LECTURE NO: 23

TOPIC: LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS, CIVIC CENTERS,

COMMERCIAL CENTERS, LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS

INTRODUCTION:

In order to understand the theme of current lecture i.e. location of public and semi-
public buildings, civic centers, commercial centers, local shopping centers and
public schools; it is imperative to identify the meaning and interpretation of
location, location theory, building, building types, and public property as mentioned
above. Whereas; it is also important to clearly spell out, the activity generated via
these building types. Afterwards; it will be eminent that where these building types
and their activities shall be located within an urban context. In the following all
these issues are discussed in details.

WHAT IS MEANT BY LOCATION?

Location in geography is one of the five geographic themes and a specific position
or point in physical space that be exact and relative. In geography, location is a
position or point in physical space that something occupies on Earths' surface. An
absolute location is the exact spot where something is on the earth. An example
would be the longitude and latitude of a place. An absolute location is the
coordinates on a grid that leads to an exact spot somewhere on earth. Absolute
location can also be the exact spot where something is within a city.

LOCATION THEORY:

In town planning location theory is quite significant theme especially in the context
of urban economics. The reason for its significance is quite evident when a town
planner place or decide about a particular building type at some particular location
in an urban context. Because; location theory is concerned with the geographic
location of an economic activity; it has become an integral part of economic
geography, regional science, and spatial economics. Location theory addresses the
questions of what economic activities are located where and why. Firms choose
locations that maximize their profits and individuals choose locations that maximize
their utility.

LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS:

A public space refers to an area or place that is open and accessible to all citizens,
regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, age or socio-economic level. The example of
public space is the place for commons. For example, no fees or paid tickets are
required for entry, nor are the entrants discriminated based on background. Non-
government-owned private sector malls are examples of 'private space' with the
appearance of being 'public space' because; poor people avoid or hesitate in
entering into such malls. The term 'Public Space' is also often misconstrued to mean
other things such as 'gathering place' which is an element of the larger concept.
Most streets, including the pavement are considered public space, as are town
squares or parks. Government buildings, such as public libraries and many other
similar buildings are also public space. However, not all state-owned buildings fall
under such a definition. Some parks, malls, waiting rooms, etc, are closed at night.
As this does not exclude any specific group, it is generally not considered a
restriction on public use.

Public spaces are attractive for budget tourists and homeless people, especially
those that are relatively comfortable, e.g. a shopping center that provides shelter
and, in a cold climate, is heated (or cooled in a hot climate). Whilst it is generally
considered that everyone has a right to access and use public space, as opposed to
private space which may have restrictions, there has been some academic interest
in how public spaces are managed to exclude certain groups - specifically homeless
people and young people. Measures are taken to make the public space less
attractive to them, including the removal or design of benches to restrict their use
for sleeping and resting, restricting access to certain times, locking indoor/enclosed
areas. Police forces are sometimes involved in moving 'unwanted' members of the
public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled
people are implicitly excluded from some spaces. Further, beginning roughly in the
1960s, the wholesale privatization of public space (especially in urban centers) has
become a fact of western society, and has faced criticism from citizen groups such
as the Open Spaces Society. Private-public partnerships have taken significant
control of public parks and playgrounds through conservancy groups set up to
manage what is considered unmanageable by public agencies.

A broader meaning of public space or place includes also places where everybody
can come if they pay, like a caf, train, movie theater or brothel. A shop is an
example of what is intermediate between the two meanings: everybody can enter
and look around without obligation to buy, but activities unrelated to the purpose of
the shop are not unlimitedly permitted. The halls and streets (including skyways) in
a shopping center may be declared a public place and may be open when the shops
are closed. Similarly for halls, railway platforms and waiting rooms of public
transport; sometimes a travelling ticket is required. A public library is also
more or less a public place. A rest stop or truck stop is a public space. For these
semi-public spaces stricter rules may apply than outside, e.g. regarding dress code,
trading, begging, advertising, propaganda, riding roller skates, skateboards, a
Segway, etc. Typical differences between a public space and a private space are
illustrated by comparing sitting on a public bench and sitting on a seat in a
sidewalk cafe: In the first case, usage costs nothing, in the second it requires a
purchase to be made. In the first case, there is no time limitation, while in the
second, money has to be spent at certain intervals. In the first case, one is allowed
to consume brought-along food and drink (alcohol consumption laws may restrict
this), in the second case, this is usually prohibited. In the first case, only general
laws apply in terms of dress (such as prohibition of public nudity) and other aspects
of public decency, in the second, stricter rules (such as a prohibition of being
shirtless) may apply.

