)
RG + Ra1 + Ra 2 + Ra 3
:
Ra1 I1 ( Ra1 + Ra 2 )I 2 ( Ra1 + Ra 2 + Ra 3 )I 3 ( Ra1 + Ra 2 + ... + Ran )I n
Ig = = = = (4.26)
R R R R
: R = RG + Ra1 + Ra 2 + Ra 3 + ... + Ran .
I1, I2, I3 Ig :
I 3 I g RG ( I1 I 2 )I 3 I g RG ( I 2 I 3 )I g RG
Ra1 = , Ra 2 = , Ra 3 =
I1( I 3 I g ) I1 I 2 ( I 3 I g ) I 2( I3 Ig )

20
50 , , 500 ,
.
:
) .

96


) .
) ,
.
.

4.2.1.

,
( 4.6).

4.6.

Ig.
Rv, U, Ig , RG
, :
U = I g ( Rv + RG ) (4.27)

(4.27) :
U I g RG U
Rv = = RG (4.28)
Ig Ig

500 V Rv ,
,
. , ,
4.7. Rv1 , Rv 2 Rv3 ,
,
U1, U2 U3 Ig.

97


4.7.

4.8.

.
, Rv1,
. Rv1
.

4.8.

,
Ig .
( 4.6) :
1 R
= G (4.29)
Ig Uo

. 102 105 .
V
, Rv:
RG
Rv = (U U o ) (4.30)
Uo

98


.

.

, ( )
, .
:
)
)
) ,

4.3.

1012 .
106 , 109
, 1012
.
1012
( 1018 ).
108 1010 ( 4.9)
( ) ( 4.9.).

4.9. : ) ; )

:
UR = IxR (4.31)

I x = 10 15 A R x = 1011 , U R = 10 4 V .
1015 .

99


:
t
U C = I x (4.32)
C
t UC.
t ( ),
1018 . e = 1.6021019 ,

, .

.
.

(1016 )

.
.

4.3.1.

, , (
),

.

( 10 100 V)
().

4.10.
.
, .

100


4.10.

U,
, .

.
:
1 2
w= Cu (4.33)
2
u .
:
dw 1 dC 2
m1 ( t ) = = u (4.34)
d 2 d
m1 :

1T 1 dC 1 T 2 1 dC 2
M 1 = m1 ( t )dt = u dt = U (4.35)
T0 2 d T 0 2 d

:
M1 + M 2 = 0 (4.36)
:
M 2 = D (4.37)
:
1 dC 2
= U (4.38)
2 D d
(4.38)
( )

101


dC
. = const . , .
d
.
,
, 4.11.

4.11.

(1),
(3) (2).
(4)
(5) (6).
.

( 1012 ).
( 50 F),
, 50 z.
,
10 V.

.
,
. .

102


4.3.2.

: , , .
(
) () () ( 4.12).

4.12.

( 4.13) ,
(2,3,4,5), ,
(7),
. (1)
, .
2 4, 3 5
.

4.13.

V0 , V1 2 4, V2
3 5. ,
2 4 ,
3 5 .
1 2, . (4.35) :
1 dC1
M1 = (V0 V1 )2 (4.39)
2 d
1 dC 2
M2 = (V0 V2 )2 (4.40)
2 d
, V0 > V1 > V2, :

103


M 2 M 1 = D (4.41)
(4.39), (4.40) (4.41), :
dC1 dC 2 dC
= = (4.42)
d d d
:
1 dC
= ( V1 V2 )[( V0 V1 ) + ( V0 V2 )] (4.43)
2 D d
:
a) ( idios )
b) ( heteros )
( 4.14.) Up.
,
. :
1 dC 2
= Ux (4.44)
2 D d
10 V.
Up.
. ( 4.14.)
, Up
. (4.43) :
1 dC U
= U x U p x (4.45)
D d 2
Up Ux, (4.45) :
1 dC
= U xU p (4.46)
D d
( 4.14.) Ux
,
. (4.46).

4.14. : ) ; )

104


U
0.1 mV.
E
. ,
,
( 4.15).
, ,
, 1 mV,
1012
10 15 .

4.15.

4.4.

,
, .
103 A 106
.
( 4.16)
.
,

, .
( )
. (UH)
(I) (),
(d), .:

105


IB
U H = RH (4.47)
d
RH . .

3 m3 4 m
3
( RH 9 10 ) ( RH 6 10 ),
C C
,
.

4.16.

4.17.

4.17.

