WeldingInspection PDF

Welding Inspector
Duties and Responsibilities

Section 1
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Main Responsibilities 1.1
Code compliance
Workmanship control
Documentation control
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Personal Attributes 1.1
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected to have

are:
Honesty
Integrity

Knowledge
Good communicator
Physical fitness

Good eyesight
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Standard for Visual Inspection 1.1
Basic Requirements
BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion
welds - Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications
applicable to the fabrication work to be undertaken
be informed about the welding procedures to be used
have good vision (which should be checked every 12
months)
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Welding Inspection 1.2
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

Illumination:
350 lux minimum required
(recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
eye should be within 600mm of the surface
viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than
30
600mm
30
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Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

When access is restricted may use:
a mirrored boroscope
a fibre optic viewing system
} usually by
agreement
Other aids:
welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile, fillet
sizing, undercut depth)
dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment (high-low)
gauges
straight edges and measuring tapes
magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should have
magnification between X2 to X5)
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Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Measuring devices:
flexible tape, steel rule
Temperature indicating crayons
Welding gauges
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Magnifying glass
Torch / flash light
Gas flow-meter
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Welding Inspectors Gauges 1.3
10mm 10mm 1
G.A.L. G.A.L. 3
S.T.D. L S.T.D.
16mm 5
16mm
6
Fillet Weld Gauges
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

IN
0 1/4 1/2 3/4
TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

Hi-Lo Gauge
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Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Voltmeter Ammeter
Tong Tester
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Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

Extent of examination and when required should be defined in
the application standard or by agreement between the
contracting parties
For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout

the fabrication process:
Before welding
(Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Preparation:
Familiarisation with relevant documents
Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance
requirements
Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material
handling, documentation control, storage & issue of
welding consumables
Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required
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Before Welding
Welding Procedures:
are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications:
list of available qualified welders related to WPSs
certificates are valid and in-date
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Before Welding
Equipment:
all inspection equipment is in good condition & calibrated as
necessary
all safety requirements are understood & necessary equipment
available
Materials:
can be identified & related to test certificates, traceability !
are of correct dimensions
are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
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Before Welding
Consumables:
in accordance with WPSs
are being controlled in accordance with Procedure
Weld Preparations:
comply with WPS/drawing
free from defects & contamination
Welding Equipment:
in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
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Before Welding
Fit-up
complies with WPS
Number / size of tack welds to Code / good
workmanship
Pre-heat
if specified
minimum temperature complies with WPS
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During Welding
Weather conditions
suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process(es)
in accordance with WPS
Welder
is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
minimum temperature as specified by WPS
maximum interpass temperature as WPS
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During Welding
Welding consumables
in accordance with WPS
in suitable condition
controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
current, voltage & travel speed as WPS
Root runs
if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided welds are
filled up
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During Welding
Inter-run cleaning
in accordance with an approved method (& back gouging) to
good workmanship standard
Distortion control
welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
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After Welding
Weld Identification
identified/numbered as required
is marked with welders identity
Visual Inspection
ensure weld is suitable for all NDT
visually inspect & sentence to Code requirements
Dimensional Survey
ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT
ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
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After Welding
Repairs
monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure, ensure
NDT after repairs is completed
PWHT
monitor for compliance with Procedure
check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test
ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
ensure all records are available
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After Welding
Documentation
ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings
ensure all required documents are available
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC department.
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Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures.
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality throughout
production.
Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to quality,
including a final report showing all identified imperfections
Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance criteria
and any other relevant clauses in the applied application standard
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Welding Inspector
Terms & Definitions
Section 2
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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Weld?
A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced
either by heating the materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone (AWS)
A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and

or pressure (BS499)
An Autogenous weld:
A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG or Oxy-Gas Welding
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Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Joint?
The junction of members or the edges of members that are

to be joined or have been joined (AWS)
A configuration of members (BS499)
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Joint Terminology 2.2
Edge Open & Closed Corner Lap
Tee Butt
Cruciform
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Welded Butt Joints 2.2
Butt
A_________Welded butt joint
Fillet
A_________Welded butt joint
Compound
A____________Welded butt joint
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Welded Tee Joints 2.2
Fillet
A_________Welded T joint
Butt
A_________Welded T joint
Compound
A____________Welded T joint
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Weld Terminology 2.3
Butt weld Spot weld

Fillet weld
Edge weld Plug weld

Compound weld
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Butt Preparations Sizes 2.4
Partial Penetration Butt Weld
Actual Throat
Design Throat
Thickness
Thickness
Full Penetration Butt Weld
Design Throat Actual Throat
Thickness Thickness
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Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Face
A B
Weld
metal
Heat Weld
Affected Boundary
Zone
C D
Root
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
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Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Weld cap width
Excess
Cap height Actual Throat Design
or Weld Thickness Throat
Reinforcement Thickness
Excess Root
Penetration
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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 2.5
Maximum solid solid-liquid Boundary

Temperature weld
grain growth zone
metal
recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone
tempered zone
unaffected base
material
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Joint Preparation Terminology 2.7
Included angle Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root
Radius
Root Face Root Face

Root Gap Root Gap
Single-V Butt Single-U Butt
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Joint Preparation Terminology 2.8 & 2.9
Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Root
Radius
Root Face Root Gap Root Face

Root Gap Land
Single Bevel Butt Single-J Butt
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Single Sided Butt Preparations 2.10
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or

when access form both sides is restricted
Single Bevel Single Vee
Single-J Single-U
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Double Sided Butt Preparations 2.11
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or

when access form both sides is unrestricted
Double -Bevel Double -Vee
Double - J Double - U
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Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions: V-Joints
bevel angle
included angle
root face
root gap
Typical Dimensions
bevel angle 30 to 35
root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
root gap ~2 to ~4mm
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Butt Weld - Toe Blend
6 mm Most codes quote the weld
toes shall blend smoothly
80 This statement is not
quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle interpretation
3 mm The higher the toe blend
angle the greater the
20 amount of stress
concentration
The toe blend angle ideally
Improved Weld Toe Blend
Angle should be between 20o-30o
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Fillet Weld Features 2.13
Excess
Weld
Metal
Vertical
Leg
Length Design
Throat
Horizontal leg
Length
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Fillet Weld Throat Thickness 2.13
a
b
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness
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Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features 2.13
a
a = Design Throat Thickness b
b = Actual Throat Thickness
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Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14
Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg Length:
Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7
Question: The Leg length is 14mm.

What is the Design Throat?
Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness
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Calculating Leg Length from a known Design Throat

Thickness:
Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4
Question: The Design Throat is 10mm.

What is the Leg length?
Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length
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Features to Consider 2 2.14
Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size
(a) (b)
8mm
4mm
4mm 2mm
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet

Welds, but the effective throat thickness has been
altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
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Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size

(a) (b) Excess
Excess
4mm 6mm
(a) (b)
4mm 6mm
Area = 4 x 4 = Area = 6 x 6 =
8mm2 18mm2
2 2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added
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Fillet Weld Profiles 2.15
Fillet welds - Shape
Mitre Fillet Convex Fillet
A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
Concave Fillet fatigue loading
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Fillet Features to Consider 2.15
EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

a = Nominal throat thickness s = Effective throat thickness
a s
Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat

input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc
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Welding Positions 2.17
PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE 4G Overhead
PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up
PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
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Welding Positions 2.17
ISO
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Welding position designation 2.17
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Overhead - PE
Vertical
up - PF
Vertical Horizontal - PC
down - PG
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Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Flat - PA axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
axis: horizontal pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
pipe: rotated
H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

axis: inclined at 45 axis: inclined at 45 axis: vertical
pipe: fixed pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
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Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

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Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

axis: inclined at 45 axis: vertical axis: vertical
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

axis: horizontal axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
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Plate/Fillet Weld Positions 2.17
PA / 1G
PA / 1F
PF / 3G
PB / 2F
PC / 2G
PE / 4G PG / 3G
PD / 4F
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Pipe Welding Positions 2.17
PF / 5G PG / 5G
PA / 1G
Weld: Flat Weld: Vertical upwards Weld: Vertical Downwards
Pipe: rotated Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal
45o 45o
PC / 2G
H-LO 45 / 6G J-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Horizontal Weld: Upwards Weld: Downwards
Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Vertical Axis: Inclined Axis: Inclined
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Travel Speed Measurement 2.18
Definition: the rate of weld progression

measured in case of mechanised and automatic
welding processes
in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
time
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Welding Inspector
Welding Imperfections
Section 3
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Welding Imperfections 3.1
All welds have imperfections

Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a
type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance
Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification
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Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes

Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials -
Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
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Standards for Welding Imperfections
EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,

nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for
imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is directly applicable to visual testing of welds
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
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Welding imperfections 3.1
classification
Cracks
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Cracks 3.1
Cracks that may occur in welded materials are

caused generally by many factors and may be
classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
Longitudinal HAZ
Transverse Centerline
Chevron Crater
Lamellar Tear Fusion zone
Parent metal
Note: Cracks are classed as Planar Defects.

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Cracks 3.1
Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal
Longitudinal weld metal

Lamellar tearing
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Cracks 3.1
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
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Cracks 3.2
Main Crack Types

Solidification Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracks
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Cracks 3.2
Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low ductility
at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
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Cracks 3.3
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as result of
contaminated electrode or preparation
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
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Lamellar Tearing 3.5
Location: Parent metal

Steel Type: Any steel type possible
Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness ductility
Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the solid
inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides and
silicates) linking up under the influence of welding stresses
Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction
containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible to
lamellar tearing
It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction)
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Gas Cavities 3.6
Gas pore Cluster porosity

Causes:
Loss of gas shield
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Blow hole Arc length too large
Herringbone porosity
Damaged electrode flux
Moisture on parent material
Welding current too low
Gas pore <1.5mm

Root piping Blow hole.>1.6mm
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Gas Cavities 3.7
Porosity
Root piping
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Gas Cavities 3.8
Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity
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Crater Pipe 3.9
Weld crater
Crater pipe
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Crater Pipe 3.9
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has

the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Crater cracks Causes:

(Star cracks)
Too fast a cooling
rate
Deoxidization
reactions and
liquid to solid
Crater pipe volume change
Contamination
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Solid Inclusions 3.10
Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion caused

by some welding process
Causes:
Slag originates from
welding flux
Slag inclusions Lack of sidewall MAG and TIG welding

fusion with process produce silica
associated slag inclusions
Slag is caused by
inadequate cleaning
Other inclusions include
Parallel slag lines Lack of interun tungsten and copper
fusion + slag inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding process
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Solid Inclusions 3.11
Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines
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Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:

welding current too low
bevel angle too steep
root face too large (single-sided weld)
root gap too small (single-sided weld)
incorrect electrode angle
linear misalignment
welding speed too high
welding process related particularly dip-transfer GMAW
flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
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Lack of Fusion 3.13
Causes:
Poor welder skill
Incorrect electrode
Incomplete filled groove +
manipulation
Lack of sidewall fusion
Arc blow
Incorrect welding
1 current/voltage
2 Incorrect travel speed
1. Lack of sidewall fusion Incorrect inter-run cleaning

