CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
 CHAPTER 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents a review of some literature sources referred for this research.
This research began with a literature review process, which was essential in identifying
the direction of investigation, deciding the study area for detailed inquiry, and in
understanding the background and context. The review of literature contributed to a
conceptualization of the thesis framework which has been presented in one of the
subsequent chapters. Review of secondary sources has enabled a certain choosing and
sifting of information, interpretation of primary surveys, and the formulation of
inferences. Additionally, literature reviews are important as their purpose is:

- to give a background relevant to the topic;

- to identity the concepts related to the area and formulate hypothesis;
- to identity appropriate methodology in the research design, methods of
measurement and techniques and analysis;
- to identity the data source; and
- to learn how to structure a thesis.

In order to accomplish all these, a combination of several publicly available

literature sources were referred to. These included published journal articles, books,
newspaper reports, official plans and reports, and websites relevant to this study. This is
done to provide a more in-depth look into a few issues that have continued to engage
academic, professional, public and official activities regarding waterfronts, urban
waterfront developments, and sustainability. Additionally, this review pertaining to
various relevant subjects and issues has been done to understand the role of
environmental, social and economic factors in sustainable development with respect to
urban waterfront. The review seeks to understand ‘Place making’, articulation of space,
urban space, culture modules, and community based planning and design.

Many of the sources discussed in detail in this chapter have been referenced all
through this thesis document. Some selected references from the entire study report will
be expanded upon in this chapter. These comprise of extensively documented western
research literature. Research from developing countries of Asia are studied to understand

17
specific issues and concerns relevant to similar situations in India. Available literature for
the context of Kerala provides a range of issues and concerns specific to Kerala and the
study area.

2.1 Architecture and Urban Design

Waterfronts are fundamentally public places. Although many waterfronts can

have predominantly communication, transport, and industrial and commercial uses. The
history of waterfront transformations show that the success of waterfront areas also
depended upon how safe, accessible and vibrant they were. From basic settlements to
busy ports, waterfronts manifest typological differences in their buildings and public
spaces. Residential, commercial, public and industrial buildings; plazas, seas-side
walkways/boardwalks, jogging and bicycling trails; and open spaces for large-scale
gatherings for special, or temporary events can also be seen at waterfronts all over the
world. Old waterfronts have been revived, and in many cases, sustainability concerns has
driven the processes.

Many older waterfront areas retain existing communities by renovating and

preserving extant heritage structures, and by adding to existing architectural elements.
New waterfront developments and regeneration projects for decaying waterfronts also pay
attention to the quality of the built environment and strive to create vibrant, mixed-use
neighborhoods in order to encourage a variety of users. In the context of these reviews, it
can be seen that enhanced property values, investment generation, attraction of
communities towards waterfront areas, and larger goals of city activity are all tied up with
the quality of built environment.

Therefore, this review section specifically looks at literature examining

architecture and urban design with reference to the following aspects: mixed-use
developments; place-making and urban space; and community, culture and water. This is
followed by specific discussions on waterfront development, sustainability issues and
sustainable waterfront planning and strategies in subsequent sections.

2.1.1 Mixed-use Developments

According to Urban Land Institute’s (ULI) (1976) Mixed-use Development:

New Ways of Land Use, the term mixed-use development covers varieties of

18
development types from neighborhood corner store to a 1000 acre planned community.
Generally, mixed-use development comprises a mixture of two or more land uses, either
comprised within a single building (horizontally or vertically) or multiple buildings of
different uses within a distinct development site. Mixed uses may be within the same
building or within adjacent buildings that are a part of the overall master plan. The three
approaches to mixed-use development are:

 Increase intensity of land uses.

 Increase diversity of land uses.

 Integrate or dovetail segregated cognate uses.

The three determinants of mixed-use development are the following:

 Include a combination of related uses in one place - residential, office,

retail, trade, entertainment, civic space, and government.

 Provide for a significant proportion of each use within the mix.

 Provide convenient and safe connections (both for pedestrians and for
vehicles) both within the development complex and to places outside.

Zoning types - There are four factors that help to conceptualise mixed-use
development:

 Development context - identify type of buildings, uses and sites already

existing in the area;

 Community type - identify the community as urban, sub-urban, rural etc;

 Level of integration - identify whether the physical integration is

contiguous or horizontal; and

 Density- identify the minimum and maximum project density in the area.

Some advantages and issues of mixed-use developments are:

19
  Brings people closer to the things that they need on a day-to-day basis
making life more comfortable and accessible.

 Makes more efficient use of land and public infrastructure, like parking.

 Reduces traffic congestion on roadways.

 Activates urban areas during more hours of the day.

 Increases housing access for diverse household types.

 Reduces dependence on automobile vehicles.

 Increases travel options.

 Creates a local sense of place, there by promoting quality growth.

Some of the issues that mixed-use developments could bring in are:

 They can be market driven nature without consideration to community

goals and aspirations.

 Developers usually focus on their core and original business

specializations.

 There are marketing challenges to mixed-use developments

 They may entail higher cost compared to traditional single use

developments provoking a variety of long-term investments and use.

2.1.2 Place-making and Urban Space

Today, more people recognize the potential of squares and plazas.

Underperforming spaces in the inner-city can be transformed into great nodes of activity.
An understanding of how people will use a place and what activities will draw them there
is necessary. Within any successful square or plaza, there should be several dynamic
destinations that attract different kinds of people. These destinations should offer many
things to do. Creating a great public space requires helping communities comes forth with
a vision for these activities and goals.

20
Books on Place-making:

Gehl . J (2007) states that open public space has transformed from that of a vital
meeting place to a status of disuse in the twentieth century. The changes in the attitude
of the public regarding social gatherings on the streets to that of seeking personal security
and expressing a demand for choice has also influenced the way how public spaces are
perceived. This change in attitude is a prime reason why urban design has to incorporate
new types of public spaces in the city fabric.

A public space is a place where anyone has a right to free access without being
hampered by any economic or social conditions. A broader meaning of public space or
place includes places where everybody can come if they pay, like a café, train or a movie
theatre. A shop is an example of what is intermediate between the two meanings:
everybody can enter and look around without obligation to buy, but activities unrelated
to the purpose of the shop are generally limited and constrained. There is no expectation
of privacy in a public space. While it is generally considered that everyone has a right to
access and use public space, as opposed to private space which may have restrictions,
there has been some academic interest in how public spaces are managed to exclude
certain groups - specifically homeless people and young people. Measures are taken to
make the public space less attractive to them, including the removal or design of benches
to restrict their use for sleeping and resting, restricting access at certain times, locking
indoor or enclosed areas. This aspect is beset with social equity and justice issues, which
cannot be ignored while considering sustainable planning of waterfronts. Sustainable
planning is fundamentally socially inclusive, economically and socially just, and
environmentally sensitive.

Lefebvre (1991) in his book The Production of Space, contends that there are
different levels of space, from very abstract, crude, natural space (absolute space) to more
complex spatiality of which the significance is socially determined (social space).
Lefebvre explains social space as a space containing a diversity of natural and social
objects, including the networks and pathways which facilitate the exchange of material
things and information. Lefebvre argues that space is a social product, or a complex social
construction (based on values, and the social production of meanings), which affects
spatial practices and perceptions. As a philosopher, he argues that this social production
of urban space is fundamental to the sustenance of society, hence also of economy itself.