Ix

I, .
Ix,

106


(4.47)
.
103 V
( ),
( 104 V),
106 V.
( 4.18)
l U.
,
. .
l (
) U.
l
( 0.5),
R
l,
3%.

4.18.

4.5.

.
(

107


)
.
,
.
.
( 50 z 4000 z,
1000 z). , 100 ,
800 z 109.
, ,
. .
(
) .
,

,
( 4.19).
(),
. ,
.
mm
1 .
V

4.19.

4.6.

,
, ,

108


(100V, 5A). ,
,
.
( 4.20.)
, ( 4.20.)
.
.

4.20. : ) ; )

(n1) (n2).
.
500
.
( n1 n2).

.
I, U,
:
I1
KI = (4.48)
I2
:
U1
KU = (4.49)
U2
I U ,
( ),

109


, ,
.
(In Un), gI gU:

I1' I1 K KI
gI = 100% = In 100% (4.50)
I1 KI

U 1' U 1 K KU
gU = 100% = Un 100% (4.51)
U1 KU
:
)
. .
, ,
(
). , (n1)
(n2), ( ),
.
)
,
(, .).

, . ( 4.21).

4.21.

,
.
,
.
.

110


( )
,

1 ( )
2 ( 4.22).
(
) 2, :
C
U 1 = U 2 1 + 1 (4.52)
C2

4.22.

4.7.

106
109 . ,
.

4.7.1. (U I )

106 106 .

,
.
,
Rx , 4.23.

111


4.23. : )
; )

. (
4.23.)
Rx ,
( 4.23.)
Rx .
:
U
R'x = (4.53)
I
4.23.:
U U
Rx = = (4.54)
I IV U
I
RV
4.23. :
U IR A U
Rx = = RA (4.55)
I I
4.23. :
R x RV
R'x = (4.56)
R x + RV
:

R x2
R x = R'x R x = (4.57)
R x + RV
:
R x Rx
gR = = (4.58)
Rx R x + RV
4.23. :

112


R'x = R A + R x (4.59)
:

R x = R'x R x = R A + R x R x = R A (4.60)
:
R x RA
gR = = (4.61)
Rx Rx
(4.58) (4.61)
RV Rx, 4.23.,
R Rx 4.23.,
,
.

4.7.2.

Rx ,
Rx R ( 4.24).
4.24 Rx:
R x RV
Ux = I (4.62)
R x + RV
R:
Re RV
Ue = I (4.63)
Re + RV
RV .

4.24.

113


, (4.62) (4.63)
:
Ux R x RV Re + RV R R + RV
= = x e (4.64)
U e R x + RV Re RV Re R x + RV
:
Ux RV
R x = Re (4.65)
Ue U
RV + Re 1 x
Ue
Rx R RV, (4.65)
:
Ux
R x = Re (4.66)
Ue
.
Rx R ,
.

4.7.3.

4.25
.

4.25.

1 Rx
, :
U
Ix = (4.67)
Rx + R A

114


2
R, :
U
Ie = (4.68)
Re + R A
(4.67) (4.68) :
I x ( R x + R A ) = I e ( Re + R A ) (4.69)
, :
Ie
Rx = ( Re + R A ) R A (4.70)
Ix
,

R.

4.7.4.

(, , .)
, , . 4.26

U I .

4.26.

e . .

, .
:

115


U
Rx = (4.71)
I
.
1013 1014 .

( 4.27).

4.27.

:
t2 t1

U 2 = U 1e RC (4.72)
: U1 ( t1), U2
t2 t1.
.
Rx :
1 t 2 t1 R x R1
R= = (4.73)
C U R x + R1
ln 2
U1
R1 .

Rx.

116


4.9.

4.9.1. (U I )

(U I ),
( 4.28).

4.28.

U I, ,
:
I
C= (4.74)
U

4.28,
.
.
, .

4.9.2.

x
4.29.

4.29.

117


(1),
U. (2)
.
m Q
. x :
Q C B m
Cx = = (4.75)
U U
.
e x ,
( 4.30).
,
1 2 ,
. .
x ,
, x :
x
C x = Ce (4.76)
e

4.30.

4.9.3.

( 4.31)
x 2 .
Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 , :
1 1
R4 = R3 (4.77)
j C x j C 2
:

118


R4
Cx = C2 (4.78)
R3
R3 R4 ,
2 ( ) x
.

4.31.

4.9.4.

( 4.32) x
. 2
R2.
x Rx
x.

Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 , :

1 1
R x + R4 = R2 + R3 (4.79)
j C x j C 2
:
R4
Cx = C2 (4.80)
R3

R3
Rx = R2 (4.81)
R4
x :

119


tg = R x C x = R2 C 2 (4.82)

.