Thus the location of public and semi public buildings in the city can be at any
suitable place where accessibility of all citizens and availability of public and private
transport can be ensured.

LOCATION OF CIVIC CENTERS:

A civic center is a prominent land area within a community that is constructed to be

its focal point or center. It usually contains one or more dominant public buildings,
which may also include a government building. Recently, the term "civic center" has
been used in reference to an entire central business district of a community or a
major shopping center in the middle of a community. In this type of civic center,
special attention is paid to the way public structures are grouped and landscaped. In
some American cities, a multi-purpose arena is named "Civic Center", for example
Columbus Civic Center. Such "Civic Centers" combine venues for sporting events,
theaters, concerts and similar events. In most cases civic centers in the UK are a
focus for local government offices and public service buildings.

Thus civic centers must be centrally located in city where they are accessible from
all parts of the city at equidistance if possible.

LOCATION OF COMMERCIAL CENTERS:

Commercial Centers (also called Downtowns, Central Business Districts, and Urban
Villages) contain a concentration of business, civic and cultural activities, creating
conditions that facilitate interaction and exchange. This increases overall
Accessibility. Vibrant commercial centers have the following attributes:

DENSITY AND CLUSTERING: Commercial centers should be medium to high

density; with multi-story buildings. Densities of 50 employees or more per gross
acre are desirable. As much as possible the ground floor of buildings should have
activities and services that involve frequent public interaction (such as retail,
professional services, civic offices, etc.), with office or residential activities above,
which creates an attractive street environment while accommodating dense
employment.

DIVERSITY: Centers contain a diverse mix of office and retail space, banks and law
offices, public institutions (such as city hall, courthouses, and other government
offices), entertainment and arts activities, and other suitable industries.
Increasingly, commercial centers also have residential buildings, either within or
nearby.

LOCAL AND REGIONAL IMPORTANCE: Commercial Centers should contain a

significant portion of total regional employment and business activity.
 WALKABILITY: Most Commercial Centers are less than 250 acres in size so all
destinations are within about 10-minute walk, with good sidewalks and pathways,
pedestrian shortcuts, attractive Streetscapes, pedestrian scale and orientation,
relatively narrow streets (4 lanes or less is desirable), relatively slow vehicle traffic
(30 miles-per-hour or less is desirable), Universal Design, and a high degree of
pedestrian Security. Some have Pedways, which are indoor walking networks that
connect buildings and transportation terminals.

TRANSPORTATION DIVERSITY: The area should be accessible by walking, cycling,

taxi, automobile, and public transit.

PARKING MANAGEMENT: In order to avoid the need to devote a large portion of

land to parking, Commercial Centers require that parking be managed for efficiency.
It is often appropriate to use structured or underground parking, and to limit the
total amount of parking in a commercial center.

There are many types of Commercial Centers, ranging from Downtowns (also called
Central Business Districts or CBDs), which are the primary Commercial Center
serving a region, to Secondary Business Districts and Village Centers. A large
Central Business District can contain thousands of businesses with tens of
thousands of employees, while a local village center may be considered successful
if it has a dozen businesses with two or three hundred employees. Some have a
particular base or specialty, such as a cluster of medical facilities, a wholesale
district, a tourist district, or an adjacent university campus, but such centers include
a diverse range of businesses providing support services.

Business activities tend to be more efficient in a Commercial Center that contains

related industries, because clustering allows convenient interaction between staff,
and convenient access to the services they use. A typical business district contains
offices for finance, insurance, real estate, law and research companies, government
agencies, plus various support services such as stationary retailers, janitorial
services and computer supplies. This allows more specialization, for example,
lawyers that specialize in a particular subject, translators who support trade and
cultural activities with a particular region, and suppliers of specialty equipment for a
particular industry. Commercial Centers also contain conference centers, hotels and
other types of meeting facilities. As a result, people working in such areas can meet
with several colleagues each day (a banker, a lawyer, a translator) with minimal
time spent traveling.