2. Lack of inter-run fusion
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Lack of Fusion 3.13
Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
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Weld Root Imperfections 3.15
Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration
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Cap Undercut 3.18
Intermittent Cap Undercut
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Undercut 3.18
Root undercut Cap undercut
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Surface and Profile 3.19
Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile
Poor cap profiles and

excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress
concentration points at the
weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe
blend Excessive cap height
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Surface and Profile 3.19
Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove
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Excessive root
penetration
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Overlap 3.21
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal

flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it
Causes:
Contamination
Slow travel speed
Incorrect welding
technique
Current too low
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Overlap 3.21
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
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Set-Up Irregularities 3.22
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment

(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
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Linear Misalignment
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Linear Misalignment
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Incomplete Groove 3.23
Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
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A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld
Causes:
Excessive back purge
pressure during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
Concave Root
welding current too high for
2nd pass overhead welding
root gap too large - excessive
weaving
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Concave Root
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Concave root Excess root penetration
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A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive

penetration resulting in a hole in the root run
Causes:
High Amps/volts
Small Root face
Large Root Gap
Slow Travel
Burn through Speed
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Burn Through
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Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Causes:
Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)
Most commonly occurs

when welding stainless
steels
Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
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Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.26
Causes:
Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
Faulty electrode holder
Poor cable insulation
Poor return lead
clamping
Arc strike
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Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.27
Causes:
Excessive current
Damp electrodes
Contamination
Incorrect wire feed
speed when welding
with the MAG welding
process
Spatter Arc blow
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Mechanical Damage 3.28
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface material

damage cause during the manufacturing process.
Grinding
Hammering
Chiselling
Chipping
Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs
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Mechanical Damage 3.28
Chipping Marks
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
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Welding Inspector
Destructive Testing
Section 4
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Qualitative and Quantitative Tests 4.1
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
quantitative tests to measure Mechanical Properties
Tensile tests (Transverse Welded Joint, All Weld Metal)
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)
The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed

qualitative tests for assessing joint quality
Macro testing
Bend testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Butt weld nick-break testing
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Mechanical Test Samples 4.1
Tensile Specimens
CTOD Specimen
Bend Test
Specimen
Charpy Specimen
Fracture Fillet
Specimen
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Destructive Testing 4.1
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING
top of fixed pipe

2 Typical Positions for Test
Pieces
Specimen Type Position
Macro + Hardness 5
3
Transverse Tensile 2, 4
Bend Tests 2, 4
Charpy Impact Tests 3
4 Additional Tests 3
5
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Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Malleability Ability of a material to

withstand deformation
Ductility
under static compressive
Toughness loading without rupture
Hardness
Tensile Strength
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Definitions
Malleability Ability of a material

undergo plastic
Ductility
deformation under static
Toughness tensile loading without
Hardness rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction
Tensile Strength in cross section area
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Definitions
Malleability Ability of a material to

withstand bending or the
Ductility
application of shear
Toughness stresses by impact loading
Hardness without fracture.
Tensile Strength
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Definitions
Malleability Measurement of a
materials surface
Ductility
resistance to indentation
Toughness from another material by
Hardness static load
Tensile Strength
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Definitions
Malleability Measurement of the

maximum force required to
Ductility
fracture a materials bar of
Toughness unit cross-sectional area in
Hardness tension
Tensile Strength
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Transverse Joint Tensile Test 4.2
Weld on plate
Multiple cross joint

Weld on pipe specimens
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Tensile Test 4.3
All-Weld Metal Tensile

Specimen
Transverse Tensile
Specimen
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STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
For materials that may be subject to Lamellar Tearing
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UTS Tensile test 4.4
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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.5
Objectives:
measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Material type
Notch type
Specimen size
Test temperature
Notch location
Impact Strength Value
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Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve 4.6
Ductile fracture
Temperature range
47 Joules
Transition range Ductile/Brittle

transition
point
28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
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Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results 4.6
Impact Energy Joules

Room Temperature -20oC Temperature
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules

Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules

The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20oC
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Charpy V-notch impact test specimen 4.7
Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials

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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.8
Specime Pendulu
n m
(striker)
Anvil (support)
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Charpy Impact Test 4.9
22.5o
2 mm 10 mm 100% Brittle
Machined
notch
Fracture surface
8 mm
100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture
100% Ductile
Machined
notch
Large reduction
in area, shear
lips
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
surface
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Hardness Testing 4.10
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
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Objectives:
measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking
and corrosion sensitivity within a H2S (Hydrogen Sulphide)
environment.
Information to be supplied on the test report:

material type
location of indentation
type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter
hardness value
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Vickers Hardness Test 4.11
Vickers hardness tests:

indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
(136 included angle)
the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
converted to a hardness number from a table
it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor
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Vickers Hardness Test Machine 4.11
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Brinell Hardness Test 4.11
Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for

a given time to a given load
Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell
hardness in kg/mm2
More suitable for on site hardness testing
30KN
=10mm
steel ball
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Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell B Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN
=1.6mm 120 Diamond

steel ball Cone
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usually the hardest region

1.5 to 3mm
fusion line
or
fusion HAZ
boundary
Hardness Test Methods Typical Designations

Vickers 240 HV10
Rockwell Rc 22
Brinell 200 BHN-W
Hardness specimens can also be used for CTOD samples
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing 4.12
Test is for fracture toughness

Square bar machined with a notch placed in
the centre.
Tested below ambient temperature at a
specified temperature.
Load is applied at either end of the test
specimen in an attempt to open a crack at the
bottom of the notch
Normally 3 samples
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Fatigue Fracture 4.13
Location: Any stress concentration area
Steel Type: All steel types
Susceptible Microstructure: All grain structures
Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD

(Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
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Fatigue Fracture 4.13
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions

Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch
and weld defects i.e stress concentration area
All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking
Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as
a initiation point
The fracture surface is smooth in appearance
sometimes displaying beach markings
The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a
combination of both
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Fatigue Fracture
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Toe grinding, profile grinding.
The elimination of poor profiles
The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld
defects
Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits
The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage
cap/root undercut
The selection of the correct material for the service
conditions of the component
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Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow into an
area of low stress and stop without failure).
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Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure Fatigue fracture surface
ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance smooth in appearance
Initiation points / weld defects

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Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
Crack growth is slow
It initiate from stress concentration points
load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
The surface is smooth
The surface is bounded by a curve
Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface beachmarks.
They show the progress of the crack front from the point of origin
The surface is 90 to the load
Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the
maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!)
Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
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Bend Tests 4.15
Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
testing can also be used to give an assessment of
weld zone ductility.
There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Face bend
Root bend Side bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
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Bending test 4.16
Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):
t up to 12 mm Root / face
bend
Thickness of material - t
t over 12 mm Side bend
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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17
Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces
Specimens are cut to the required length
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along
the fillet welds length
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a
single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
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Hammer
2mm
Notch
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
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This fracture indicates This fracture has

lack of fusion occurred saw cut to root
Lack of Penetration
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Nick-Break Test 4.18
Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across the
fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied along the
welds root and cap
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with a
single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
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Nick-Break Test 4.18
Notch cut by hacksaw

2 mm
19 mm
2 mm
Approximately 230 mm
Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed
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Nick Break Test 4.18
Alternative nick-break test

specimen, notch applied all
way around the specimen
Lack of root penetration Inclusions on fracture

or fusion line
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Summary of Mechanical Testing 4.19
We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint
We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:
Quantitative: (Have units/numbers) Qualitative: (Have no units/numbers)

To measure mechanical properties For assessing joint quality
Hardness (VPN & BHN) Macro tests
Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs) Bend tests
Strength (N/mm2 & PSI, MPa) Fillet weld fracture tests
Ductility / Elongation (E%) Butt Nick break tests
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Welding Inspector
WPS Welder Qualifications
Section 5
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Welding Procedure Qualification 5.1
Question:
What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding Procedure
Qualification Test ?
(What is the test trying to show ?)
Answer:
To show that the welded joint has the properties* that satisfy
the design requirements (fit for purpose)
* properties
mechanical properties are the main interest - always strength but
toughness & hardness may be important for some applications
test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects
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Welding Procedures 5.1
Producing a welding procedure involves:

Planning the tasks
Collecting the data
Writing a procedure for use of for trial
Making a test welds
Evaluating the results
Approving the procedure
Preparing the documentation
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In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are to
be devised and whether approval of these procedures is
required.
The approach used for procedure approval depends on the
code:
Example codes:
AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code
BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work
API 1104: Welding of Pipelines
BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar
Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of

a procedure but may contain information that may be used in
writing a weld procedure
EN 1011Process of Arc Welding Steels
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(according to EN ISO 15614)
The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure

Specifications (WPS) for production welding
Production welding conditions must remain within the range of

qualification allowed by the WPQR
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(according to EN Standards)
welding conditions are called welding variables
welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
Essential variables
Non-essential variables
Additional variables
Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential
variables*
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)
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WELDING ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

Question:
Why are some welding variables classified as essential ?
Answer:
A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by
the Welding Standard) may have a significant effect on the
properties* of the joint
* particularly joint strength and ductility
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SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Welding Process
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Material Type
Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification)
Material Thickness
Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC-ve)
Pre-Heat Temperature
Heat Input
Welding Position
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Components of a welding procedure

Parent material
Type (Grouping)
Thickness
Diameter (Pipes)
Surface condition)
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage
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Components of a welding procedure

Joint design
Edge preparation
Root gap, root face
Jigging and tacking
Type of baking
Welding Position
Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
Any weather precaution
Thermal heat treatments
Preheat, temps
Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving
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Object of a welding procedure test

To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical
and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the
applicable code/specification.
Each welding procedure will show a range to which the
procedure is approved (extent of approval)
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
supplied to prove its validity
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Welding Procedures
Summary of designations:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)
WPAR (WPQR): Welding Procedure Approval Record

(Welding procedure Qualification record)
WPS: Welding Procedure Specification

(After procedure approval)
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Example:
Welding
Procedure
Specification
(WPS)
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Welder Qualification 5.4
Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification,

e.g. BS EN 287.
Once the content of the procedure is approved the next
stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure.
A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT).
Object of a welding qualification test:
To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
The test weld should be carried out on the same material and
same conditions as for the production welds.
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Welder Qualification 5.4 & 5.5
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?
Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
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Welder Qualification
(according to EN 287 )
5.5
The welder is allowed to make production welds within the

range of qualification shown on the Certificate
The range of qualification allowed for production welding is
based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
welder qualification essential variables
A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is

reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example
a high repair rate
not working in accordance with a qualified WPS
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welders Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
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Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure
Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to be made
A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the pWPS
A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used

for the test weld (referred to as the as-run conditions)
An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party

inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification
process
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with

the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard - Visual, MT or
PT & RT or UT
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Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,

macro)
The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional
tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some
materials - corrosion tests)
A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared

giving details of: -
The welding conditions used for the test weld
Results of the NDT
Results of the destructive tests
The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true
record
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An approved WPS should be available covering the range of

qualification required for the welder approval.
The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS
A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the

welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS
EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner,

Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may be required to
monitor the qualification process
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The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods

specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain
materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN
Standard or the Client Specification
A Welders Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the

conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification
allowed by the EN Standard for production welding
The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third
Party Inspector as a true record of the test
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Information that should be included on a welders test certificate are,

which the welder should have or have access to a copy of !
Welders name and identification number

Date of test and expiry date of certificate
Standard/code e.g. BS EN 287
Test piece details
Welding process.
Welding parameters, amps, volts
Consumables, flux type and filler classification details
Sketch of run sequence
Welding positions
Joint configuration details
Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc
Test results, remarks
Test location and witnessed by
Extent (range) of approval
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Welding Inspector
Materials Inspection
Section 6
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Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an effective QA
system trace them from specification and purchase order to final
documentation package handed over to the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered depending on
the materials form or shape
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Pipe Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification LP5
Welded Size
seam
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance,

number of plates and storage.
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Plate Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage.
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Parent Material Imperfections
Mechanical damage Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
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Lapping
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Lamination
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Laminations
Plate Lamination
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Welding Inspector
Codes & Standards
Section 7
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Codes & Standards
The 3 agencies generally identified in a code or standard:
The customer, or client
The manufacturer, or contractor
The 3rd party inspection, or clients representative
Codes often do not contain all relevant data, but may

refer to other standards
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Standard/Codes/Specifications
STANDARDS
SPECIFICATIONS CODES
Examples Examples
plate, pipe pressure vessels
forgings, castings bridges
valves pipelines
electrodes tanks
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Welding Inspector
Welding Symbols
Section 8
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Weld symbols on drawings
Advantages of symbolic representation:
simple and quick plotting on the drawing
does not over-burden the drawing
no need for additional view
gives all necessary indications regarding the specific joint to
be obtained
Disadvantages of symbolic representation:

used only for usual joints
requires training for properly understanding of symbols
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The symbolic representation includes:

an arrow line
a reference line
an elementary symbol
The elementary symbol may be completed by:

a supplementary symbol
a means of showing dimensions
some complementary indications
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Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on
the right side
BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)
AWS A2.4
In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the
joint preparation
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A method of transferring information from the
design office to the workshop is:
Please weld
here
The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols.

Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
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Joints in drawings may be indicated:
by detailed sketches, showing every dimension
by symbolic representation
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Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the elementary symbols:

Various categories of joints are characterised by an elementary symbol.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double bevel butts
and a J-butt welds must always be on the left side.
Weld type Sketch Symbol

Square edge
butt weld
Single-v
butt weld
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Single-V butt
weld with broad
root face
Single
bevel butt
weld
Single bevel
butt weld with
broad root
face
Backing run
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Single-U
butt weld
Single-J
butt weld
Surfacing
Fillet weld
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Plug weld Square Butt weld
Resistance spot weld Steep flanked

Single-V Butt
Resistance seam weld Surfacing

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Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
Convention of the arrow line:
Shall touch the joint intersection
Shall not be parallel to the drawing
Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only
one plate has preparation)
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Reference Line
(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
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Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
There shall be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!)
or
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Double side weld symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from both sides of the joint
intersection, touched by the arrow head
Fillet weld Double bevel Double J
Double V Double U
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Reference lines
Arrow line
Other side Arrow side
Arrow side Other side
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
MR
M
Single-V Butt with Single-U Butt with

permanent backing strip removable backing strip
Single-V Butt flush cap Single-U Butt with sealing run

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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt

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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s10
10
15
Partial penetration single-V butt

S indicates the depth of penetration
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Arrow side
Arrow side
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s6
6mm fillet weld
Other side
s6
Other side
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
n = number of weld elements
l = length of each weld element
(e) = distance between each weld element
n x l (e)
Welds to be
staggered
2 x 40 (50)
111
3 x 40 (50)
Process
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z5 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
5
80 80 80
5
6 90 90 90
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
6
80 80 80
6
8 90 90
90
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Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions
Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only)
Site Weld
Concave or Convex
Weld all round
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Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
Ground flush
111
MR M
Removable Permanent Welding process

backing strip backing strip numerical BS EN
Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or

NDT may be placed in the fish tail
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a b
c d
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Mitre Convex
Toes
Concave
shall be
blended
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Complimentary Symbols
Field weld (site weld) Welding to be carried out

all round component
(peripheral weld)
NDT WPS
The component requires Additional information,

NDT inspection the reference document
is included in the box
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
111: MMA welding with covered electrode
121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIG welding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding
72: Electro-slag welding
15: Plasma arc welding
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AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
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AWS Welding Symbols
Depth of Root Opening

Bevel
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
Effective Groove Angle

Throat
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AWS Welding Symbols
Welding Process
GSFCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
GMAW
GTAW
SAW
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AWS Welding Symbols
Welds to be
staggered
3 10
SMAW
3 10
Process
3 3
10
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AWS Welding Symbols
3rd Operation
Sequence of
Operations 2nd Operation
1st Operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
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AWS Welding Symbols
RT
Sequence of
Operations MT
MT
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
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AWS Welding Symbols
Dimensions- Leg Length
6 leg on member A
6/8
Member A 6
Member B
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Welding Inspector
Intro To Welding Processes
Section 9
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Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work
pieces are in atomic contact
Pressure welding Fusion welding

Forge welding Oxy-acetylene
Friction welding MMA (SMAW)
Resistance Welding MIG/MAG (GMAW)
TIG (GTAW)
Sub-arc (SAW)
Electro-slag (ESW)
Laser Beam (LBW)
Electron-Beam (EBW)
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Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
100
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for
90
arc initiation
80
Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma

70
arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS
60
Voltage
50
40 Large voltage variation, e.g. +

Normal Operating 10v (due to changes in arc
30 Voltage Range length)
Small amperage change
20
resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. + 5A.
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200
Amperage
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Monitoring Heat Input
Heat Input:
The amount of heat generated in the
welding arc per unit length of weld.
Expressed in kilo Joules per millimetre
length of weld (kJ/mm).
Heat Input (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps

Travel speed(mm/s) x 1000
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Weld and weld pool temperatures
4/23/2007 228 of 691

4/23/2007 229 of 691

Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are
specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the highest
heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the
weld in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for all
positions
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Welding Inspector
MMA Welding
Section 10
4/23/2007 231 of 691

MMA - Principle of operation
4/23/2007 233 of 691

MMA welding
Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
Electrode consumable
Manual process
Welder controls:
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Amperage settings
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Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment
Control panel Power source

(amps, volts)
Electrode Holding oven

oven
Electrodes Inverter power
source
Return lead
Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass Power cables
4/23/2007 235 of 691

MMA Welding Plant
Transformer:
Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding.
Has no moving parts and is often termed static plant.
Rectifier:
Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved.
Generator:
Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature
rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a
constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the absence of
electrical power, by an internal combustion engine.
Inverter:
An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency.
4/23/2007 236 of 691

MMA Welding Variables
Voltage
The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to
the arc as possible. It is variable with a change in arc length
O.C.V.
The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or
re-ignite the electrical arc and will change with the type of
electrode being used e.g 70-90 volts
Current
The current used will be determined by the choice of
electrode, electrode diameter and material type and
thickness. Current has the most effect on penetration.
Polarity
Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode
type e.g DC +ve, DC ve or AC
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Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
100
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc

90
initiation
80
70
60
Voltage
50
40 Large voltage variation, e.g. +

Normal Operating 10v (due to changes in arc
30 Voltage Range length)
Small amperage change
20
resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. + 5A.
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 130 140 160 180 200
Amperage
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MMA welding parameters
Travel speed
Travel
Too low speed Too high
wide weld bead contour lack of root fusion

lack of penetration incomplete root
burn-through penetration
undercut
poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal
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Type of current:
voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are coiled
cheaper power source for AC
no problems with arc blow with AC
DC provides a more stable and easy to strike arc, especially
with low current, better positional weld, thin sheet applications
welding with a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier with
DC, better mechanical properties
DC provides a smoother metal transfer, less spatter
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Welding current
approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
governed by thickness, type of joint and welding
position
Welding
Too low current Too high
poor starting spatter

slag inclusions excess
weld bead contour too penetration
high undercut
lack of burn-through
fusion/penetration
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Arc length = arc voltage
Arc
Too low voltage Too high
arc can be extinguished spatter

stubbing porosity
excess
penetration
undercut
burn-through
Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration
4/23/2007 243 of 691

MMA - Troubleshooting
MMA quality (left to right)

current, arc length and travel speed normal;
current too low;
current too high;
arc length too short;
arc length too long;
travel speed too slow;
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MMA electrode holder
Tongs type with

Collet or twist type
spring-loaded jaws
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MMA Welding Consumables
MMA Covered Electrodes
The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion

Rutile - general purpose
Basic - low hydrogen
(Covered in more detail in Section 14)
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MMA welding typical defects
Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder
skill (not an easily controlled process), the incorrect settings
of the equipment, or the incorrect use, and treatment of
electrodes
Typical Welding Defects:
Slag inclusions
Arc strikes
Porosity
Undercut
Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)
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Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
Advantages:
Field or shop use
Range of consumables
All positions
Portable
Simple equipment
Disadvantages:
High welder skill required
High levels of fume
Hydrogen control (flux)
Stop/start problems
Comparatively uneconomic when compared with some
other processes i.e MAG, SAW and FCAW
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Welding Inspector
TIG Welding
Section 11
4/23/2007 249 of 691

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA
during the 2nd world war for the welding of aluminum alloys
The process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode
The process requires a high level of welder skill
The process produces very high quality welds.
The TIG process is considered as a slow process compared
to other arc welding processes
The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to avoid scratch
starting, which could cause contamination of the tungsten
and weld
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TIG - Principle of operation
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TIG Welding Variables
Voltage
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the
type of gas being used, and changes in the arc length
Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten
electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the
deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC ve as most of the
heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep
the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When
welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used
4/23/2007 254 of 691

Types of current
DC can be DCEN or DCEP
DCEN gives deep penetration
AC can be sine or square wave

Type of requires a HF current (continuos
welding or periodical)
current provide cleaning action
Pulsed requires special power source

current low frequency - up to 20 pulses/sec
(thermal pulsing)
better weld pool control
weld pool partially solidifies
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Choosing the proper electrode
Current type influence
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
Current type & polarity DCEN AC (balanced) DCEP
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 35% at work

30% at electrode 50% at electrode 65% at electrode
Penetration Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
Oxide cleaning action No Yes - every half cycle Yes
Electrode capacity Excellent Good Poor
(e.g. 3,2 mm/400A) (e.g. 3,2 mm/225A) (e.g. 6,4 mm/120A)
4/23/2007 257 of 691

ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic
Large change in voltage =

OCV Smaller change in amperage
Volts
Large arc gap
Welding Voltage
Small arc
gap
Amps
4/23/2007 258 of 691

TIG - arc initiation methods
Arc initiation
method
Lift arc HF start
simple method need a HF generator (spark-
tungsten electrode is in contact gap oscillator) that generates a
with the workpiece!
high voltage AC output (radio
high initial arc current due to the
short circuit frequency) costly
impractical to set arc length in reliable method required on
advance both DC (for start) and AC (to
electrode should tap the re-ignite the arc)
workpiece - no scratch!
can be used remotely
ineffective in case of AC
used when a high quality is not HF produce interference
essential requires superior insulation
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Pulsed current
usually peak current is 2-10 times
Pulse Cycle Peak Background background current
Current (A)
time time current current

useful on metals sensitive to high heat
input
reduced distortions
in case of dissimilar thicknesses equal
penetration can be achieved
Average current
Time
one set of variables can be used in all positions

used for bridging gaps in open root joints
require special power source
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Polarity Influence cathodic cleaning effect
4/23/2007 261 of 691

Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)

Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium
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TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
Stickout 2-3 times

electrode
Electrode diameter
extension
Low electron Overheating

Too Electrode Too
emission Tungsten
small extension large
Unstable arc inclusions
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Choosing the correct electrode
Polarity Influence cathodic cleaning effect
4/23/2007 264 of 691

Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)

Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium
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Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:
colour code - green
no alloy additions
low current carrying capacity
maintains a clean balled end
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
with other electrode types
used on less critical applications
low cost
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Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - yellow/red/violet
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes
longer life - greater resistance to contamination
thermionic - easy arc initiation, more stable arc
maintain a sharpened tip
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
This slightly radioactive
4/23/2007 267 of 691
Ceriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - grey (orange acc. AWS A-5.12)
operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive - replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - black/gold/blue
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode
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Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - brown/white
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
and thoriated electrodes
retains a balled end during welding - good for AC
welding
high resistance to contamination
preferred for radiographic quality welds
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Electrode tip for DCEN
Penetration
increase
electrode diameter
Increase
2-2,5 times
Vertex
angle
Decrease
Bead width
increase
Electrode tip prepared for low Electrode tip prepared for high
current welding current welding
4/23/2007 270 of 691
Electrode tip for AC
DC -ve AC
Electrode tip ground and

Electrode tip ground
then conditioned
4/23/2007 271 of 691
TIG Welding Variables
Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical
factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is
as shown
DC -ve AC
Vetex angle
Note: when welding
Note: too fine an angle will aluminium with AC
promote melting of the current, the tungsten end
electrodes tip is chamfered and forms a
ball end when welding
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Factors to be considered:
Electrode tip Excessive

Too Welding Too
not properly melting or
low current high
heated volatilisation
Unstable Tungsten
arc Penetration inclusions
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Shielding gas requirements
Preflow and Shielding gas flow
postflow Welding current
Preflow Postflow
Flow rate Flow rate

too low too high
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Special shielding methods
Pipe root run shielding Back Purging to prevent
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.
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TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
Stickout 2-3 times

electrode
Electrode diameter
extension
Low electron Overheating

Too Electrode Too
emission Tungsten
small extension large
Unstable arc inclusions
4/23/2007 277 of 691
TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:
Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and variable
diameters available in standard lengths, with applicable
code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper coating to
resist corrosion.
shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of highest
purity (99.9%).
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Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of

heating to fast and small fragments
break off and enter the weld pool, so a
slope up device is normally fitted to
prevent this could be caused by touch
down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slope-
up devices that brings the current to
the set level over a short period of
time so the tungsten is heated more
slowly and gently
A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as

bright white on a radiograph
4/23/2007 279 of 691
TIG typical defects
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder
skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torch
manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc.
Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)
Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)
4/23/2007 280 of 691

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
Advantages Disadvantages
High quality High skill factor required
Good control Low deposition rate
All positions Small consumable range
Lowest H2 process High protection required
Minimal cleaning Complex equipment
Autogenous welding Low productivity
(No filler material) High ozone levels +HF
Can be automated
4/23/2007 281 of 691
Welding Inspector
MIG/MAG Welding
Section 12
4/23/2007 282 of 691

Gas Metal Arc Welding
The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the
USA in the late 1940s for the welding of aluminum alloys.
The latest EN Welding Standards now refer the process by the
American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode
The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied
shielding gas
The process is classified as a semi-automatic welding
process but may be fully automated
The wire electrode can be either bare/solid wire or flux
cored hollow wire
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MIG/MAG - Principle of operation
4/23/2007 284 of 691

MIG/MAG process variables
Welding current
Increasing welding current

Increase in depth and width
Increase in deposition rate
Polarity
4/23/2007 286 of 691

MIG/MAG process variables
Arc voltage
Increasing arc voltage

Reduced penetration, increased width
Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut
Travel speed
Increasing travel speed
Reduced penetration and width, undercut
4/23/2007 287 of 691
Types of Shielding Gas
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
Inert Gas is required for all non-ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni)
Most common inert gas is Argon
Argon + Helium used to give a hotter arc - better for thicker
joints and alloys with higher thermal conductivity
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MIG/MAG shielding gases
Type of material Shielding gas
Carbon steel CO2 , Ar+(5-20)%CO2
Stainless steel Ar+2%O2
Aluminium Ar
4/23/2007 290 of 691

Ar Ar-He He CO2
Argon (Ar):
higher density than air; low thermal conductivity the arc
has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes; low
ionisation potential
Helium (He):
lower density than air; high thermal conductivity uniformly
distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high ionisation
potential
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
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Gases for dip transfer:
CO2: carbon steels only: deep penetration; fast welding
speed; high spatter levels
Ar + up to 25% CO2: carbon and low alloy steels: minimum
spatter; good wetting and bead contour
90% He + 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO2:stainless steels: minimises
undercut; small HAZ
Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections
Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thicker
sections (over 3 mm)
4/23/2007 292 of 691

Gases for spray transfer
Ar + (5-18)% CO2: carbon steels: minimum spatter; good
wetting and bead contour
Ar + 2% O2: low alloy steels: minimise undercut; provides
good toughness
Ar + 2% O2 or CO2: stainless steels: improved arc stability;
provides good fusion
Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys
Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys: hotter arc than
pure Ar to offset heat dissipation
Ar + (25-30)% N2: Cu alloys: greater heat input
4/23/2007 293 of 691

Types of Shielding Gas
MAG (Metal Active Gas)
Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Argon with a small % of active gas is required for all steels
(including stainless steels) to ensure a stable arc & good
droplet wetting into the weld pool
Typical active gases are
Ar + 20% CO2 for C-Mn & low alloy steels
Ar + 2% O2 for stainless steels
100% CO2 can be used for C - steels
4/23/2007 294 of 691
MIG/MAG Gas Metal Arc Welding
Electrode
orientation
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
Electrode extension
Increased extension
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MIG / MAG - self-regulating arc
Stable condition Sudden change in gun position
Arc length L = 6,4 mm Arc length L = 12,7 mm
Arc voltage = 24V Arc voltage = 29V
Welding current = 250A Welding current = 220A
WFS = 6,4 m/min WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min Melt off rate = 5,6
m/min
L 25 mm
L 19 mm
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
4/23/2007 296 of 691

MIG/MAG - self-regulating arc
Sudden change in gun position Re-established stable condition
Arc length L = 12,7 mm Arc length L = 6,4 mm
Arc voltage = 29V Arc voltage = 24V
Welding current = 220A Welding current = 250A
WFS = 6,4 m/min WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 5,6 m/min Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min
L 25 mm 25 mm
L
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
4/23/2007 297 of 691

Terminating the arc
Crater fill
Burnback time
delayed current cut-off to prevent wire freeze
in the weld end crater
depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)
Contact tip
3 mm
8 mm Current - 250A
14 mm
Insulatin Voltage - 27V
g slag WFS - 7,8 m/min
Wire diam. - 1,2 mm
Burnback time 0.05 sec 0.10 sec 0.15 sec
Shielding gas -
Workpiec
Ar+18%CO2
e
4/23/2007 298 of 691

MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip recessed extension
extension Electrode
(3-5 mm) 19-25 mm
(0-3,2 mm) extension
6-13 mm
Set-up for dip transfer Set-up for spray transfer
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Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
Voltage
WFS = 8,3 m/min
Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V
Globular Spray
transfer transfer
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm

WFS = 3,2 m/min
Current = 145 A
Dip transfer Voltage = 18-20V
Current
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Current/voltage conditions 301 of 691
MIG/MAG-methods of metal transfer
Dip transfer
Transfer occur due to short circuits
between wire and weld pool, high
level of spatter, need inductance
control to limit current raise
Can use pure CO2 or Ar- CO2
mixtures as shielding gas
Metal transfer occur when arc is
extinguished
Requires low welding current/arc
voltage, a low heat input process.
Resulting in low residual stress
and distortion
Used for thin materials and all
position welds
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Spray transfer
Transfer occur due to pinch
effect NO contact between wire
and weld pool!
Requires argon-rich shielding
gas
Metal transfer occur in small
droplets, a large volume weld
pool
Requires high welding
current/arc voltage, a high heat
input process. Resulting in high
residual stress and distortion
Used for thick materials and
flat/horizontal position welds
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Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer, one droplet per pulse,
No transfer between droplet and weld pool!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal
to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, a
reduced heat input . Resulting in smaller residual
stress and distortion compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool,
used for root runs and out of position welds
4/23/2007 307 of 691
Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer. one droplet

per pulse. NO transfer during
background current!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets
(diameter equal to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, reduced
heat input smaller residual stress and distortions
compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used
for root runs and out of position welds
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Globular transfer
Transfer occur due to gravity or
short circuits between drops and
weld pool
Requires CO2 shielding gas
Metal transfer occur in large drops
(diameter larger than that of
electrode) hence severe spatter
Requires high welding current/arc
voltage, a high heat input process.
Resulting in high residual stress
and distortion
Non desired mode of transfer!
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Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With

MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps
O.C.V. Arc Voltage
Virtually no Change.
33
32
31
Small Voltage
Change.
Voltage
Large Current Change
100 200 300

Amperage
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MIG/MAG welding gun assembly
Gas The Push-Pull gun
Contact diffuser
tip
Union nut
Trigger WFS remote

Gas
control
nozzle
potentiometer
Handle
4/23/2007 316 of 691

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
Requires a constant voltage power source, gas supply, wire
feeder, welding torch/gun and hose package
Wire is fed continuously through the conduit and is burnt-off
at a rate that maintains a constant arc length/arc voltage
Wire feed speed is directly related to burn-off rate
Wire burn-off rate is directly related to current
When the welder holds the welding gun the process is said
to be a semi-automatic process
The process can be mechanised and also automated
In Europe the process is usually called MIG or MAG
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MIG/MAG typical defects
Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of
welder skill, or incorrect settings of the equipment
Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc
Silica inclusions (in Fe steels) due to poor inter-run cleaning
Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer)
Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)
Solidification problems (cracking, centerline pipes, crater
pipes) especially on deep narrow welds
4/23/2007 322 of 691