21
Social space is a social product - the space produced in a certain manner serves as a tool
of thought and action. It is not only a means of production but also a means of control and
hence of domination or power.

Lynch (1960) in the book The Image of the City describes how people ‘image’ the
city; that is, how they encounter and remember mental images of the large-scale
environments in which they live. He focuses on how people think about the structure of
their cities. From verbal and pictorial accounts, he derives five basic elements of the city
image: Path, Node, Landmark, District and Edge. The contents of city needed for
successful human interaction can be classified into these five types. They can be applied
to any urban environment, as they are derived from a study of human needs and activity
patterns. These five would be useful in any context of spatial division.

Considering some of these issues at the building level, along with his associate
Allison, P., David Adjaye (2006) in his book, Making public buildings, combines the
physical and emotional factors with a theoretical approach to the essential elements of
architecture. He has explored scale, measurement, space, light and materials in projects
that have included private homes, retail spaces, and public buildings, refusing to lower
his standards to a signature style. Adjaye regards the creation of public space as his
responsibility. In his understanding, public spaces are not built, rather they are
constructed through a variety of individual ‘govern-mentalities’. The public-ness of a
space is defined by facilities that are recognized as symbols by everyday users rather than
the organization or public building, and an architect must visualize this aspect to obtain
the quality of public space. Public space is not an object but rather a value-added principle
of existing architecture. There is a complexity created within buildings that can be seen
as a ‘third space’, a kind of invisible zone of maximum interaction and social dialogue
between people. This is a fundamental concept of open space, one that is predicated by
both the simplicity of design and the individuality of function, use, ethics, and value. The
authors’ statements emphasize the functionality of the built environment while
considering the experience embodied in it. The authors state the following:

Buildings are deeply emotive structures which form our psyche. People
think they are just things they maneuver through. But the make-up of a
person is influenced by the nature of spaces.

22
 In The Place making process: Ten Principles for Creating Successful Squares,
Project for Public Space, Inc., (2006) creates a concept plan with 10 basic principles:

 Image and Identity: Historically, squares were the center of

communities, and they traditionally helped shape the identity of entire
cities. Sometimes an element was used to give the square a strong image:
The Mixed use tower of the development act as a landmark in this space.
The image of many squares was closely tied to the great civic buildings
located nearby, such as cathedrals, city halls, or libraries. Today, creating
a square that attains high significance in any large scale development, and
that gives identity to whole communities, is a challenge.

 Attractions and Destinations: Any great square has a variety of smaller

‘places’ within it to appeal to various people. These can include outdoor
cafés, fountains, sculpture, or a musical performance. These attractions
don't need to be big to make the square a success, but draw people
throughout the day. The idea of ‘The Power of Ten’ is to set goals for
destinations within a square that can be applied. Creating ten good places,
each with ten things to do, offers a full program for a successful square.

 Facilities: A square should feature facilities that make it attractive for

people to use. A bench or waste holder in just the right location can make
a big difference in how people choose to use a place. Lighting can
strengthen a square's identity with highlighting specific activities,
entrances or pathways.

 Flexible Design: The use of square changes during the course of time and
to respond to these natural fluctuations, flexibility needs to be built in.
Instead of a permanent stage, for example, a retractable or temporary stage
could be used. Likewise, it is important to have on-site storage for movable
chairs, tables, umbrellas.

 Seasonal Strategy: A successful square can't flourish with just one design
or management strategy. Great squares change with the seasons. Skating

23
 rinks, outdoor cafes, markets, horticulture displays, art and sculpture help
adapt our use of the space from one season to the next.

 The Inner Square and outer Square: The streets and sidewalks around
a square greatly affect its accessibility and use, as do the buildings that
surround it. An active, versatile outer square is essential to the well-being
of the inner square.

 Reaching Out: This is important, as the edge of a square is the way that
streets, sidewalks and ground floors of adjacent buildings converge into it.
The influence of a good square starts at least a block away. Vehicles slow
down, walking becomes more enjoyable and pedestrian traffic increases.
Elements within the square are visible from a distance and the ground floor
activities of buildings attract pedestrians.

 The Central Role of Management: The best places are the ones that
people return to time and again. The only way to achieve this is through a
management plan that takes note of and promotes the ways of keeping the
square safe and lively. For example, a good manager understands the needs
of existing and potential users and gears events to both types of people. A
feeling of access and safety in a square should be created, fixing and
maintaining it so that people feel assured that someone is in charge and is
in a state of good repair.

Moughtin (2003) presents that squares are defined by both form and function and
functions both as a platform for portraying the building in it or is characterized by the
buildings that enclose it. Perception of any space would be defined by legibility which
concerns reaction, permeability concerning choice of movement, vitality regarding the
mixed use of urban spaces and the actual visual study and impression that a space creates.
How these spaces are perceived is again defendant on human psyche and how people
analyze the space and create an impression which can be associated later (Lawson, 2005).

Books on Urban Open Space:

Questions regarding the definition of public realm is often raised and it is

understood that the physical public realm is not necessarily synonymous with publicly

24
owned property. Based on individual movement rights, the public realm and public spaces
to which the public has right of entry may refer to the same thing (Lang, 2005). Open
spaces including waterfronts also function as urban enablers that can transform a city’s
character. Such catalysts are created by the city while mutually shaping the context of the
same city. From the functionalist point of view in urban design, open space is perceived
not merely as vast spaces but controlled, demarcated spaces adjacent to functional areas.
This value may be seen as a reaction to crowded conditions in medieval towns and
nineteenth-century industrial cities (Attoe et al., 1989).

The definition of public space is often extended to include all publicly owned
property. A photographic definition of public space include everything visibly available
consisting of those spaces to which everybody has access, although this access may be
controlled at times. It consists of both outdoor and indoor spaces. The outdoor spaces
include streets, squares and parks, while the indoor may include arcades, and the halls of
railway stations and public buildings, and other spaces to which the public has general
access such as the interiors of shopping malls (Lang, 2005). The problem is that the nature
of many ‘public’ places is ambiguous because although the public has relative freedom
of access to them, they are under private ownership (Lang, 2005).

2.1.3 Community, Culture and Water

Book on Urban space and culture

Mazumdar et al. (1994) present a socio-physical model of the relationships

between culture and architecture. The four part model shows the linkages between
architecture artefacts selected or devised by a culture, architectural values, societal norms
and societal values. The model is illustrated through a study of Islamic house in Iran,
focussing on how societal values such as extended families, system of polygamous
marriages, and the subordinate status of women relate to the built-form in Iran. Thus
during modelling the interrelationships, several objectives were taken care of like the
attention to one of the ways in which culture and architecture are interrelated, and also to
see the model as a methodological aide, which might assist in quickly learning about the
culture-architecture interrelationship.

Books on Community

25
 Social activities, a resultant of private and optional activities, are the major trigger
that makes public spaces. Though the character of social activities varies, depending on
the context in which they occur, these can be quite comprehensive. In city streets and city
centers, social activities are generally superficial and of a limited nature but with an ability
to make users like it. The character of city community life is often determined by the type
of built forms and space; this results in two extremes where cities with large impersonal
open spaces cannot trigger community activities, and cities with small human scale
personal spaces and corridors constantly buzz with activity (Gehl, 1971).