Strong Commercial Centers are an important component of Smart Growth and New
Urbanism. Many central business districts and nearby neighborhoods are
experiencing new residential development in the form of high- and medium-density
condominiums and apartments, townhouses, and small-lot single-family homes.
Urban living is particularly popular among young adults and retirees. Market surveys
indicate that about a third of home buyers would prefer to live in mixed-use new
urbanist community if available (Hirschhorn, 2001). Some central business districts
are still losing business and population, but there are numerous indications that,
with proper support, downtowns can be successful and provide numerous economic,
social and environmental benefits.

Transportation planning decisions have significant impacts on the success of

Commercial Centers. Walking, Public Transit and Parking Management are
particularly important, and Commute Trip Reduction programs tend to be
particularly effective. Public Bike Systems increase the convenience of cycling in
downtown areas.

People who work, shop and live in a Commercial Center can satisfy many of their
daily needs without using an automobile. For example, employees who work in the
area will find a diverse range of cafes and restaurants for refreshments and meals,
shops that sell daily items (such as groceries, books and stationary goods) and
more specialized items (such as gifts, clothing and hardware). Similarly, a vibrant
Commercial Center contains medical and dental services, gyms for exercise,
daycare facilities, and other types of services. It is therefore beneficial to locate
affordable housing near Commercial Districts, so non-drivers have convenient
access to such services, called Location Efficient Development.

Residents living in or near Commercial Centers tend to own fewer cars than
residents of more dispersed, isolated areas (Land Use Impacts on Transportation).
People who work in major centers tend to commute by transit significantly more
than those who work in more dispersed locations, and they tend to drive less for
errands (Ewing, Pendall and Chen, 2002). While; about 90% of the suburban
employees drive to work, but this declines to about 50% among downtown
employees (even less in cities with major transit systems).

LOCATION OF LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS:

A shopping mall or shopping centre is a building or set of buildings which contain

retail units, with interconnecting walkways enabling visitors to easily walk from unit
to unit. In the United Kingdom, these are called retail parks, out-of-town shopping
centers, or precincts. In most of the world the term shopping centre is used,
especially in Europe and Australia; however shopping mall is also used,
predominantly in North America. Shopping precinct and shopping arcade are also
used. In North America, the term shopping mall is usually applied to enclosed retail
structures (and may be abbreviated to simply mall) while shopping centre usually
refers to open-air retail complexes.

A strip mall (also called a shopping plaza or mini-mall) is an open area shopping
center where the stores are arranged in a row, with a sidewalk in front. Strip malls
are typically developed as a unit and have large parking lots in front. They face
major traffic arterials and tend to be self-contained with few pedestrian connections
to surrounding neighborhoods. Strip malls vary widely in architecture. Older strip
malls tend to have plain architecture with the stores arranged in a straight row; in
some cases there are vacant stores. Newer strip malls are often built with elaborate
architecture to blend in with the neighborhood and to attract the upscale consumer.
In some cases, strip malls are broken up into smaller buildings to establish a more
appropriate sense of scale and to create architectural articulation. A current trend
with the purpose of screening the parking lot from the street and nearby residences
is locating the buildings with little to no setback from the street. Some stores may
allow for entrances from both the street sidewalk and the parking lot. Due to land
use issues, strip malls in the United Kingdom are typically found on the edges of
cities on Greenfield land sites, and are known as "out of town shopping centres".
Those in more urban areas (often Brownfield land redeveloped sites) are more
typically known as retail parks.

LOCATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS:

The term public school has two distinct (and virtually opposite) meanings depending
on the location of usage. In the United States, Australia and Canada: A school
funded from tax revenue and most commonly administered to some degree by
government or local government agencies. This usage is synonymous with its British
English equivalent, state school. In the United Kingdom and a few other
Commonwealth countries: A traditional privately operated secondary school which
usually requires the payment of fees for its pupils, and is often a boarding school.
This usage is common in the United Kingdom (although can be ambiguous in
Scotland). These schools, wherever located, often follow a British educational
tradition and are committed in principle to public accessibility. Public-school
education is the most common form of education in the United States and is
provided mainly by local governments, with control and funding coming from three
levels: federal, state, and local. Curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are
set through locally elected school boards by jurisdiction over school districts. The
school districts are special-purpose districts authorized by provisions of state law.
Generally, state governments can and do set minimum standards relating to almost
all activities of primary and secondary schools, as well as funding and authorization
to enact local school taxes to support the schools -- primarily through real property
taxes. The federal government funds aid to states and school districts that meet
minimum federal standards. School accreditation decisions are made by voluntary
regional associations. The first tax-supported public school in America was in
Dedham, Massachusetts. The vast majority of adults born in the U.S. have attended
a U.S. public school.