WELDING PROCESS
Flux Core Arc Welding
(Not In The Training Manual)
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Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
methods
With gas Without gas With metal

shielding - shielding - powder -
Outershield Innershield Metal core
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Outershield - principle of operation
4/23/2007 325 of 691

Innershield - principle of operation
4/23/2007 326 of 691

ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic
OCV Small change in voltage =

large change in amperage
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
The self
Volts adjusting arc.
Amps
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Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux core Insulated extension nozzle
Current carrying guild tube

Wire joint
Flux cored hollow wire
Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
Flux core compounds
wires
Molten
weld Metal droplets covered
Solidified weld pool
with thin slag coating
metal and slag
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Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
methods
With gas Without gas With metal

shielding - shielding - powder -
Outershield Innershield Metal core
(114)
With active With inert gas

gas shielding shielding (137)
(136)
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FCAW - differences from MIG/MAG
usually operates in DCEP
but some Innershield
wires operates in DCEN
power sources need to be
more powerful due to the
higher currents
doesn't work in deep
transfer mode
require knurled feed rolls
Innershield wires use

a different type of
welding gun
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Backhand (drag) technique
Advantages
preferred method for flat or horizontal position
slower progression of the weld
deeper penetration
weld stays hot longer, easy to remove dissolved
gasses
Disadvantages
produce a higher weld profile
difficult to follow the weld joint
can lead to burn-through on thin sheet plates
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Forehand (push) technique
Advantages
preferred method for vertical up or overhead
position
arc is directed towards the unwelded joint , preheat
effect
easy to follow the weld joint and control the
penetration
Disadvantages
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration
the amount of spatter can increase
4/23/2007 332 of 691

FCAW advantages
less sensitive to lack of fusion
requires smaller included angle compared to MMA
high productivity
all positional
smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut
basic types produce excellent toughness properties
good control of the weld pool in positional welding especially
with rutile wires
seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free
ease of varying the alloying constituents
no need for shielding gas
4/23/2007 333 of 691

FCAW disadvantages
limited to steels and Ni-base alloys
slag covering must be removed
FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis than solid
wires (exception: some high alloy steels)
for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be
affected by winds and drafts
more smoke and fumes are generated compared with
MIG/MAG
in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to
break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of
insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
4/23/2007 334 of 691

FCAW advantages/disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1) Field or shop use 1) High skill factor
2) High productivity 2) Slag inclusions
3) All positional 3) Cored wire is

Expensive
4) Slag supports and
shapes the weld Bead 4) High level of fume
(Inner-shield)
5) No need for shielding
gas 5) Limited to steels and
nickel alloys
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Welding Inspector
Submerged Arc Welding
Section 13
4/23/2007 336 of 691

Submerged Arc Welding Introduction
Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union
during the 2nd world war for the welding of thick section steel.
The process is normally mechanized.
The process uses amps in the range of 100 to over 2000, which
gives a very high current density in the wire producing deep
penetration and high dilution welds.
A flux is supplied separately via a flux hopper in the form of either
fused or agglomerated.
The arc is not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux layer
and no eye protection is required.
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SAW Principle of operation
4/23/2007 338 of 691

Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical
composition and mechanical properties required for the weld
deposit
thickness of base metal to be welded
joint accessibility
position in which the weld is to be made
frequency or volume of welding to be performed
SAW methods
Semiautomatic Mechanised Automatic
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Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Power
supply
- +
Slide rail
Wire electrode
Flux
4/23/2007 340 of 691

SAW process variables
welding current
current type and polarity
welding voltage
travel speed
electrode size
electrode extension
width and depth of the layer of flux
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SAW process variables
Welding current
controls depth of penetration and the amount of
base metal melted & dilution
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SAW operating variables
Current type and polarity
Usually DCEP, deep

penetration, better
resistance to
porosity
DCEN increase
deposition rate but
reduce penetration
(surfacing)
AC used to avoid
arc blow; can give
unstable arc
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SAW Consumables
(Covered in detail in Section 14)
Fused fluxes advantages:

good chemical homogeneity
easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
normally not hygroscopic & easy storage and handling
readily recycled without significant change in particle
size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:

difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the
range of flux compositions
4/23/2007 344 of 691

SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

tendency to absorb moisture
possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles
4/23/2007 345 of 691

SAW equipment
Power sources can be:
transformers for AC
transformer-rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be:
Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources
Constant Current (drooping)
4/23/2007 346 of 691

SAW equipment
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:
most commonly used supplies for SAW
can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
self-regulating arc
simple wire feed speed control
wire feed speed controls the current and power supply
controls the voltage
applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc
blow (also thin wires!)
4/23/2007 347 of 691

ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Constant Voltage Characteristic
OCV Small change in voltage =

large change in amperage
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
The self
Volts adjusting arc.
Amps
4/23/2007 348 of 691

SAW equipment
Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources:
Over 1000A - very fast speed required - control of burn off
rate and stick out length
can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
not self-regulating arc
must be used with a voltage-sensing variable wire feed
speed control
more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed
control
arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power
source controls the current
cannot be used for high-speed welding of thin steel
4/23/2007 349 of 691

SAW equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage
provides travel along straight or
gently curved joints
can ride on tracks set up along the
joint (with grooved wheels) or on
the workpiece itself Courtesy of ESAB AB
can use guide wheels as tracking

device
due to their portability, are used in
field welding or where the piece
cannot be moved
4/23/2007
Courtesy of ESAB AB 350 of 691
Welding current
too high current: excessive excess weld metal
(waste of electrode), increase weld shrinkage and
causes greater distortions
excessively high current: digging arc, undercut,
burn through; also a high and narrow bead &
solidification cracking
too low current: incomplete
fusion or inadequate penetration
excessively low current:
unstable arc
4/23/2007 351 of 691

Welding voltage
welding voltage controls arc
length
increase in voltage produce a
flatter and wider bead
increase in voltage increase
flux consumption
increase in voltage tend to
reduce porosity
an increased voltage may
help bridging an excessive
root gap
an increased voltage can increase pick-up of alloying elements
from an alloy flux
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Welding voltage
low voltage produce a

stiffer arc & improves
penetration in a deep
weld groove and resists
arc blow
excessive low voltage
produce a high narrow
bead & difficult slag
removal
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Welding voltage
excessively high voltage

produce a hat-shaped bead
& tendency to crack

increase undercut & make slag
removal difficult in groove
welds

produce a concave fillet weld
that is subject to cracking
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Travel speed
increase in travel speed: decrease heat input & less
filler metal applied per unit of length, less excess
weld metal & weld bead becomes smaller
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Travel speed
excessively high speed

lead to undercut, arc
blow and porosity
excessively low speed

produce hat-shaped beads
danger of cracking
excessively low speed produce rough beads and

lead to slag inclusions
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Electrode size
at the same current, small electrodes have higher
current density & higher deposition rates
4/23/2007 357 of 691

Electrode extension
increased electrode extension adds resistance in the
welding circuit I increase in deposition rate, decrease in
penetration and bead width
to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is

increased, voltage must also be increased
when burn-through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase
electrode extension
excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to
maintain the electrode tip in the correct position
4/23/2007 358 of 691

Depth of flux
depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld
usually, depth of flux is 25-30 mm
if flux layer is to deep the arc is too confined, result is
a rough ropelike appearing weld
if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the
surface of molten weld metal becomes irregularly
distorted
if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will
occur, give a poor appearance and porous weld
4/23/2007 359 of 691

SAW technological variables
Travel angle effect - Butt weld on plates
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Tendency to undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
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Earth position +
Direction of
travel
welding towards earth produces backward arc blow

deep penetration
convex weld profile
4/23/2007 364 of 691

Earth position
+
Direction of
travel
welding away earth produces forward arc blow

normal penetration depth
smooth, even weld profile
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Weld backing
Backing strip
Backing weld
Copper backing
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Starting/finishing the weld
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SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding two electrodes are feed
into the same weld pool
wire diameter usually 1,6 to
3,2 mm
electrodes are connected
to a single power source & a
single arc is established
normally operate with
DCEP
offers increased deposition
rate by up to 80% compared
to single wire SAW
4/23/2007 368 of 691
SAW variants
Wires can be oriented

for maximum or
minimum penetration
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SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process usually DCEP on lead
and AC on trail to reduce
arc blow
requires two separate
power sources
the electrodes are active
in the same puddle BUT
there are 2 separate arcs
increased deposition
rate by up to 100%
compared with single
wire SAW
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SAW variants
SAW tandem arc
with two wires
Courtesy of ESAB AB
4/23/2007 371 of 691

SAW variants
Single pool - highest deposition rate
Twin pool - travel speed limited by undercut;

4/23/2007
very resistant to porosity and cracks 372 of 691
SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process - multiple wires
only for welding thick

sections (>30 mm)
not suitable for use in
narrow weld
preparations (root
passes)
one 4 mm wire at 600 A,
6.8 kg/hr
tandem two 4 mm wires
Courtesy of ESAB AB at 600 A, 13.6 kg/hr
4/23/2007 373 of 691

SAW variants
Strip cladding needs a
special welding head
4/23/2007 374 of 691

SAW variants
Narrow gap welding
for welding thick
materials
less filler metal required
requires special groove
preparation and special
welding head
requires special fluxes,
otherwise problems with
slag removal
defect removal is very
difficult
4/23/2007 375 of 691
SAW variants
Hot wire welding
the hot wire is connected to power source & much

more efficient than cold wire (current is used entirely
to heat the wire!)
increase deposition rates
up to 100%
requires additional
welding equipment,
additional control of
variables, considerable
set-up time and closer
operator attention
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SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
increased deposition rates up to

70%; increased welding speed
gives smooth fusion, improved
bead appearance, reduced
penetration and dilution from parent
metal & higher impact strength
metal powders can modify
chemical composition of final weld
deposit
does not increase risk of cracking
do not require additional arc energy
metal powder can be added ahead
or directly into the weld pool
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SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
magnetic attachment of powder
SAW with metal cored wires
4/23/2007 379 of 691

SAW variants
Storage tank
SAW of circular
welds
Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Advantages of SAW
high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times
those for MMA), high productivity
deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves
fast travel speed, less distortion
deslagging is easier
uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good
fatigue properties
can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty
cycle and low skill level required
provide consistent quality when performed automatic or
mechanised
Virtually assured radiographically sound welds
arc is not visible
little smoke/fumes are developed
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Low weld-metal cost Restricted welding
positions
Easily automated
Arc blow on DC
Low levels of ozone current
High productivity Shrinkage defects
No visible arc light Difficult penetration
control
Minimum cleaning
Limited joints
4/23/2007 384 of 691