Community building and design is closely related to concerns of zoning, planning

and form design. Even though zoning is considered with due respect, it is mainly
concerned with building forms and placement of building. However urban level study
considers building as an object with little regard to how the building relates with other
forms and also to the public space (Walters, 2007). The concept of integral urbanism is
expected to preserve buildings, neighbourhoods, and natural landscapes that are of value
while rehabilitating, reclaiming, resorting, and renovating what is under performing
similar to the case under consideration of the study. All these activities can happen only
with constant community involvement (Ellin, 2006). Community development involves
both realizing the potentials of the urban fabric considered as well as provoking public
participation. Though the recent decades have seen a gradual development from industrial
society’s necessary public life to the optional public life of a leisure and consumer society,
it is proved beyond argument that public life and spaces are essential for the healthy life
of an urban scene (Gehl, 2007). Though opinions suggest that the current day master
planning results in fragmented soulless cities, urban designers propose solution through
breaking of such issues through punctual intervention that do not disturb the daily
activities of the city (Attoe, et al., 1989, and Ellin, 2006). Another prevalent opinion is
that it is very easy to identify between cities where individuals take decisions and where
the whole community participates in the forming of the public spaces (Attoe, et al., 1989).

2.2 Waterfront Development and Planning

While reviewing literature on waterfronts, it is important to consider what could

be the general consensus on waterfront developments and if there are any globally
accepted principles. Here, the 10 principles approved during a world conference under
the sponsorship of the United Nations Urban 21 are listed. These were drawn up at

26
international seminars promoted by Wasserstadt, Berlin with the co-operation of the
International Centre for Cities on Water, Venice. These principles are:

1. Secure the quality of water and the environment: The quality of water
in all the systems - streams, rivers, canals, lakes, bays and the sea- is a
prerequisite for all waterfront developments. Municipalities are
responsible for the sustainable recovery of derelict banks and
contaminated water.

2. Waterfronts are part of the existing urban fabric: New waterfronts

should be conceived as an integral part of the existing city and contribute
to its vitality. Water is a part of the urban landscape and should be utilized
for specific purposes such as waterborne transport, entertainment and
culture.

3. The historic identity gives character: Collective heritage of water and

city, of events, landmarks and nature should be utilized to give the
waterfront redevelopment character and meaning. The preservation of the
industrial past is an integral element of sustainable redevelopment.

4. Mixed use is a priority: Waterfronts should celebrate water by offering a

diversity of cultural, commercial and housing uses. Those that require
access to water should have priority. Housing neighborhoods should be
mixed both functionally and socially.

5. Public access is a prerequisite: Waterfronts should be both physically

and visually accessible for locals and tourists of all ages and income.
Public spaces constructed should be of high quality to allow intensive use,
where it does not disturb work in progress.

6. Planning in public private partnerships speeds the process: New

waterfront developments should be planned in public private partnerships.
Public authorities must guarantee the quality of the design, supply
infrastructure and generate both a social equilibrium. Private developers
should be involved from the start to insure knowledge of the markets and
to speed the development. The coordinators of complex waterfront

27
 developments must guarantee their long term economic, social and
ecological success.

7. Public participation is an element of sustainability: Cities should

benefit from sustainable waterfront development not only in ecological
and economical terms but also socially. The community should be
informed and involved in discussions continuously from the start.

8. Waterfronts are long term projects: Waterfronts need to be redeveloped

step by step so the entire city can benefit from their potentials. They are a
challenge for more than one generation and need a variety of characters
both in architecture, public space and art. Public administration must give
impulses on a political level to ensure that the objectives are realized
independently of economic cycles or short-term interests.

9. Re-vitalization is an ongoing process: All master planning must be based

on the detailed analysis of the principal functions and meanings of the
waterfront concerned. Plans should be flexible, adapt to change and
incorporate all cognate disciplines. To encourage a system of sustainable
growth, the management and operation of waterfronts during the day and
at night must have equal priority to building them.

10. Waterfronts profit from international networking: The re-

development of waterfronts is a highly complex task that involves
professionals of many disciplines. The exchange of knowledge in an
international network between contacts involved in waterfronts on
different levels offers both individual support and information about the
most important projects completed or underway.

A research by Macdonald (2007) studied how older adults use urban waterfront
promenades for physical activity. The research involved case studies of three waterfront
promenades in Vancouver, British Columbia. Research methods included field
observations and surveys. The buildings concluded that older adults use Vancouver’s
waterfront promenades in significant numbers, overwhelming for walking; that more of
them walk with others rather than alone; that nearness to home may be a determining
factor as to which promenade they use; and that the most important environmental

28
characteristics of promenades may be well-separated walking and biking paths, trees,
shade when it is hot and sun when it is cool.

Another article by Lars Nyberg, an architect and landscape architect on Water in

physical planning – Handling a resource of aesthetic, environmental and pedagogical
importance focussed on Sweden regarding the issue of scarcity of fresh water, which has
become a great environmental threat in many parts of the world. The pollution and related
environmental problems have stressed the need for efficient protection and care of this
basic but precious natural resource. The study has been concluded by alluding to with
different water treatment techniques and systems for local management of storm water
and nitrogen retention ponds, which must not be treated solely as a means of solving
technical problems. They are excellent opportunities for arranging attractive water
features adding beauty and biological richness to our green spaces. They should also be
used as pedagogical means for increasing engagement in preserving our environment.

B. L. Oostdam on Marine Pollution in Kuwait refers to rapid development of a

single natural resource and resulting industrialization and urbanization have put a severe
stress on the fragile near shore environment off Kuwait. Major pollution hazards are oil
spills, industrial wastes, thermal pollution, fecal coliform, and solid waste. Good progress
is reported in abatement of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide, chief pollutants in the
Shuaiba Industrial Area. In Shuaikh, mercury pollution from chlorine plants associated
with large desalination plants appear localized. Thermal pollution constitutes
recirculation problems and fecal coliform and solid waste are are serious along the Kuwait
City Waterfront. Although known in international programs, improvements are required
in local management to counteract the strong industrial development vested interests.

A research on the “Naturalness” deprived in waterfront landscapes in Urban

basins and its measures by Zhou Jiang, Na-Na Wang and Hui Men, gives an account
of the material on earth in waterfront in urban basins, shape of the bank, the choose of
plants in the bank and the associated hydrophilic elements. This paper analyses the current
destruction of the “naturalness” because of the constructed areas of the waterfront
landscapes. Four suggestions are proposed here: insistence on sustainable development;
strengthening the plan process; design and excavation of construction; improvements in
the legislative system; and reinforcement of supervision.

29
 Stephen J. McGovern in his article Evolving Visions of Watrefront Development
in Post-industrial Philadelphia: The Formative Role of Elite Ideologies seeks to
illuminate the role of the elite ideologies in understanding how cities have sought to
transform their waterfronts during the post-industrial era. A case study of Philadelphia’s
long term effort to develop Penn’s landing, a valuable thirty-five-acre site along the
Delaware River at the eastern edge of Centre City, reveals how shifting perspective among
mayors, their top advisors, and leading activists with respect to the proper scope of
government and the appropriate source of political power have resulted in significant
changes in the city’s approach to waterfront planning and policy making.