Public school is normally split up into three stages: primary (elementary) school
(kindergarten to 4th or 5th or 6th grade), junior high (also "intermediate", or
"middle") school (5th or 6th or 7th to 8th or 9th) and high school (9th or 10th to
12th, somewhat archaically also called "secondary school"), with some less
populated communities incorporating high school as 7th to 12th. Some Junior High
Schools (Intermediate Schools) contain 7th to 9th grades or 7th and 8th, in which
case the High School is 10th to 12th or 9th to 12th respectively. The middle school
format is increasing in popularity, in which the Elementary School contains
kindergarten through 5th grade and the Middle School contains 6th through 8th
grade. In addition, some elementary schools are splitting into two levels, sometimes
in separate buildings: Primary (usually K-2) and Intermediate (3-4 or 3-5). Some
middle schools consist of only 7th and 8th grades. The K-8th format is also an
emerging popular concept, in which students may attend only two schools for all of
their K-12 education. Many charter schools feature the K-8 format in which all
primary grades are housed in one section of the school while the traditional junior
high school aged students are housed in another section of the school. Some very
small school districts, primarily in rural areas, still maintain a K-12 system in which
all students are housed in a single school.

In the United States, institutions of higher education that are operated and
subsidized by U.S. states are also referred to as "public." However, unlike public
secondary schools, public universities charge tuition, though these fees are usually
much lower than those charged by private universities, particularly for "in-state"
students. Community colleges, state colleges, and state universities are examples
of public institutions of higher education. In particular, many state universities are
regarded as among the best institutions of higher education in the U.S., though
usually they are surpassed in ranking by certain private universities and colleges,
such as those of the Ivy League, which are often very expensive and extremely
selective in the students they accept. In several states, the administrations of public
universities are elected via the general electoral ballot.

Thus the location of public school may vary in each context i.e. it may be located
within city center in old city down town areas or in the outskirts of the city in more
natural environments.

LECTURE NO: 24

TOPIC: LOCATION OF INDUSTRY & RESIDENTIAL AREAS

INTRODUCTION:

The theme of current lecture is location of Industry and residential areas. In order to
address this theme it is imperative to answer different questions such as: What are
the reasons for the location of a particular business or industry in a specific area?
Was it just a snap decision or is there more of a science to the decision? This is the
subject of location of industry. Similarly it is also significant to know why people
decide about living in a particular housing scheme whereas; different types of
residences available at variety of locations within city? The answers of these
questions are outlined below.

LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES AND FIRMS:

An industry consists of firms that each have common characteristics in terms of the
nature of their economic activity. The chemical industry, for example, is made up of
hundreds of firms that have the common characteristic of being involved in either
dealing with or manufacturing chemicals. These chemicals might be used for a wide
variety of different processes, including agriculture, construction, medicines and a
wide range of others - textiles, plastics, and paper, cleaning and so on. Individual
firms might choose to set up their business in a variety of locations. In some cases,
businesses with common characteristics are very widely spread. Other industries
tend to have firms that might be clustered in a particular area. The crucial factor
in many cases will be locating where costs of production can be minimised.
Planning laws and regulations might mean that it is not always possible to set up in
the preferred location. The economist (and later sociologist) Alfred Weber (1868-
1958) pioneered the work on location of industry way back in 1910. His theory was
based on the principle that a business would seek to locate where costs could be
minimised. If there were two locations, a and b, where a represented a location
where the cost of setting up was lower than b, then the firm would always go to a.
Weber was writing at a time when the industrial revolution resulted in a number of
large industries being concentrated in certain parts of the UK - coal, steel,
shipbuilding, textiles and so on. Whilst the factors that were relevant to firms in
those industries are different for many firms in the 21st Century, some of the basic
principles he laid down are still relevant. There are a number of factors that will
influence where a business will choose to locate.

NEARNESS TO POWER:

Some firms require either a certain type of power/energy source or particular

amounts to be able to operate effectively. This means that one consideration for
location is somewhere that has relatively easy access to such sources. This might
be particularly relevant for a business that uses large amounts of power in the
production process. In simple terms, the location has to be in a position to be able
to supply the amount of power that a business might need. Some businesses need
large amounts of power to be able to produce - this might be much more than is
normally available from a domestic supply and so there has to be that source
available if location is to be viable. The chemical industry is an example of
production that uses large amounts of power. If we use the example of the chemical
industry, the production process involved in this industry requires large amounts of
gas and electricity. Providing the amount of electricity needed for such processes is
not the same as the amount needed by the average house.