Welding Inspector
Welding Consumables
Section 14
4/23/2007 385 of 691

BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
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Welding consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are used up in
the production of a weld
Welding consumables may be:

Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires.
Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
Separately supplied fluxes.
Fusible inserts.
4/23/2007 387 of 691

Welding Consumable Standards
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG (GTAW)
MMA (SMAW) BS 2901: Filler wires
BS EN 499: Steel electrodes BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel AWS A5.9: Filler wires
electrodes BS EN 439: Shielding gases
AWS A5.4 Chromium SAW
electrodes BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
electrodes BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
4/23/2007 388 of 691

Welding Consumable Gases
welding gases
GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel
Supplied in cylinders or storage
tanks for large quantities
Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use
Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning
of storage areas
Moisture content is limited to avoid
cold cracking
Dew point (the temperature at which
the vapour begins to condense)
must be checked
4/23/2007 389 of 691

Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Size, (diameter and length)
Classification / Supplier
Condition
Treatments e.g. baking / drying
Handling and storage is critical for consumable control
Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety
4/23/2007 390 of 691

MMA Covered Electrodes
The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion

Rutile - general purpose
Basic - low hydrogen
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Welding consumables for MMA:
Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm in length
and from 2.5mm - 6mm in diameter
The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating
The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel
The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying and
refining agents in the flux coating
The flux coating contains many elements and compounds
that all have a variety of functions during welding
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Function of the Electrode Covering:
To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination
To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
cooling weld metal
To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties
To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal)
To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
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Covered electrode inspection
1: Electrode size (diameter and length)
2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricity
3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)
See BS EN ISO 544 for further information

4/23/2007 395 of 691
Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
rutile electrodes
general purpose basic electrodes
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Tin can
cellulosic electrodes
Vacuum sealed pack

extra low hydrogen electrodes
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Cellulosic electrodes:
covering contains cellulose (organic material).
produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the arc
voltage.
Deep penetration / fusion characteristics enables welding
at high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
generates high level of fumes and H2 cold cracking.
Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
not require baking or drying (excessive heat will damage
electrode covering!).
Mainly used for stove pipe welding
hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100 g of weld metal.
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Cellulosic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
weld beads have high hydrogen
risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow
H to escape)
not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking risk too
high (may not be allowed for Grades stronger than X70)
not suitable for very thick sections (may not be used on
thicknesses > ~ 35mm)
not suitable when low temperature toughness is required
(impact toughness satisfactory down to ~ -20C)
4/23/2007 398 of 691

Cellulosic Electrodes
Deep penetration/fusion High in hydrogen
Suitable for welding in all High crack tendency
positions Rough weld appearance
Fast travel speeds High spatter contents
Large volumes of shielding gas Low deposition rates
Low control
4/23/2007 399 of 691

Rutile electrodes:
covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabiliser.
easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
welding.
stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
Reasonably good strength weld metal.
Used mainly on general purpose work.
Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be
baked as it will destroy the coating.
hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100 g of weld metal.
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Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages:
they cannot be made with a low hydrogen content
cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints -
cracking risk too high
they do not give good toughness at low temperatures
these limitations mean that they are only suitable for general
engineering - low strength, thin steel
4/23/2007 401 of 691

Rutile Electrodes
Easy to use High in hydrogen
Low cost / control High crack tendency
Smooth weld profiles Low strength
Slag easily detachable Low toughness values
High deposition possible
with the addition of iron
powder
4/23/2007 402 of 691

Rutile Variants
High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Characteristics:
coating is bulked out with iron powder
iron powder gives the electrode high recovery
extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld
deposit from a single electrode can be as high as 180% of
the core wire weight
give good productivity
large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar to
SAW welds
4/23/2007 403 of 691

High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Disadvantages:
Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen
control
large weld beads produced cannot be used for all-positional
welding
the very high recovery types usually limited to PA & PB
positions
more moderate recovery may allow PC use
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Basic covering:
Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section steel
and for high strength steels.
Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350C for 2
hour plus to reduce moisture to very low levels and achieve
low hydrogen potential status.
Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds.
cannot be re-baked indefinitely!
low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good
toughness and YS.
have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of
weld metal).
4/23/2007 405 of 691

Basic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk of
cracking
Typical baking temperature 350C for 1 to 2hours.
Holding temperature 120 to 150C.
Issue in heated quivers typically 70C.
Welders need to take more care / require greater skill.
Weld profile usually more convex.
Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.
4/23/2007 406 of 691

Basic Electrodes
High toughness values High cost
Low hydrogen contents High control
Low crack tendency High welder skill
required
Convex weld profiles
Poor stop / start
properties
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E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
4/23/2007 408 of 691

Electrodes classified as follows:
E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
4/23/2007 409 of 691
AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
E 60 1 3
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
4/23/2007 411 of 691

AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes
E 70 1 8 M G
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Alloy Content
4/23/2007 412 of 691

TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
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Electrode efficiency
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
Mass of weld metal deposited

Electrode Eficiency =
Mass of core wire melted
75-90% for usual electrodes
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Covered electrode treatment
Cellulosic Use straight from the
box - No baking/drying!
electrodes
If necessary, dry up to
Rutile 120C- No baking!
electrodes
Vacuum Use straight from the pack

within 4 hours - No
packed basic rebaking!
electrodes
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Covered electrode treatment
Baking in oven 2 hours
Basic electrodes
at 350C!
Limited number of After baking, maintain in

rebakes! oven at 150C
If not used within 4

Use from quivers at
hours, return to oven Weld
75C
and rebake!
4/23/2007 416 of 691

Welding Consumables
TIG Consumables
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Welding consumables for TIG:
Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non-
consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and variable
diameters available in standard lengths, with applicable
code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper coating to
resist corrosion.
shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of highest
purity (99.9%).
4/23/2007 418 of 691

Welding rods:
supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes
must be kept clean and free from oil and dust

might require degreasing
4/23/2007 419 of 691

Fusible Inserts
Pre-placed filler material
Before Welding After Welding
Other terms used include:
EB inserts (Electric Boat Company)
Consumable socket rings (CSR)
4/23/2007 420 of 691

Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts:
used for root runs on pipes
used in conjunction with TIG welding
available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic stainless
steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys
different shapes to suit application
Radius
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Fusible Inserts
Application of consumable inserts
4/23/2007 422 of 691

Shielding gases for TIG welding
Argon
low cost and greater availability
heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium
low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile
low ionisation potential - easier arc starting, better arc
stability with AC, cleaning effect
for the same arc current produce less heat than helium -
reduced penetration, wider HAZ
to obtain the same arc arc power, argon requires a higher
current - increased undercut
4/23/2007 423 of 691

Helium
costly and lower availability than Argon
lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate compared with
argon (2-3 times)
higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability with AC, less
forgiving for manual welding
for the same arc current produce more heat than argon -
increased penetration, welding of metals with high melting
point or thermal conductivity
to obtain the same arc arc power, helium requires a lower
current - no undercut
4/23/2007 424 of 691
Hydrogen
not an inert gas - not used as a primary shielding gas
increase the heat input - faster travel speed and increased
penetration
better wetting action - improved bead profile
produce a cleaner weld bead surface
added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic stainless
steels and nickel alloys
flammable and explosive
4/23/2007 425 of 691

Nitrogen
not an inert gas
high availability - cheap
added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge for duplex
stainless, austenitic stainless steels and copper alloys
not used for mild steels (age embritlement)
strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity)
4/23/2007 426 of 691

Welding Consumables
MIG / MAG Consumables

(Gases Covered previously)
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MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding gases
variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6-
1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers
Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys as
electrode wires.
Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose is
corrosion resistance and electrical pick-up
Gases can be pure CO2, CO2+Argon mixes and Argon+2%O2
mixes (stainless steels).
4/23/2007 428 of 691

MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding wires:
carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated
stainless steel wires are not coated
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
4/23/2007 429 of 691
Welding Consumables
Flux Core Wire Consumables

(Not in training manual)
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Flux Core Wire Consumables
Functions of metallic sheath: Function of the filling powder:

provide form stability stabilise the arc
to the wire add alloy elements
serves as current produce gaseous
transfer during shield
welding produce slag
add iron powder
4/23/2007 434 of 691

Types of cored wire
Seamless Butt joint Overlapping

cored wire cored wire cored wire
not sensitive to moisture good resistance to sensitive to

pick-up moisture pick-up moisture pick-
can be copper coated, better can be copper coated up
current transfer cannot be
thick sheath
thick sheath, good form copper coated
stability, 2 roll drive feeding difficult to seal the
possible sheath thin sheath
difficult to manufacture easy to
manufacture
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Core elements and their function
Aluminium - deoxidize & denitrify
Calcium - provide shielding & form slag
Carbon - increase hardness & strength
Manganese - deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
Molybdenum - increase hardness & strength
Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness & corrosion
resistance
Potassium - stabilize the arc & form slag
Silicon - deoxidize & form slag
Sodium - stabilize arc & form slag
Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify & form slag
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Welding Consumables
SAW Consumables
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SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes:
are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various
formulations
shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
clean the molten weld pool
can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
4/23/2007 438 of 691

SAW Consumables
Welding flux:
might be fused or agglomerated
supplied in bags
must be kept warm and dry
handling and stacking requires care Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can

hold surface moisture so only drying
Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar
treatment as basic electrodes
If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be
recycled indefinitely
4/23/2007 439 of 691

SAW Consumables
Fused Flux
Flaky appearance
Lower weld quality
Low moisture intake
Low dust tendency
Good re-cycling
Very smooth weld
profile
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type
4/23/2007 441 of 691

SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture
minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water
flux tends to be glass-like (high in Silica)
granules are hard and may appear shiny
granules do not absorb moisture
granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re-circulated
are effectively a low hydrogen flux
welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
good chemical homogeneity
easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
normally not hygroscopic easy storage and
handling
readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux
Granulated appearance
High weld quality
Addition of alloys
Lower consumption
Easy slag removal
Smooth weld profile
Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
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SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

tendency to absorb moisture
possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles
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SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture
basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules
granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect
the flux from moisture pick-up - usually by holding in a
heated silo
granules tend to break down into powder when being re-
circulated
are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled
welds give good toughness at low temperatures
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SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
Mixed fluxes advantages:
several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery
systems during welding
inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
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SAW filler material
Welding wires can be used to weld:
carbon steels
low alloy steels
creep resisting steels
stainless steels
nickel-base alloys
special alloys for surfacing applications
Welding wires can be:
solid wires
metal-cored wires
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SAW filler material
Welding wires:
carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated
stainless steel wires are not coated
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
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SAW filler material
Copper coating functions:
to assure a good electric contact between wire

and contact tip
to assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear)
to provide protection against corrosion
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Welding Inspector
Non Destructive Testing
Section 15
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Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of NDT
methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
Four basic NDT methods