A paper by Dalit Shach- Pinsly, Dafna Fisher- Gewirtzman and Michael Burt
on A Quantitative Method for Visual Analysis: A comparative evaluation for urban
coastal environments reports on a qualitative method for analysing and evaluating coastal
urban fabrics, based on visual openness to the coastline and the water expanse beyond.
The visual openness to the coastline is measured by this method in geometrical terms; it
is measured at different levels of the built volumes in the private domain and from the
street level as the public spaces. The visual analysis is applied to select case studies from
around the world enabling their comparative evaluation and ranking. The objective of
such evaluation is to examine and characterize morphological principles of urban
morphologies that are more permeable to the coastline view and are considered to be
adding to quality. This characterization could contribute to the future design of coastal
structures. This comparison highlighted the connection between the accessibility and
visual openness to the view.

2.3 Sustainability Issues in Urban Design and Waterfront Development

Planning

Across the world during the Second World War period, the automobile scale
landscape threatened to engulf the city and make it obsolete but however, this move has
been countered by various designers. These designers believed that pedestrian-friendly
urban spaces could foster a sense of belonging and would help combat the problem of
indistinguishablility in the new emerging cities (Walters, et al., 2007). Though the
concept of new urbanism has been established, views suggest that smart urbanism growth
is indicated by development that is environmentally responsible, economically viable and
well designed. However, such developments are often projected and executed without the

30
element of public participation leading to final product becoming a mere ghost of the
original idea (Walters, et al., 2007). However opposing this view, Tibbalds (1992) feels
that that people judge the activities of designers by the quality; the public defines the
product and not the process. Additionally, the concept of inclusion is the capacity of the
environment to promote sustainable human development and the role of urban landscape
designers is to provide high quality public spaces rather than just a pleasing physical
environment (Moore, et al., 2007).

Franke et al. (1999) in the article Is the Kerala Model Sustainable? Lessons from
the Past: Prospects for the Future have argued that the ‘Kerala Model’ was resilient after
analyzing quality of life indicators (per capita GNP, adult literacy, life expectancy, infant
mortality and birth rate) for Kerala and comparing them to the rest of India. This
development model (a set of indicators putting Kerala closer to high-income developed
countries than to the rest of India) was evaluated against criteria for sustainability. The
authors contend that

Kerala's continuing ability to improve health services, literacy, birth rates,

infant mortality, and life expectancy means that the Kerala Model is still
valid and relevant as an alternative to growth-only development strategies.
(Franke et al., 1999, p5).

Sustainability has been considered in terms broader in significance than merely in

ecological terms to focus on the social equity and justice aspects by the authors. The
criteria identified are: material quality of life; access to entitlements necessary for
economic security and personal dignity, especially of vulnerable sections of society;
reduction of socio-economic inequalities; prevalence and enforceability of basic political
and individual rights; and the accessibility to, and renewability of natural resources for
productive used.

A case study of Nadur, a village near Cochin, Kerala is analysed as a typical

example exhibiting many of the historical, geographical and social features all across
Kerala. The findings show declining land and income inequality; declining caste and class
inequality as determinant parameter; and improved social and economic mobility. The
findings also show a change in exploitation patterns from rich against poor to poor against
slightly less poor. Hired agriculture labourers were found to be exploited by former

31
tenants who gained from land reforms. The findings also discuss powerful and enduring
characteristics of popular movements in Kerala. Large number of participants in political
and activist movement; total representation in all strategic geographical or economic
areas; militant and creative ways to challenge authority; and dedicated and self-sacrificing
middle and top leaders with ability to generate innovative ideas and actions to adjust to
changing local, national and international circumstances (p10) – these were all found to
encourage and sustain popular, well-informed and enduring social and political
movements.

However, looking at some of the issues contributing to a crisis in this model for
the entire state, the authors found 8 major components: sluggish economic growth
compared to the Indian national average since the 1970s; stagnation in agricultural
production until the late 1980s contributed to seeking external sources for rice, the major
food crop; impacts on traditional industries like coir, cashew and handloom due to
increase in raw material prices and cheaper labour from other areas; sluggish industrial
growth; high unemployment compared to the national average; series of fiscal crisis
impacting public schemes; exclusion of marginal communities like fishing people, female
labourers in various industries and tribal communities; and environmental crisis.

Apart from other socio-economic issues, the authors examine the environmental
aspects of sustainability and how it is affected by the pressures of urbanization. Although
the authors recognize that the state could be influenced by larger global issues beyond its
direct control, the unique patterns of social and community participation are presented as
a unique strength. Public participation, the catch-phrase of all planning processes is
actually a vibrant reality in Kerala. Despite many challenges (low turn-out for meetings,
corruption, political haggling, low participation from women, scheduled castes and tribes,
etc.), empowerment, community based activism, and public driven plans have been
realized. The authors indicate a confidence in the capacity of the communities across
Kerala to engage in planning processes and in evolving sustainable plans.

With specific reference to this thesis’s background research, this study by Franke
et al. (1999), and other studies carried out more recently by Rajasesan (2012), (TVM,
2012), and (TDF, Vision 2030) for example, show that waterfront development plans in
Kerala, and especially TUA can benefit tremendously from an existing, robust platform
of public participation and community engagement.

32
2.3.1 Public Accessibility

Kuala Lumpur Waterfront: A Public Place for All? - Latip, et al. (2012).

The waterfront across the world all through history has begun as the place where
the civilizations have been born and stayed on the banks as the life sustaining element
also gave ample opportunities for economic growth. As time passed, changing generations
and changing needs pushed the use of waterfronts to the background. This in turn gave
rise to regeneration and redevelopment of the waterfront in various ways in various areas
in this world. The same is the case in Kuala Lumpur and the two authors of this paper
have analyzed this very issue affecting their part of the world.

Kuala Lumpur is the largest city in Malaysia and has the longest waterfront area
within the city centre. The authors hope that a study of the city centre can be useful in
studies that may be taken up of smaller towns in the country. The authors worry about the
poor quality of the Klang River as Class-III polluted and remind the readers that the
previous Prime Minister of Malaysia had in 2006 lamented at the pollution level in the
rivers. The authors use the tool, ‘why people feel the way they do?’ and gathering
interpretations from any earlier studies rather than in-depth interviews as the bond with
the place is foremost. This is done as the research aims to evaluate the view on public
access at the waterfront rather than the volume of ideas needed from each individual (page
316 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences
& Technologies). The authors have considered group discussions and hearing others
giving their opinions realistic.

There were only twelve people who had experienced the entire waterfront and
willing to participate in the focus group interview. A detailed explanation of the
methodology used to gain information has been objectively recorded by the two authors.
The people interviewed provided information about their experiences, and expressed that
direct access to the urban river is almost non-existent and that they had to put in a lot of
effort to reach its edge. Though all of them could see the two rivers they could not get to
its edge for various reasons. A very few took the risk of climbing over the railings to get
to the water’s edge. From being isolated to being cordoned off the people found it tough
to access the only known source of nature to relax or enjoy the time spent with water. The
visibility of the river is another factor. The people interviewed said that they could not see

33
the river as various types of buildings and construction both private and public had come
in the way of viewing the river.

The authors conclude their research by stating that the river in the city centre has
poor access to the waterfront and consequently is subject to poor use of the area due to
three factors: the highway traffic and the heavy traffic in many places; buildings built
abutting the river; and fenced private property up to the edge of the river bank. They
suggest that any future waterfront development should be given consideration on visibility
factors to allow accessibility to the waterfront for the public.