NEARNESS TO MARKET:
Access to a market for the good or service produced is an important component for
some firms. The market in this context is referring to the customers who buy the
good or service produced. In some cases, this can be the general public at large;
others might be far narrower. For example, some businesses sell their output to a
small number of other businesses. The importance of access to a market depends
on the type of business and what it is involved in. For some businesses, being near
to customers is essential. One obvious example is a snack bar or caf. To survive,
such businesses need to be somewhere where customers will regularly pass by. In
the case of our chemical firms, nearness to the market might not be quite as
important as might be the case for online retailers such as Amazon, where other
means of getting to the market are more important (good distribution and
communication networks, for example). The importance of being near to the market
might also be dictated by the nature of the product produced. Weber identified the
importance of this in his original analysis. Weber noted that the ratio of the weight
of raw materials to the finished product might be a factor influencing location. We
refer to this as 'bulk reducing' or 'bulk increasing' industries. A bulk reducing
industry is one where the finished product is less bulky and easier to transport and
distribute than the raw materials. Steel is a good example of this type of industry.
Steel is made from a combination of coal, iron ore and fluxes which are processed
before being combined in a blast furnace where molten steel is then processed into
steel slabs, plate and so on. In such circumstances, the cost of transporting the raw
materials may be high compared to that of the finished product. A bulk increasing
industry is one where the opposite occurs. In this case, the finished product might
be more bulky than the raw materials. A good example here is the furniture industry.
Completed items of furniture (not flat-packed obviously) tend to be far more bulky
than the raw material used to make it.

NEARNESS TO A SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS:

Some firms may rely on a source of raw materials for their business. If these raw
materials are nearby, it is pretty much common sense that transport costs can be
reduced if the firm is located nearby rather than far away. This might be particularly
relevant for bulk reducing firms. In Weber's time, the steel industry tended to be
located near to sources of coal (for coking) and supplies of iron ore. If the raw
material is not available locally then it may be that a firm chooses to locate near a
port, or other point of import, where they can access the raw materials efficiently
and at lowest cost. In other cases, the raw material might be less obvious. In certain
parts of the UK, there tends to be a relative concentration of certain types of
farming. In these cases it may be the quality of the land for arable use that might
be important. In other cases it might be that certain types of land and area are
more suitable for dairy farming. Even more obvious might be the proximity of many
fish-processing plants located near to fishing ports or firms involved in quarrying.

NEARNESS TO A SUPPLY OF LABOUR:

All businesses need labour to operate. In some cases, this labour has to have high
levels of skill. Some areas have concentrations of industry in a region and have
become known for having a pool of skilled labour available. In such cases, it can
save a firm both time and cost locating near to the supply of labour. This can be
extended if the local labour supply is relatively cheap. A number of firms in recent
years relocating some of their operations to different countries to take advantage of
the supplies of skilled and cheap labour that exist: for example, call centres in India
and James Dyson's relocation of manufacturing capacity to Malaysia. The Economist
Intelligence Unit reported that at the time of the decision by Dyson in 2002, labour
costs for a UK worker stood at 9 per hour compared to just 3 in Malaysia.
Moreover, UK office rents cost 114 per square metre per year whilst similar rents in
Malaysia are priced at just 38 per square metre per year. Certain parts of the
country may be associated with certain types of labour. In the City of London, for
example, there may be opportunities for firms in the financial industry to access
supplies of highly skilled and experienced labour. There are, in addition, a number of
specialist business schools in the City that are able to attract good quality teaching
and research staff as well as recruiting good quality students. As a result, firms in
the locality know that they have access to good quality labour.

PROXIMITY OF OTHER BUSINESSES - EXTERNAL ECONOMIES OF SCALE:

Where industry becomes concentrated in an area, there are generally a number of

supporting firms set up. In some cases, these firms supply specialised services or
products to other firms in the industry. In and around fishing ports, for example,
there might be specialist engine services, specialists in marine insurance, firms
specialising in processing and distribution and so on. In such cases, any new firm
seeking to enter the market might well gain benefits from the fact that the industry
is concentrated in that area. In the City, there will be firms that have particular
specialisms in different areas of finance, whose expertise can be a major reason for
firms locating in the City. These benefits can result in lower average costs (costs per
unit). This is called external economies of scale. There might also be other
specialist benefits. In our example of the chemical industry, the emergency services
are specially trained to deal with potential emergencies that might result from a
chemical spill or explosion. In addition, there are specialist firms that deal with the
problems of waste and processing of unwanted chemical residues. All of these might
be of benefit to a new firm looking to set up in the area.