4.32.

R3 R4 ,
2 R2.
( ),
,
2 ,
(R2 R3 R2 R4 R2 R3 / R4).
.
, , .
R3 .
R2
. R3,
.
x
2
R2 ( 4.33), .
:
1 1
Z1 = , Z2 =
1 1
+ j C x + j C 2
Rx R2

120


Z 3 = R3 , Z 4 = R4

4.33.

:
1 1
R4 = R3 (4.83)
1 1
+ j C x + j C 2
Rx R2
:
R4
Cx = C2 (4.84)
R3

R3
Rx = R2 (4.85)
R4
x :
1 1
tg = = (4.86)
R x C x R2 C 2

4.5.5.

( 4.34)
, , .
,
.

121


4.34.

:
1 1
Z 1 = Rx + , Z2 =
j C x j C 2

R4
Z 3 = R3 , Z 4 =
1 + j C 4 R 4
:
1 R4 1
R x + = R3 (4.87)
j C x 1 + j C 4 R 4 j C 2
:
R4
Cx = C2 (4.88)
R3

C4
Rx = R3 (4.89)
C2
x :
tg = R x C x = R4 C 4 (4.90)

4 R4. ,
4

122


R3, .
R4 , , (4.90),
4
, .
,

BD AD. A,
BD AD ( ).
D , , ,
, D,
D, AD, 100 V.

4.10.

4.10.1. (U I )

L R :

Z = R 2 + ( L ) 2 (4.91)
(4.91) :
1
L= Z 2 R2 (4.92)

I
U ( 4.35), :
U
Z= (4.93)
I

4.35.

123


R
. , (4.92)
L .
,
. ,
.

4.10.2.

4.36
. Lx
Rx.

L2 R2' R2'' ,
:
L x L2
< (4.94)
R x R'2

R3 R4.

4.36.

Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 , 4.36 :

( R x + jL x )R4 = ( R2' + R2'' + jL2 )R3 (4.95)

124


:
R3
Lx = L2 (4.96)
R4

R3 '
Rx = ( R2 + R2'' ) (4.97)
R4
R3 R4,

L2 R2'' ,
.
:
L x L2
> (4.98)
R x R'2

R2'' ,
Lx Rx,

L2 R2'' .

4.10.3.

( 4.37)
.

4.37.

Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 , :

125


R4
( R x + jL x ) = R2 R3 (4.99)
1 + j C 4 R 4
:
L x = R2 R3C 4 (4.100)

R2 R3
Rx = (4.101)
R4
R4
C4,
.
Lx
:
L x
Q= = C 4 R 4 (4.102)
Rx

(Q < 10). ,
,
.
Q + /2,
/2.
R4, .
Q .

4.10.4.

4.38 .
R4 4 .
Z 1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3 ,
:
1
( R x + jL x ) R4 + = R2 R3 (4.103)
jC 4

:
Lx
R x R4 + = R2 R3 (4.104)
C4

126


Rx
L x R 4 = (4.105)
C 4

4.38.

(4.104) (4.105) :
C 4 R2 R3
Lx = (4.106)
1 + 2 C 42 R42

2 C 42 R2 R3 R4
Rx = (4.107)
1 + 2 C 42 R42

(4.106) (4.107) ,
(4.100) (4.101) .
Lx
:
L x 1
Q= = (4.108)
Rx C 4 R4
(4.106) (4.107) ;
C 4 R2 R3
Lx = (4.109)
1
1+ 2
Q

R2 R3 1
Rx = (4.110)
R4 1 + Q 2

(4.109) 10 1 / Q2
, :

127


L x = R2 R3C 4 (4.111)
.

10. 10 1 / Q2 ,
.
R4
C4,
.

128


5.

, ().

.

5.1.

5.1.

5.1.

R1 R4.
( ).
, .
.
.
Rg.
, .
U

129


R.
U
. :
U ( R1 R4 R2 R3 ) (5.1)
Ig =
[ ] [ ]
( R1 + R2 ) R3 R4 + R g ( R3 + R4 ) + R1 R2 ( R3 + R4 ) + Ro ( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 + R g ) + R g ( R2 + R4 )

5.2. (R = 0)

. 5.2
(R = 0)
:
U ( R1 R4 R2 R3 )
Ig =
[ ]
( R1 + R2 ) R3 R4 + R g ( R3 + R4 ) + R1 R2 ( R3 + R4 )
(5.2)

5.3.