Green Infrastructure in Waterfront Development Towards Achieving Sustainable

Environment – The case of Muar Riverside, Malaysia - Abd Shukor, et al. (2012)

The authors point out that green infrastructure is the physical environment within
and between different regions in a country. The authors have focused on the use and
functions of green infrastructure in waterfront development towards achieving sustainable
development. They tell that the preservation of ecosystem and resources has increased the
public demand for revitalization of the waterfront as recreational activities is becoming
popular with the people and waterfront parks are a favorite location.

The writers have made a case study of Muar riverside, Johor, Malaysia. This was
an obvious choice as the Muar town has developed along the riverside. The historicity of
the river dates back to the Portuguese occupation of Malacca in 1511. Muar River is the
longest in the district and has divided the town into two localities. The riverside has many
activities on its banks – recreation, gathering, shopping and relaxing. The natural forest
near Tanjung Ketapang is an important place for biodiversity conservation. Economic
activity exists since time immemorial, and present day bazaars are on the river banks.

Data collection has been made through surveys and analysis by observation on the
study area. This survey threw up certain facts about Muar Riverside. More than 60% of
the respondents were unaware of any developmental activity at the riverside. This may be
due to lack of information as well as a general lack of awareness of the surrounding
environment. The cleanliness is at moderate levels and respondents have noticed bottles
and rubbish in the river. A riverside development must include periodic cleaning of the
river. Accessibility is low as the public are constrained by the connectivity to the riverside

34
thus discouraging people to interact more at the river’s edge. Landscape needs a lot of
attention as not much greenery is seen be it plants, trees or a lawn.

In conclusion, the authors have suggested that the local and central government to
set new priorities to fund a green belt that is sustainable and balances the entire imbalance
present at the moment. They suggest that the present focus on buildings alone should be
changed to Green Infrastructure strategically placed motivating multi-dimensional
activities at the waterfront. They also point out that this would be highly beneficial to the
local communities and the quality of life would improve. This in turn would give a chance
for environment friendly lifestyle.

2.4 Sustainable Urban Waters and Waterfronts

Sustainable Development and Planning VI – Brebbia, C.A (Ed.) (2013).

The attempt here is to define or focus on a sustainable model for the waterfront in
Montenegro and integrate it within the Mediterranean Basin and with a certain local
identity. To do this examples are taken of some European cities and from other parts of
the world having waterfront projects. This examines the complex Mediterranean context
and highlights the successful case of Montenegro. It answers the questions as to who
should establish urban policy including policies for waterfronts, and the creation of space
to interact with water by the dynamic urban life of citizens. The purpose of the paper is
to investigate the main factors leading to creative water fronts and their regeneration, how
they stimulate innovation in order to achieve economically, socially and environmentally
sustainable solutions in the cities where water plays a major role. This study has been
accompanied by an analysis of carefully selected international case studies that exemplify
the components for a sustainable synergy between ports and cities along with long term
regeneration process, protecting the available resources, the cultural and historical
heritage along with the renewal of local identity. The common principles have related to
mixed use including the needs of pedestrians interfacing with waterfronts. It has been
reiterated that the waterfront renovation projects currently being planned/restructured in
European cities are part of the complex creative operations which today increasingly
become a new element in making cities attractive.

The five urban case studies chosen are: Barcelona, Marseille, Bordeaux, Hamburg
and Rotterdam. After these international case studies, the waterfront issue is taken up in

35
context with the Mediterranean area – Montenegro being the chief area in the region. The
following summarizes each of the case study:

1. Barcelona: Here the case study delves into the three major interrelated
urban processes that led to the transformation of the waterfront
development. First was the improvement of the transport system and
infrastructure, second was the construction of centrality and economic
reconversion. Third was hosting the 1992 Olympic Games which provided
a major impetus for urban transformation.

2. Marseilles: Different principles are taken in the urban regeneration of the

Port of Marseilles project – consultation, diversification, urban form and
architectural form, partnership and sociability. The strategic management
of all these and involving the community in the development process to
reconnect the area between the city and the sea is noted here.

3. Bordeaux: The waterfront regeneration done here is a wonderful

multifaceted example. Cultural regeneration, creative transformation and
socio-economic change have all been successfully dealt with and due to
this, it got the 2007 UNESCO acclaim as one of exceptional value. In 2010
it won the European award of The Best City of the Year. The strategy
employed here is a number of medium sized urban interventions aimed at
linking different cultures and improving the quality of life while
encouraging the people to bear the costs of restructuring.

4. Hamburg: The most ambitious and the largest project in Europe is the
Hafencity project in Hamburg. It provides only a partial recovery of the
port warehouse, but, the historicity of the city is being restored and a
maritime identity is likely to be recreated in the city. This project has been
divided into several phases. First phase: Water was taken as the theme
since the economy of the city developed around this element. Second
Phase: This phase had two distinct elements working simultaneously. One
was the disappearance of the shipyard because the city had grown on the
other side of the coast and river. The second was devoted to expanding
new sectors. Third Phase: Redefining the port system due to expanding

36
 tourism. Fourth Phase: This was called the communication phase as it
involved the citizens in a public debate on the subject of the port through
conferences, exhibitions, competitions and publications. The project in
Hamburg is planning for a new part of the city that would be surrounded
by water and be enabled for work, play and living. This would be achieved
through retaining the history of the place and preserving public spaces.

5. Rotterdam: It is hard to differentiate between the port and the city. 202
hectares is the area revitalized, transforming it in only a few years into a
business and tourist centre. This has been possible due to integrated
planning and coordination between work teams. This was developed with
a special focus on public interest and social goals.

All the five above mentioned locations constitute a unique case in waterfront
urban renewal. They represent acknowledgement of the diversity and local compromise
in relation to the programs. The successful urban waterfront regeneration case studies
have given rise to the “10 Principles of Sustainable Development of Urban Waterfronts”.
These were defined in 2000 at the United Nations Global Conference Urban 21 at Berlin.
(Brebbia (Ed.), 2013, P43):

1. Determine the quality of water and the environment. A prerequisite for the
development of the shoreline is the quality of water in systems of streams,
rivers, canals, lakes, bays and seas. The city administrations are
responsible for the sustainable recovery of deserted coastlines and for
remediation and clean-up of polluted waters.

2. Waterfront is an integral part of the existing urban fabric. Waterfront

restorations and upgradations should be an integral part of the existing city
and the territory thus contributing to its vitality and local development.
Water is part of the urban landscape and should be used in a clearly defined
purpose, such as transport, culture and leisure (recreation).

3. Historical identity gives character to a place. Use of the combined wealth

of events, landscapes, nature, presented by water will give character and
significance to the waterfront. Preserving history and local traditions is an
important element of this renewal.

37
4. Multi use is a priority. Coastal area should offer a variety of activities of
cultural didactic, commercial, housing type that will properly use the
ambience of water. Residential neighbourhoods should be mixed both
functionally and socially.

5. Public access is a prerequisite. Waterfront must be accessible visually and

physically to residents and tourists of all ages and revenues. The
construction of public spaces should be of highest quality in order to allow
optimal use.

6. Planning as public-private partnerships speeds up the process.

Development of new waterfronts should be presented from the perspective
of public-private partnerships. State institutions should coordinate policy
in terms of interventions projects and aspects of management, as well as
to guarantee the quality of planning and social equilibrium. Private
institutions should be involved from the beginning to be well acquainted
with the market and accelerate development.

7. Public participation is one of the elements of sustainability. The city is

supposed to yield benefits from sustainable development of the coastal
area, not only in ecological and economic, but also in social terms. Citizens
should become well-informed and involved in decisions and processes
from the very beginning.