THE REPUTATION OF AN AREA:

Certain areas of the country have a reputation for particular types of business - this
might often be due to its industrial past. Staffordshire is associated with high quality
pottery, The City for its financial expertise and Sheffield for its steel - just some
examples. Any firm linked with those industries setting up in these areas might well
be able to trade on the back of the reputation of the area. If a firm that sells cutlery
sets up in Sheffield, it may be able to associate its business with the reputation that
Sheffield has built up in relation to steel. As the structure of industry in the UK
changes in favour of a more service-based economy, the importance of the
concentration of industry which was a feature of the old traditional heavy industries
that developed after the industrial revolution is declining. Whilst this factor may be
seen as being less important it can still be a factor that a firm might consider.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION SERVICES:

Firms that rely on good communications networks either for information transfer or
distribution may well look to locate in areas where such facilities exist. This may
include high quality road networks, access to trains, airports, ports and so on. Many
new industrial estates have been built in out of town areas and major new roads
linking these estates with major road networks make locating in these areas
worthwhile for some firms. For other firms, speed of information may be the crucial
factor in their business. Many city areas were the first to have access to high speed
data networks, broadband, cable and satellite services and so on. For a firm in the
City, having high speed data access is essential to the transaction of their business.
Data transfer is an important part of many businesses in the knowledge economy.
Speed of transfer depends on having the right infrastructure in place - not
everywhere in the country has access to super fast data transfer, which may affect
decisions on location. In other examples, many hotel chains have located in
particular areas often near to motorway exits around major cities or airports.
Companies like Travelodge, Holiday Inn, Holiday Inn Express, Ibis and Premier
Lodges have all appeared in clusters around these exits. They are hoping to take
advantage of business travellers who use these main arterial routes.

INCENTIVES:

As the structure of industry changes, different regions of the country might

experience different levels of economic growth. In some regions, the decline of old
traditional industries like coal and steel has not been offset by a growth in new
industries. Unemployment can be a problem in these areas. The EU might play a
role in location in offering various incentives to help promote economic growth and
regeneration in poor regions of the EU. As a result, various government and EU
grants and incentives might be available to persuade firms to locate in these areas.
The availability of low rent premises, faster planning permissions, employment
subsidies (a sum of money given for every job created), reduced red tape, grants
etc. can make a difference to a firm that decides to locate in that area. One of the
problems, however, is that there might not be any other natural reasons for a firm
to locate in these areas and when the incentives run out there might not be any
reason for the firm to remain in the area.

COMPETITION:

Firms will be aware of the extent of the competition in an area when they are
looking to locate their business. If there are several other similar businesses in the
locality, it might influence their decision about location. Is this a good location
decision or not? Being located near to competition can have its disadvantages but
might also have some advantages.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR EXPANSION:

Many businesses might be looking for opportunities to expand in the future. Access
to land, and the ease with which the business can expand if necessary, might
therefore be something that a business will want to find out before making a
location decision, or at least as part of a location decision. In some areas of the
country, planning permission may be difficult to get - there may be restrictions on
expansion into the countryside, various policies to encourage use of derelict land
and so on. Whilst this may be of benefit to society as a whole, it is not necessarily
the most cost-effective solution for a business. In some areas of the country, land
and rental prices can be significant factors in location decisions.

In the south east of the UK, for example, average land prices for residential use
have risen from 275,000 per hectare in 1983 to 2.49 million in 2002; in Inner and
Outer London, the rise was even more dramatic with prices rising from 759,000 to
5.49 million per hectare. Compare this to Wales, where the price for a hectare in
1983 was 85,000 and rose to 980,000 by 2002. A recent report by real estate
business DTZ noted that the West End of London was the most expensive place in
the world to rent office space. They reported that the average cost per workstation
area stood at 12,001. Hong Kong came in second at 10,170.

DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES AND INWARD INVESTMENT

UK Regional policy in recent years has changed its emphasis. The UK's membership
of the EU has been a part of this. The approach is to have a coordinated policy with
the EU to help each region achieve its full economic potential but at the same time
to allow decision-making to be devolved to the lowest level, where possible. This
means that the regions themselves will take a lead in encouraging economic
development and supporting businesses in their region.