130


5.3 .
U
(5.1) I = , R,
Ro

:
I ( R1 R4 R2 R3 )
Ig = (5.3)
( R1 + R3 )( R2 + R4 + Rg ) + Rg ( R2 + R4 )

,
Rg ( 5.4), :
U ( R1 R4 R2 R3 )
Ug = (5.4)
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 ) + Ro ( R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 )

5.4.

(R = 0), , :
U ( R1 R4 R2 R3 )
Ug = (5.5)
( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R4 )

( 5.5) :
I ( R1 R4 R2 R3 )
Ug = (5.6)
R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

131


5.5.

(5.1) (5.6)
R1 R4.
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R,
R1. ,
R1 = R + R. (5.2) (5.6)
, :
R
I g = U R (5.7)
R 3R + 2 R g
4( R + R g )1 +
R 4( R + R g )

R
I g = I R (5.8)
R g R 2 R + R g
41 + 1 +

R R 4( R + R g )

R
U g = U R (5.9)
R R 2 R + Ro
41 + o 1 +
R R 4( R + Ro )

R
U g = U R (5.10)
R
41 +
2R

132


R
U g = IR R (5.11)
R
41 +
R
(5.7) (5.11)
:
ax
Ug =U (5.12)
1+ b x
R
.
R
( << 1), (5.12)
:
Ut = U a x (5.13)
( 5.12)
( 5.13), :
Ut U g
rt = = b x (5.14)
Ug

R
(5.7) (5.11).
R
(R = 0)
(Rg 0). :
3 R
rt max = (5.15)
4 R

R
(Rg ) .
2R

.
:
1 R
rt min = (5.16)
4 R

133


5.2.

,
.

. 5.6

. ,
.

5.6.

.

.

5.3.

.
x U = f(x).
Ui

134


, Ui= kf1(U)= kf1( f(x)). Ui

x f1(U) f(x),
f1(U)=constf1(x),
. 5.3 .

5.3.

5.3.1.

.
Ur
( 5.4.a).

5.4.

, Ud
:

135


R
U p = Ur (5.17)
Rr
D2 , D1 .
D2 ,
D1 . :
Ud Ur U
= (5.18)
R2 Rr R
5.4 :

0 U <Up

Ud = (5.19)
R2 R
U r U 2 U >Up
Rr R

5.4.

5.5.

5.5 :
R2 R2
U r R U R U <Up
r
Ud = (5.20)
0 U >Up




. 5.6
.
.

136


0 0.7U1 , U > U1 (
5.6). 7U1/5x1 3U1/5x1,

3/7. 5.6.

5.6. ) x, )
, )

U=0.7U1=0.7V. Ur=1V
R=10 k, (5.17) Rr =14.3 k. U < U,
, U,
. :

137


R
Ui = U (5.21)
R1
10, (5.21)
R1 = R/10.
U > U, :
R
Ud = Ur U = U + 0.7 V (5.22)
Rr
:

R R R R R2
Ui = U
Ud = +
U R R U r (5.23)
R1 R2 R1 R2 2 r

U (5.23) (5.22) 7/3,

:
R R
+
R1 R2 7
= (5.24)
R 3
R1
(5.24) : 3R1 = 4R2.

5.3.

.
, ,
( ).
(, , ,
.) .

. l r :
l
R= 2
(5.17)
r
.
F l , :
r l
= (5.18)
r l

138


, 0.24
0.40. (5.17) (5.18)
:
R l l
= + 2 + (5.19)
R l l
:
R l /
= 1 + 2 + (5.20)
R l l / l
/

l / l
.
,
(5.20) :
R l
=k (5.21)
R l
k .
1.6 4.

5.7.

,
. ,
100 ,
. .
3 m 10 m.
300
(60% Cu 40% Ni).
k = 2, 3105 1/
0.49 mm2/m.

139


1000
90% Pt 10% Ir.
k = 6,
, .
,
( ).
( 200),
, ,
.

5.3.1.

n
, t
( t) :
( t ) = E y ( p n )t (5.22)

.
:
R k ( t )
= = k ( p n )t (5.23)
R Ey

0.01% 0.1%,

.
, ,
.
. . 5.8
R1 R2 . R1 e
. R2

.
.

140


,
.

5.8. .

5.9. R1(t) R2(t)
.
R1(t) ,
R2(t)
. R5 ,
.

5.9.
.

141


6.

1. . , I, , 1986.
2. . , II, , 1992.
3. , , ,
, 1993.
4. . . , Basic metrology and electrical measurements, Mir Publishers, 1987.
5. , , , 1997.
6. . : , ,
1970.

142