8. Waterfront developments are long-term projects. They need to be

gradually developed in phases so the entire city can derive benefit from
their potential. This is a challenge in the long run and needs a variety of
disciplines and types of actors. Public administration must get activated
from a political point of view as well, in order to guarantee the realization
of the objectives independently of economic conditions and short term
interests.

9. Revitalization is a continuous process. All urban management should use

a detailed analysis of the function and importance of the coast which is the
subject of this process. Plans have to be flexible, adapt to the changes and
be essentially multidisciplinary.

38
 10. Profit for the shoreline from international networks: Renewal of the coast
is a very complex task, which needs inputs from professionals of various
disciplines. The exchange of knowledge within the international network
of experts, planning professionals, investors, real estate developers, and
research scholars may include provide both local and global support in
projects of all levels and complexities. Ongoing and completed works, as
well as future vision plans will benefit.

Mediterranean context: The Mediterranean context in terms of waterfront

development and regeneration is a very complex issue. This is due to the fact that the
Mediterranean port region is vast and ever changing. All the urban issues, history and the
present global context have to be kept in mind while executing the project.

 Arsenal in Tivat: Porto Montenegro creative regeneration of waterfront.

This was built in the late 19th century by the Austro-Hungarian Navy. It
represents a significant part of the industrial, maritime and military
maritime heritage. Completion of this complex project and its subsequent
operation has been a significant revenue source for the Monenegro labour
force.

 Port Milena Waterfront: from disconnected landscape to sustainable

port. Port Milena is positioned in the eastern part of the Municipality of
Ulcinj and the port is manmade. This regeneration could become unique
in the Mediterranean due to its local features, multi-cultural diversity and
mosaic of scenery, great natural characteristics, rich biodiversity, strategic
cross-border connections and relations with neighboring Albania.

 Velika plaza (Big Beach): In the 80s this was one of the most beautiful
beaches in Europe and was referred to as “Velika plaza: challenge of a
lifetime”. Its natural and cultural characteristics enable a supply of various
alternatives of hospitality buildings rendering it appealing to an
international audience. Velika Plaza boasts of a beach space that is unique
on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea largely owned by the state. This
was chosen as a model project to prevent unplanned construction and

39
 simultaneously define target frame for the economically interesting and
environmentally acceptable construction.

The above mentioned waterfront regeneration efforts show the complexities dealt
with and the methods and processes adopted to arrive at a common consensus during and
after the development.

These studies combined with the “10 principles of Sustainable Development of

Urban Waterfronts” provide common key criteria and are recognized as standards for
implementation of these developments. These are: locally specific plans that reflect the
local diversity, being manifestly and physically connected to reintegrate waterfronts with
the city center, public participation in the waterfront development, the development
having multi use plans and providing quality infrastructure for all types of transportation.
For the long term success of these waterfront developments, the strategies and plans must
be flexible to adapt the various changes that may happen with the passage of time.
Regeneration of waterfronts represents an extraordinary opportunity for achieving
cohesion and “uphold” territory as a whole, the ability to become the engine for
sustainable development, in the urban form and can become real “laboratories for
experimentation” and the central theme of planning (Brebbia (Ed.), 2013, page 51).

Fluid City: Transforming Melbourne’s Urban Waterfront - Dovey (2005)

This book is in paperback format with small print. It is interspersed with many
black and white photographs and diagrams. There is a wealth of information in this book.
This may be a reason for some people ignore it. This book deals with city-planning in
Melbourne in the period 1983-2003. It high lights the role of public and private agencies
to make what the city is today. The transformation of the waterfront in Melbourne from
its glorious days in the 1880s to the decline in 1980, and to what visitors see today is
charted meticulously in this book.

The book is divided into three sections. Part A deals with Riverscapes, Part B
deals with Dockscapes and Part C deals with Bayscapes. Each is given extensive attention
and presents an accurate picture of the transformation.

Part A - Riverscapes: Part A is further divided into two parts: Riverscapes I

Overview and Riverscapes II Precincts and Projects. Records the Yarra River the butt of

40
many a jokes from its origin and the role it has in history. The transformation was made
possible by commitment to design and vision. The then Labor Government’s vision for
the transformation of the river which was public-sector led and design-driven is decribed.
This transformed the iconography and the mental map of the city for both residents and
visitors alike. It has a series of commercial (malls, casino, exhibition centre and the like),
retail, residential and public projects (convention and exhibition centres) laced together
with waterfront promenades.

Part B - Dockscapes: This part examines the redevelopment of the docklands to

the parceling vast areas of land for large scale development. It relates the story of
Melbourne Docklands-200 hectares of land and water nudging the western edge of the
central city. The planning and design process has not been typical. This part turns out to
be a vital lesson in large scale redevelopment as the urban development was market-
driven and design-driven at the same time. It is also an experiment to show how dynamic
water developments can get.

Part C - Bayscapes: This part constitutes an area of four kilometers, stretching

from Port Melbourne to St. Kilda. This is the redevelopment of Port Phillip Bay.
Integrating and managing existing heritage structures along with the introduction of new
development in small fragments to larger housing areas makes this challenging.

Fluid City is written with the intent to bridge significant gaps between different
discourses about the city and to challenge the fragmented ways of viewing it. It is written
for a multiplicity of audiences- architects, planners, professional and lay, global and local.
The transformation of the city is both a condition and an ideology (Dovey, 2005, page 5).
The entire book deals with the changes the Melbourne waterfront has undergone keeping
this in mind. Thus the writing makes even a lay person sit up and take an interest in the
effort that goes into making an interesting and workable city. For those who expect a
report with maps and complete statistical data, this book may not meet expectations.

The New York Waterfront: Evolution and Building Culture of the Port and Harbor
- Bone (Ed.) (1997).

This book is a collection of essays written by architects, historians, teachers and

students. Thus it provides a multidimensional perspective or understanding. The New
York Waterfront gives an unprecedented documentation of the rise and fall of the

41
waterfront’s existence on the architectural, technological, industrial and commercial
fronts for 150 years. The book is well illustrated with water color, ink and pencil drawings.
Some of these have been specially produced for this book. It also contains rare historic
pictures, aerial photographs and maps taken from a variety of sources and published for
the first time. All this makes it a substantial study of the matter. Newly commissioned
photographs by Stanely Greenberg supplement this wonderful collection of images,
highlighting the derelict state of the waterfront at present.

The vital commercial places once upon a time were the Red Hook Water Pollution
Control Plant, the Port Authority Grain Elevators, the Fresh Kills Landfill, and the
Brooklyn Navy Yard. They are all modern sites at the same time. These are all captured
as nameless inhospitable tracts whose only landmarks are the rusting remains of a former
commercial center. The writers have provided a complete picture of the New York
Waterfront through contemporary projects, vision proposals, environmental plans and
master-planning built and unbuilt structures like the pier ware houses, recreation piers,
markets and ferry terminals. A variety of documents and records have been meticulously
analyzed for the reader.

In 1871 a plan was adopted to encircle Manhattan with a masonry wall and
wooden piers. This was before Department of Docks was created. In 1640s citizens were
given land grants for carrying out waterfront improvements after the first pier was
established. The arrival of steam ships and the opening of the Erie Canal turned New York
into the country’s leading port. By 1870 it was dilapidated and reputation of the port
became questionable.