PHYSICAL FACTORS:

Raw materials: The factory needs to be close to these if they are heavy and bulky to
transport.

Energy supply: This is needed to work the machines in a factory. Early industries
were near to coalfields. Today, electricity allows more freedom.

Natural Routes: River valleys and flat areas were essential in the days before
railways and motorways made the movement of materials easier.

Site and Land: Most industries require large accessible areas of cheap, flat land on
which to build their factories.
HUMAN AND ECONOMIC FACTORS:

Labour: A large cheap labour force is required for labour-intensive manufacturing

industries. High-tech industries have to locate where suitable skilled workers are
available.

Market: An accessible place to sell the products is essential for many industries i.e.
those that produce bulky, heavy goods that are expensive to transport; those that
produce perishable or fragile goods; those that provide services to people. The
market is not so important for other industries such as high-tech whose products
are light in weight and cheap to transport. Such industries are said to be 'footloose'.

Transport: A good transport network helps reduce costs and make the movement of
materials easier.

Cost of land: Greenfield sites in rural areas are usually cheaper than Brownfield sites
in the city.

Capital: This is the money that is invested to start the business. The amount of
capital will determine the size and location of the factory. Government policies:
Industrial development is encourages in some areas and restricted in others.

LOCATION OF RESIDENTIAL AREA :

A residential area is a land use in which housing predominates, as different from

industrial and commercial areas. Housing may vary significantly between, and
through, residential areas. These include single family housing, multiple family
housing such as (apartments, duplexes, townhomes (or similar configurations),
condominiums) or mobile homes. Zoning for residential use may permit some
services or work opportunities or may totally exclude business and industry. It may
permit high density land use or only permit low density uses.

Residential zoning usually includes a smaller FAR (floor to area ratio) than business,
commercial or industrial/manufacturing zoning. The area may also be large or small.
In certain residential areas, largely rural, quite large tracts of land may exist which
have no services whatsoever. Because a large distance must be traveled to access
the nearest services, most journeys involve using a motor vehicle or some other
form of transport. This need has resulted in Residential land development usually
existing or planned infrastructure such as rail and road. The pattern of development
is usually set forth in the restrictive covenants contained in the deeds to the
properties in the development, but may also result from or be reinforced by zoning.
Restrictive covenants are not easily changed as the agreement of all property
owners (many of whom may not live in the area) may need to be obtained to effect
a change. The area may also be large or small. Residential Differentiation are some
of the various zones under which Residential Areas fall i.e. inner city residential,
inner mixed zone, established residential, new development, urban-rural fringe,
rural residential, sub-regional centers.

Residential development is the dominant land-use within the City, offering residents
a high quality and much sought after residential environment and providing some of
the finest residential streets. The leafy tree lined streets and the variety of housing
type and style create a most appealing environment. The concentration of high
quality community services, together with proximity to the centre of city and the
good access to public transport, are necessary attraction for people who wish to live
there. A more accurate prediction can be made of the types of housing required to
satisfy the diverse characteristics of our population when further research in the
form of a detailed "Residential Housing Needs Strategy" is undertaken. There has
also been a trend for many non-residential uses to locate or creep into our
residential areas. Some existing non-residential uses (such as schools) are
considered integral to the residential area, providing a service to local residents,
and sometimes broader population, but their growth has the potential to create
traffic and other amenity problems and to displace housing. Concerning the location
of new housing it is imperative to maintain and increase housing choice and
diversity within existing residential areas. Increase residential development
opportunities (including higher density development) in and around commercial
centres and other strategic locations. Protect existing housing stock and residential
use. Encourage a high standard of residential development. Minimise the impact of
institutions and other non-residential uses on their surrounding areas. Minimise the
impact of commercial/industrial uses in areas adjoining residential and other
sensitive uses. There are no specific socialist types of land use distribution of new
housing, internal organisation of residential blocks, or location of companies. Even
the principle goal of socialist city planning to locate new residential areas closed to
working areas has been pursued in western planning too. Thus; the residential
areas shall be located in such a way in any city that may fulfill the functions of living
working and recreation of a family. Furthermore; there are variety of housing types
such as low income middle income and high income housing whereas; the location
of each of these housing types subject to the level of affordability of a family to live
within close proximity to city center or in the outskirts of the city.