The Department of Docks was created and an era of municipal planning started.
The harbor became a laboratory for experimenting with new maritime techniques and
facilities. Decline started in 1930s as the automobile industry gained prominence.

This book offers an insight into the past and gives a perspective to make decisions
based on the past mistakes and lessons learnt to help future decision making. It also
inspires the professional to strive for greatness when designing the urban fabric of the 21 st
century that keeps up the tradition of great public works in New York City. The book
concludes that unlike the leaps of those yesteryears reveled in, the current projects in New

42
York Waterfront are taking small steps in all aspects due to various reasons and the
various commercial interests the people involved in redevelopment are in.

City, capital and water – Malone, Patrick (Ed.) (1996).

John Barnes (planning Officer and researcher), Bob Colenutt (community

planner), Patrick Malone, Hugo Hinsley (architect), Maurice Daly (Professor, Head of
Geography), Roger Bristow (Lecturer and researcher), Yoshimitsu Shiozaki, Tetsuo
Seguchi, Ken Greenberg (architect and principal), Michael Goldrick (Associate Professor
of Political Science and full-time alderman on city council), Roy Merrens and Arne
Bongenaar (geographer and senior consultant in real estate infrastructure) are the
contributors. There are twelve chapters dealing with different cities and their projects:
London, Dublin, Sydney, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe Islands, Toronto and
Amsterdam Waterfronts. Detailed figures and tables are interspersed in this book.

There are always certain forces behind development works in any city. Chief
among the forces that direct development are economic and political forces. Their
relationship influences the waterfront developments, planning and urban design. This
book examines the relation between water front and city development. It also shows how
conditions for urban development changed from 1980s to 1990s. Examples of seven
countries are covered in this book that was prompted by a conference-Cities on Water,
Venice January 1991. The conference showed that the waterfront is a major factor in the
physical and economic development of many cities. This conference brought to the fore
a number of issues. They are:

 The size of the project and their impact on parent cities.

 Difficulties in raising capital for development.

 Problem of securing social and planning gains from commercial property

interests.

 Little evidence exists that the forces controlling planning and design on
the waterfront are acknowledged by the professionals on the front line of
the development process.

43
 The economic and political frameworks for development have however not been
explored. The conference has emphasized the general tendency to see the waterfront as a
unique phenomenon rather than as a frontier that has been claimed by common political,
property and economic interests. The neglect of the forces influencing and controlling
development has created the impetus for this book. The factors which have made the
waterfront available for redevelopment are documented by Hall in 1991. They are:-

 The transformation of old ports to containerization practices.

 New port technologies.

 Changes in the size of ships.

 Nature and size of the transport systems that carry cargo.

 Economics of port and competition between ports have forced reordering

of harbour facilities.

The waterfront is full of economic, political, social and even cultural significance.
Redundant docklands and waterfront areas are being made into conventional offices,
housing, leisure and industrial uses. Due to the size of these dockland areas, familiar or
vague development may take over the hinterland of what was a large port. The best
example of this is the suburbanized inner reaches of London Docklands. London’s Canary
Wharf is an obvious example of waterfront invaded by common land uses and
conventional development interests – balance of commercial and institutional developers
and the relative distribution of local, national and international interests. Here, at
London’s Canary Wharf, international banking systems of the 1980s were a major
influence. The waterfront provides a platform for flagship developments that convey
political ambitions or plug a city or nation into the global economy. Due to this the
waterfront is seen as the stamping ground for new urban phenomenon. Thus it is presented
as an arena for international development capital and a stage for post-modern culture.
Before Canary Wharf slid into bankruptcy, it symbolized the “yuppie” culture that fed on
financial gains and expansion in the financial sector and global economy. Later these sites
became symbols of recession and stasis.

44
 Redevelopment of the waterfronts in Genoa, Sydney and Barcelona have been
shaped by different forces though they fall into the general category of providing the
public space , access to water and recreational amenities. The intention behind these
projects differs from those projects driven by economic prospects or the commercial
objectives of industry. The book says that in Sydney the waterfront is used as a front in
which the city and the nation display political and cultural symbols for showcasing to the
rest of the world.

Japanese development illustrates that port facilities are also an important element
in waterfront and larger marine projects. Hong Kong and Japan have created major new
airports on artificial islands. Two conclusions can be drawn from this brief review. First,
that the waterfront is not a unique component of urban development, but rather a frontier
on which common processes have taken a contemporary form. Second, that although
waterfront projects vary in physical, economic and political terms, they may share a
common background in terms of economic deregulation, ambitions for flagship projects,
or rivalry in the global economy (page 5).

The book also acknowledges that old questions about the underlying purposes of
development, the struggle between economic, political and social goals and the scope for
‘best practice’ in planning and design. At the same time, it also reveals the various ways
in which different professionals conjointly have provided solutions. For example,
Goldrick and Merrens together explore the potential for ecological and comprehensive
planning in Toronto.

Throughout the book the close political and economic interface where
development and planning is concerned is acknowledged and the ways it has been dealt
with is well recorded. Wherever there has been piece meal development, that has been
highlighted and the reason has also been stated. Thus the book captures the essence of the
entire process and concludes on a factual recording of projects and the state of their
completion.

Does Sustainable Development Offer a New Direction for Planning? Challenges

for the Twenty-First Century – Berke (2002).

Planning till the1960s has a commendable history of cognate ideas in the arena of
towns, cities and region development. The twentieth century planners have been criticized

45
for not taking up far-sighted or visionary planning. The process became more important
than planning and gradually this gave way to planning gaining prominence over process
once again. In this article, Philip R Berke argues that planning has now found a common
ground for sustainable development as it embraces the big problem of widespread
dissatisfaction with urban planning as practiced now. Profound changes in policies and
extant attitudes have pushed sustainable development to the forefront of political agendas
in many countries. (Pg.22 Journal of Planning Literature). This article also extends the
Berke and Manta-Conroy conceptualization by demonstrating how the concept of
sustainable development improves current procedural and Physical design approaches in
contemporary planning scholarship and practice.

Berke compares all the above mentioned methods of planning and emphasizes that
the three dimensions of sustainability-regeneration, link to global concerns and balance
can be useful in answering many a question left unanswered by the different approaches.
He also demonstrates how these dimensions can be used most effectively. He shows that
the defining question “How can the quality of human life be improved in local
communities in the context of global environmental, social, and economic systems?” He
further reiterates that given all the limitations in planning, a more holistic approach and
integrated vision of community building is required. On the surface, sustainable
development is a simple concept. Despite this, there has been no general/common
agreement on how it should be brought into practice. He illustrates the gradual movement
towards the three dimensions of sustainability with examples from different regions and
the common consensus that the working projects have come up with.

He highlights in his article the fact that in most cases the principles of new
urbanism does not offer a balanced vision of place as they are narrowly focused on
community character and sense of place with scant attention paid to environmental
protection and sustainability. He concludes the article saying that the concept of
sustainable development overcomes the individual limitations of the process and planning
of urban design. The use of a framework can link and cross-link local groups with similar
goals that many time work on parallel tracks without communicating or cooperating. He
says that this can help in breaking barriers of locality, region, class, ideology and culture.
This in turn helps to form broad-based coalitions that emphasize the larger public vision
needed to change the present mind-set of exclusive self. He gives the example of

46
Oakland’s Fruitvale Transit Village where such a development brought the entire
communities and the government agencies together to work towards a common goal.

2.4.1 Tourism and Waterfront Development

Tourism Product Development in Ecologically and Culturally Fragile Areas –

Observations from Kerala in India - Saji et al. (n.d).

In the past few decades, tourism has grown into a multibillion dollar industry with
the GDP being contributed to it globally. Due to globalization and transport
diversification and development in many regions, tourism is the main revenue grosser in
developing nations across the world. This has in turn given rise to travelers going off the
beaten path, trying out regions where the development modules have not reached and
coming away regenerated or refreshed or gaining insight into traditionally well-kept
spaces that are non-existent in developed regions( economical, technological, transport
developed and in turn lifestyle changes). Asia and Africa indicate such tourism.

The relatively less explored ecological and cultural resources of these regions are
attractive in contemporary tourism market. Eventually more and more locations are
systematically assayed and assessed by the travel service providers to give them the
experience of the “exotic” and the “unexplored” (Saji et al., n.d, p3).

The writers state that in the 1990s Kerala witnessed a tourism boom due to the
liberalization of Indian economy. An aggressive marketing campaign ensured that the
international and regional traveler looking for the exotic came to Kerala. The writers
summarize the factors leading to the vast tourism growth in the state citing the operation
of three international airports in a comparatively small state. The authors further state that
the state has a rich biodiversity of flora and fauna due to proximity to the Western Ghats.
Kerala’s Ayurvedic traditions too have contributed to its significant position in tourism.

The two authors take up the case study of Backwater tourism in Vembanad
wetland region and Eco-tourism activities in Thekkady to illustrate the ecologically and
culturally fragile landscape in the region thrown open to tourism. Although tourism has
brought economic dividends, it has considerably spoiled the fragile eco-system. The
community living in the Vembanad wetlands depends on the water for their livelihood.
As more and more lakefront plots are landscaped for the heritage experience, the pollution

47
of the water from the houseboats and the huge number of tourists using the same waters
for food as well as drinking and other purposes has increased, destroying the balanced life
of the original inhabitant.

Thekkady Tiger reserve has been a huge tourist attraction. This has rendered the
forest reserve to lose its land to housing projects and the available waterfront faces
pollution and the tribals living in the periphery are affected by the daily inundation of the
visitors harming the symbiotic bond they originally shared with their environment. This
has led the service providers to look towards the plantations and spice gardens to find
suitable settings to host eco-tourists. The authors have concluded by vaguely pointing out
that the problem can be solved by attracting people to the life style culture of Kerala, tea
tasting in the plantations, village stays, farm tours, spice tours and short trips to
neighboring sites. The tussle between economic interests and political interests are clearly
seen in this region hampering successful protection of the eco-fragile areas.

Contentions and contradictions of tourism as development option: the case of

Kerala, India – Sreekumar, et al. (2002).

Kerala is portrayed as the ‘model of development’. However, this is unraveling

say the authors. This they say is due to the fact that Kerala is a weak link in a globalizing
economy. This is because Kerala depends heavily on the export of primary commodities
and skilled and semi-skilled labor power. This in turn is due to the fact that there has been
a decline in commodity prices and an over-supply of low-skilled labor from other third
world countries who have replaced Kerala workers as they have migrated to more
lucrative pastures in large numbers between 1970s and 1990s. The crash in its commercial
crops, trade liberalization and squabbling political parties is having a disastrous effect on
the local economy.

The objectification of tourism in the state is articulated primarily in an economic

narrative that is capable of silencing opposition and legitimizing excesses in the name of
development (page 530 Third World Quarterly, vol23, No3). The authors seriously
consider the question” Is Kerala an exception as the authorities claim?” in the context of
poor performance in the tourism industry. They have done this by presenting Kerala’s
performance within a larger backdrop of tourism dynamics of entire South Asia. The
authors have done extensive work in the course of presenting this paper from field

48
observation to several round of discussions held with government officials connected with
tourism and tourism industry players. Secondary information including official
documents, newspaper reports, court rulings and judgments are used in arriving at a
conclusion and possible solution.

‘Sustainable tourism’ is an abstract concept in Kerala that has long a maritime

history, cultural and commercial contacts with the outside world since antiquity. No effort
has been made to assess the environmental sustainability of keeping tourism as an
economic growth engine given the fragile nature of Kerala’s environment. Any doubts
about tourism and the fragile ecology and culture is sidelined as anti-tourist hysteria. The
market structure of the supply side of tourism has not been studied and the effects of
liberalization on the earnings of the tour operators and agents have not been analyzed.

The authors point out the startling fact that even after a decade of concentrated
efforts by the government and the private sector, tourism remains an inconsequential
segment in Kerala’s economy. All the government bodies official information has to be
viewed at best as a bold attempt to cover up this fact. They project a larger than actual
statistics regarding tourism and economy. The writers inform that the state police
continuously harass those who oppose the state tourism policy. Kerala has been largely
insensitive to the environmental problem arising from the tourism industry. This
highlights the nexus between the bureaucracy, politicians and the accommodation
industry. The authors conclude by saying that the present impasse in Kerala needs new
and bold ideas for recovery and renewal. Kerala they say needs to integrate alternate ideas
of tourism along with projects in information technology and biotechnology to revitalize
the economy.

2.4.2 Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

WSUD – Pioneering the value of ‘environment’ - Cooper (2012).

Robert P Cooper takes an insightful conversation between an economist and an

ecologist about how to value the ‘free’ natural environment we are born into and the value
that is attached to it, in order to seriously think and revise the opinion held and the action
taken. He wonders about the circumstances in which we live that considers nature to be a
commodity, and the value that is assigned to it in terms of exchange units in an attempt
to give credibility to the design decisions. He draws the reader’s attention to Water

49
sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) and Green Infrastructure that have key roles in the
process of planning our urban designs and urban development projects.

The author raises the question Environmental value-what value? He proceeds to

answer this question by presenting facts as it developed. He tells that in 1847 the world’s
first publicly funded urban park was opened in Birkenhead, England as a result of the
realization that urban development had come at a cost till then not quite noticed. After
the gold rush in Australia, time went by in building Melbourne into a city. Cooper (2012)
points out that took Rachel Carson’s ‘Silent Spring’ to jerk humans out of their
complacency into mature understanding of environmental welfare, and presents how this
was followed by landscape architect Ian McHarg’s ‘Design with Nature’ to setting a new
value system based on ‘natural systems’. Australians were alerted in the 1980s to the
ozone depletion that caused a ‘hole’ in the southern hemisphere changing the social and
economic cost of human induced environmental change. The subsequent Vienna
convention (1985) and Montreal Protocol (1987) reassured coordinated action.

Melbourne’s strategic urban policy through the 1990s to the present continues to
give ‘greenfield’ corridors of new land for outward growth and to designate urban centers
and ‘brownfields’ as canters for urban renewal and consolidation. Taking advantage of
the commercial and social appeal of the associated drainage works and a public focus on
water issues, Australian legislation has led to the continuing support for the
accommodation of elements of the WSUD. Cooper (2012) stresses that with rapid
environmental deterioration, we humans must look with urgency for a workable
framework for a four dimensional assessment and management. He concludes that the
WSUD practitioners occupy a key role in urban affairs. As legislation supports this role,
WSUD practitioners should demand that the decision-making is supported by broader and
more detailed data on the range of human and environmental values in active projects.

50