Radiographic inspection (RT)
Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
Dye penetrant inspection (PT)
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Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
Volumetric & Planar Inspection

Ultrasonics (UT)
Radiography (RT)
Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect
to:
Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration
of these advantages and disadvantages
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Radiographic Testing (RT)
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Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
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X Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
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Source
Radiation beam Image quality indicator
Test specimen
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

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Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Densitometer
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
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Radiographic Sensitivity
7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

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Radiographic Sensitivity
Step/Hole Type IQI
Wire Type IQI

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Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
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Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
Film
Film
IQIs should be placed source side
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Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
Film
IQIs are placed on the film side

Source inside film outside (single exposure)
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Film
IQIs are placed on the film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
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Identification
Unique identification
EN W10
IQI placing
Pitch marks indicating A B

readable film length
ID MR11
Radiograph
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Radiograph
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Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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Identification 4 3
Unique identification EN W10
IQI placing
Pitch marks indicating 1 2

readable film length
ID MR12
Shot A Radiograph
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4 3
1 2
Elliptical Radiograph
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Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
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Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope Typical Thickness Range
Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used)
Cobalt 60 > 50 mm
Ytterbium < 10 mm
Thulium < 10 mm
Cesium < 10 mm
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Disadvantages
Advantages
Expensive consumables
Permanent record
Bulky equipment
Little surface preparation
Harmful radiation
Defect identification
Defect require significant
No material type limitation
depth in relation to the
Not so reliant upon operator radiation beam (not good
skill for planar defects)
Thin materials Slow results

Very little indication of
depths
Access to both sides
required
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Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES
good for non-planar defects
good for thin sections
gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation
can use on all material types
high productivity
direct image of imperfections
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Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
not good for planar defects
X-ray sets not very portable
requires access to both sides of weld
frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)
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Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
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Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
Surface and sub-surface detection
This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back
An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen
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Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital
signals UT Set,
A scan
Display
Compression probe checking the material Thickness
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Ultrasonic Testing
defect Back wall

initial pulse echo echo
Material Thk
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compression Probe CRT Display
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Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set
A Scan
Display
Angle Probe
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Ultrasonic Testing
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
Skip CRT Display
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
Full Skip CRT Display

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Ultrasonic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
Trained and skilled operator
Rapid results
required
Both surface and
Requires high operator skill
sub-surface detection
Good surface finish required
Safe
Defect identification
Capable of measuring the
Couplant may contaminate
depth of defects
No permanent record
May be battery powered
Calibration Required
Portable
Ferritic Material (Mostly)
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
good for planar defects
good for thick sections
instant results
can use on complex joints
can automate
very portable
no safety problems (parallel working is possible)
low capital & running costs
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Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
no permanent record (with standard equipment)
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
reliant on operator interpretation
not good for sizing Porosity
good/smooth surface profile needed
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)
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Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
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Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create a
leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in the
case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a green/yellow
indication
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Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field
Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
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A crack like
indication
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Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used

for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component
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Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
Clean area to be tested
Apply contrast paint
Apply magnetisism to the component
Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising
Iterpret the test area
Post clean and de-magnatise if required
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Simple to use Surface or slight sub-surface

detection only
Inexpensive
Magnetic materials only
Rapid results
No indication of defects
Little surface preparation depths
required
Only suitable for linear
Possible to inspect through defects
thin coatings
Detection is required in two
directions
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Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
much quicker than PT
instant results
can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
technique)
less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
electrical power for most techniques
may need to de-magnetise (machine components)
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Penetrant Testing (PT)
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Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non porous.
Penetrants are available in many different types:
Water washable contrast
Solvent removable contrast
Water washable fluorescent
Solvent removable fluorescent
Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
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Penetrant Testing
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
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Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present
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Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
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Penetrant Testing
Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.
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Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source
Bleed out viewed

under white light
Colour contrast Penetrant
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Penetrant Testing
Simple to use Surface breaking defect only
Inexpensive little indication of depths
Quick results Penetrant may contaminate
component
Can be used on any non- Surface preparation critical
porous material
Post cleaning required
Portability Potentially hazardous
Low operator skill required chemicals
Can not test unlimited times
Temperature dependant
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Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
easy to interpret results
no power requirements
relatively little training required
can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
good surface finish needed
relatively slow
chemicals - health & safety issue
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Welding Inspector
Weld Repairs
Section 16
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Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas:
Production repairs
In service repairs
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward activity, but
in many instances it is quite complex, and various
engineering disciplines may need to be involved to ensure a
successful outcome.
Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by the
Q/C department to discover the likely reason for their
occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).
In general terms, a welding repair involves What!
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Weld Repairs
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
extensive metal removal:
Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier than
repairs to service failures because the repair procedure
may be followed
The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties
During the inspection of the removed area prior to
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects have
been totally removed and the original joint profile has
been maintained as close as possible
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Weld Repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
Authorization and procedure for repair
Removal of material and preparation for repair
Monitoring of repair Weld
Testing of repair - visual and NDT
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Weld Repairs
There are a number of key factors that need to be considered
before undertaking any repair:
The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
Are there any alternatives to welding?
What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
How is the defect to be removed and what welding process is to
be used?
What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the defect?
Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
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Weld Repairs
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)
A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect.
This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface NDE method.
Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified
and marked out.
An excavation procedure may be required (method used i.e.
grinding, arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its removal.
A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
appropriate welding process, consumable, technique, controlled
heat input and interpass temperatures etc will need to be
approved.
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Weld Repairs
Use of approved welders.
Dressing the weld and final visual.
A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to ensure
that the defect has been successfully removed and repaired.
Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out after
heat treatment requirements.
Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
(*Appropriate means suitable for the alloys being repaired and
may not apply in specific situations)
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Weld Repairs
What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual
stress?
Will heat treatment be required?
What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the
repair be demonstrated?
Will approval of the repair be required if yes, how and by
whom?
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Production Weld Repairs
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need
to be fulfilled:
If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion
face the problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion.
If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be
associated with the material or the welding procedure
If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned
to the lack of skill of the welder.
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI
or DYE-PEN may be used to gauge the length of the defect and
U/T inspection used to gauge the depth.
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Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the defective
areas are to be removed. The method of removal may be:
Grinding
Chipping
Machining
Filing
Oxy-Gas gouging
Arc air gouging
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Defect Excavation
Arc-air gouging
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Arc-air gouging features
Operate ONLY on DCEP
Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
Provides fast rate of metal removal
Can remove complex shape defects
After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
Gouging doesnt require a qualified welder!
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Production Repairs
are usually identified during production inspection
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out by
the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator
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Plan View of defect
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Side View of defect excavation
Side View of repair welding
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In Service Weld Repairs
In service repairs
Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is very
likely to be in a different welding position and condition
than it was during production
It may also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible
fluids hence a permit to work will need to be sought prior
to any work being carried out
The repair welding procedure may look very different to the
original production procedure due to changes in these
elements.
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In Service Weld Repairs
Other factors to be taken into consideration:
Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the component
i.e. electrical components, or materials that may become
damaged by the repair procedure.
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any required
pre or post welding heat treatments and a possible
restriction of access to the area to be repaired.
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also
take place on site and without a shut down of operations,
which may bring other elements that need to be
considered.
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Weld Repairs
Is welding the best method of repair?
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?
What strength is required from the repair?
Can preheat be tolerated?
Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?
Will the repair resist its environment?
Can the repair be inspected and tested?
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Weld repair related problems
heat from welding may affect dimensional stability and/or
mechanical properties of repaired assembly
due to heat from welding, YS goes down, danger of
collapse
filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to
galvanic corrosion
local preheat may induce residual stresses
cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint repair
can reach up to 10 times the original weld metal cost!
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Welding Inspector
Residual Stress & Distortion
Section 17
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Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
they lead to distortion

they affect dimensional stability of the
welded assembly
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
they can facilitate certain types of
corrosion
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Residual Stresses
The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces
expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and
adjacent material.
If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress will
develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the
heating and cooling is localised.
Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real
accuracy.
Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not
stresses induced whilst applying external load
Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the
component.
The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
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Stresses
Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to the
cross sectional area
Compression
Tension
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Stresses
Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and
lie in the plane of the cross sectional area.
Shear Stress
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Stresses
Hoop Stress
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder
due to internal pressure.
Hoop Stress
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Residual Stresses
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
Along the weld longitudinal residual stresses
Across the weld transverse residual stresses
Through the weld short transverse residual stresses
Longitudinal
Transverse
Short Transverse
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Residual stress
Heating and
cooling causes
expansion and
contraction
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Residual stress
In case of a heated
bar, the resistance
of the surrounding
material to the
expansion and
contraction leads
to formation of
residual stress
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Summary
1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is
caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld
area.
2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures
after welding.
3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of
weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint
design and the materials properties
4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking,
clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of
residual stresses that remain will be higher.
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Summary
6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is
called distortion.
7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is
very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion,
however we can say that there are three directions:
a. Longitudinal b. Transverse c. Short transverse
8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by
heat treatments.
9. The peening of weld faces will only redistribute the
residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.
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Types of distortion
Angular distortion
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Distortion
Angular Distortion
Transverse Distortion
Bowing Distortion Longitudinal Distortion
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Distortion
Factors which affect distortion
Material properties and condition
Heat input
The amount of restrain
The amount of weld metal deposited
Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way:

The used of a different joint design
Presetting the joints to be welded so that the metal distorts
into the required position.
The use of a balanced welding technique
The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.
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Distortion
Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are
free to move i.e. not restrained
Restrained materials result in low distortion but high
residual stress
More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency
than joints of a low restraint
The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause
distortion
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Distortion
Factors affecting distortion:
parent material properties

amount of restrain
joint design
fit-up
welding sequence
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Factors affecting distortion
Parent material properties:
thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the value, the
greater the residual stress
yield strength - the greater the value, the greater the
residual stress
Youngs modulus - the greater the value (increase in
stiffness), the greater the residual stress
thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the lower the
residual stress
transformation temperature - during phase
transformation, expansion/contraction takes place. The
lower the transformation temperature, the lower the
residual stress
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Joint design:
weld metal volume
type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
Amount of restrain:
thickness - as thickness increase, so do the stresses
high level of restrain lead to high stresses
preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe
welding!)
Fit-up:
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
root gap - increase in root gap increases shrinkage
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Welding sequence:
number of passes - every pass adds to the total
contraction
heat input - the higher the heat input, the greater
the shrinkage
travel speed - the faster the welding speed, the
less the stress
build-up sequence
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by pre-setting
a) pre-setting of fillet joint to

prevent angular distortion
b) pre-setting of butt joint to
prevent angular distortion
c) tapered gap to prevent
closure
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Distortion
Pre-set or Offsetting:
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of
trial and error.
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Distortion prevention by pre-bending using
strongbacks and wedges
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Distortion
Clamping and jigging:
The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the
clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the
elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the
position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high
restraint and high levels of residual stresses.
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Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
a) use of welding jigs
b) use of flexible
clamps
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Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
c) use of strongbacks
with wedges
d) use of fully welded

strongbacks
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Distortion prevention by design
Consider eliminating the welding!!
a) by forming the plate

b) by use of rolled or extruded sections
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consider weld placement
reduce weld metal volume

and/or number of runs
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The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of
local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld
deposited the higher amount of distortion
Preparation angle 60o
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use of balanced welding
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Distortions prevention by design
Allowances to cover shrinkage
- Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length
does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60 V joint,
depending on number of runs
- Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
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Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
tack welding
a) tack weld straight through
to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use
back-step technique for
tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step technique
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back to back assembly
a) assemblies tacked together

before welding
b) use of wedges for
components that distort on
separation after welding
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use of stiffeners
control welding process by:

- deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
- use the least number of runs to fill the joint
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Distortion prevention by welding procedure
reduce the number of

runs required to make a
weld (e.g. angular
distortion as a function
of number of runs for a
10 mm leg length weld)
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control welding techniques by use

balanced welding about the neutral axis
control welding techniques by keeping
the time between runs to a minimum
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control welding techniques by

a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding
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Back-step welding technique
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Back-skip welding technique
1. 4. 2. 5. 3. 6.
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Distortion - Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap

identical components welded back to back so welding can be
balanced about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal
bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as
possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
direction; back-step or skip welding techniques should be used
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Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion - mechanical corrective techniques
Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint

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Distortion - Best practice for mechanical corrective techniques
Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so

that spring-back will return the component to the correct shape
Check that the component is adequately supported during
pressing to prevent buckling
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or
produce a curvature
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the
following safe practice must be adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the
'missile'
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clear personnel from the hazard area 562 of 691
Distortion - thermal corrective techniques
Localised heating to
correct distortion
Spot heating for

correcting buckling
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Line heating to correct angular

distortion in a fillet weld
Use of wedge shaped heating

to straighten plate
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Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
a) standard rolled b) buckled edge of c) box fabrication

steel section plate
General guidelines:
Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
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use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped
heating technique
use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
limit the temperature to 60 to 650C (dull red heat) in steels to
prevent metallurgical damage
in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge,
penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even
temperature
4/23/2007 566 of 691

Welding Inspector
Heat Treatment
Section 18
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Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
Global Where? Local
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Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and after
welding.
The inspectors function is to ensure that the treatment is
given correctly in accordance with the specification or as per
the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
Preheat
Annealing
Normalising
Quench Hardening
Temper
Stress Relief
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Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding
Post weld heat treatments

are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
controlling the formation of crystalline structures
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Post Weld -Heat Treatments
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250 C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature after
completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.
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Post Weld Heat Treatments
A B
(A) Normalised
(B) Fully Annealed
(C) Water-quenched
(D) Water-quenched & tempered
C D
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Post Weld Heat Treatments
The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o Method of application
o Rate of heating and cooling
o Maximum temperature
o Soak time
o Temperature measurement (and calibration)
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS

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Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled
Temperature
SoakingTemperature
and time at the
attained temperature
heating rate Cooling rate
Time
Heating Soaking Cooling
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Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress
Cr-Mo steel - typical At PWHT temp. the yield

Yield 500 strength of steel reduced
Strength
so that it it is not strong
(N/mm2 )
400 enough to give restraint.
C-Mn steel - typical
300
Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
200 straining (typically < ~
0.5% strain)
100
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Temperature (C)
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Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame impingement!
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
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Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Advantages:
Easy to set up
Good portability
repeatability and
temperature uniformity
Disadvantages:
Gas furnace heat treatment Limited to size of parts
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Advantages:
High heating rates
Ability to heat a
narrow band
Disadvantages:
High equipment
cost
Large equipment,
HF (Induction) local heat treatment less portable
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Advantages:
Ability to vary
heat
Ability to
continuously
maintain heat
Disadvantages:
Elements may
burn out or arcing
Local heat treatment using during heating
electric heating blankets
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Welding Inspector
Cutting Processes
Section 19
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Use of gas flame
Welding Brazing Cutting Gouging
Heating Straightening Blasting Spraying

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Regulators
Oxygen regulator Fuel gas regulator

Single stage used when slight rise in delivery
pressure from full to empty cylinder
Regulator condition can be tolerated
type
Two stage used when a constant delivery

pressure from full to empty
4/23/2007
cylinder condition is required
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Flashback arrestors
Flashback - recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY
Normal Reverse Flashback

flow flow
Built- Built-in
in check Flashback
check valve flame
Flame
valve stops quenched
barrie reverse at the
r flow flashback
barrier
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Oxyfuel gas cutting process
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been
preheated to its ignition point, to produce the
oxide Fe3O4 by exothermic reaction.This oxide is
then blown through the material by the velocity of
the oxygen stream
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the
pre-heating flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: i.e.
acetylene, hydrogen, propane. etc
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able
to cut most metals - Iron Powder Injection
The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will
cause hardening in low alloy and medium/high C
steels they are thus pre-heated to avoid the
hardening effect
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Oxyfuel gas cutting equipment
The cutting torch
Neutral cutting flame
Neutral cutting flame with

oxygen cutting stream
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Oxyfuel gas cutting related terms
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Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little
oxide and a sharp bottom edge
Cut too slow - top edge is Cut too fast -

melted, deep groves in the pronounced break in
lower portion, heavy scaling, the drag line,
rough bottom edge irregular cut edge
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Preheat flame too low - Preheat flame too high -

deep groves in the lower top edge is melted,
part of the cut face irregular cut, excess of
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adherent dross 589 of 691
Nozzle is too high above

the works - excessive Irregular travel speed - uneven
melting of the top edge, space between drag lines,
much oxide irregular bottom with adherent
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oxide 590 of 691
Mechanised oxyfuel cutting
can use portable carriages or gantry type machines and
obtain high productivity
accurate cutting for complicate shapes
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OFW/C advantages/disadvantages
1) No need for power 1) High skill factor
supply, portable
2) Wide HAZ
2) Versatile: preheat,
brazing, surfacing, repair, 3) Safety issues
straightening 4) Slow process
3) Low equipment cost 5) Limited range of
consumables
4) Can cut carbon and low
alloy steels 6) Not suitable for reactive
& refractory metals
5) Good on thin materials
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Special oxyfuel operations
Gouging Rivet cutting
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Special oxyfuel operations
Thin sheet cutting Rivet washing
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Cutting Processes
Plasma arc cutting
Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas through a
constricted nozzle to remove the molten
metal
Uses a tungsten electrode and water cooled
nozzle
High quality cutting
High intensity and UV radiation EYES !
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Cutting Processes
Air-arc for cutting or gouging
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Air-arc gouging features
Operate ONLY on DCEP
Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
Provides fast rate of metal removal
Can remove complex shape defects
After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
Gouging doesnt require a qualified welder!
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Welding Inspector
Arc Welding Safety
Please discuss
Section 20
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Safety
Electrical safety
Heat & Light
Visible light
UV radiation - effects on skin
and eyes
Fumes & Explosive Gasses
Noise levels
Fire Hazards
Scaffolding & Staging
Slips, trips and falls
Protection of others from
exposure
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Welding Inspector
Weldability Of Steels
Section 21
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Weldability of Steels
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded with
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding processes,
and the resulting welded joint retain the properties for which it
has been designed.
is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be
summarised as:
Composition of parent material
Joint design and size
Process and technique
Access
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Weldability of Steels
The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying
elements content.
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures to

ensure the maintenance of the properties required
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range of

welding conditions
great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre-heat etc)
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The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties
required to make it useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties of
steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
The temperature reached before and during welding
Heat input
The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
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Steel Alloying Elements
Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low
strength.
Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with
major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability.
typically < ~ 0.25%
Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and
ductility, secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with sulphur to form
manganese sulphide.
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de-oxidation
up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn steels) improves strength & toughness
Silicon (Si): Residual element from steel de-oxidation.
typically to ~0.35%
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Phosphorus (P): Residual element from steel-making minerals. difficult to reduce
below < ~ 0.015% brittleness
Sulphur (S): Residual element from steel-making minerals

< ~ 0.015% in modern steels
< ~ 0.003% in very clean steels
Aluminium (Al): De-oxidant and grain size control

typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%
Chromium (Cr): For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for elevated
temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion resistance,
increases hardness and strength but reduces ductility.
typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
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Nickel (Ni): Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids,
increases strength and toughness
Molybdenum (Mo): Affects hardenability. Steels containing molybdenum

are less susceptible to temper brittleness than other alloy steels.
Increases the high temperature tensile and creep strengths of steel.
typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%
Niobium (Nb): a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05%

Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Titanium (Ti): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Copper (Cu): present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%)
added to weathering steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to
atmospheric corrosion
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Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material, high
restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being generated
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)

Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections will
require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or electrodes
should be used
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)

Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld heating and
slow cooling may be required
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Process Cracks
Hydrogen Induced HAZ Cracking (C/Mn steels)
Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking (HSLA steels).
Solidification or Hot Cracking (All steels)
Lamellar Tearing (All steels)
Re-heat Cracking (All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V steels)
Inter-Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay (stainless steels)
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Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment, through
unbalanced local expansion and contraction
Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates
being welded to each other
Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
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Cracks
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May occur: Also know as:
up to 48 hrs after completion Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal. HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
At weld toes
Delayed cracking, as it takes
Under weld beads time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
At stress raisers.
up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
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There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4 factors

occur together:
Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress More than the yield stress
Temperature Below 300oC
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers
Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)
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4/23/2007 613 of 691

Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations, and
slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct arc
length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under controlled
environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
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Hydrogen is the smallest atom known
Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas
Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate
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Cellulosic electrodes Hydrogen absorbed
produce hydrogen as a in a long, or
shielding gas unstable arc
Hydrogen introduced in Hydrogen

weld from consumable,
crack
oils, or paint on plate
H2 H2
Martensite forms from H2 diffuses to in HAZ

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Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.
Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time

Run out length x 103 (1000)
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Typical locations for Cold Cracking

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HICC in HSLA steels
HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels
(800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small
percentage alloying (over-alloyed Weld metal to match the
strength of parent metal)
Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as
vanadium molybdenum and titanium, nickel and chromium
Strength. are used. It would be impossible to match this micro
alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
It is however important to match the strength of the weld to
the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo
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Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.

Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld metal
deposited.
Scale A High: >15 ml
Scale B Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
Scale C Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
Scale D Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
Scale E Ultra-low: < 3 ml
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Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest hydrogen
content with regards to 100g of deposited weld metal.
TIG < 3 ml
MIG < 5 ml
ESW < 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5 ml
SAW < 10ml
FCAW < 15 ml
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Weldability
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Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline

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Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Crack type: Solidification cracking

Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction
of solidification
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Factors for solidification cracking
Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur,
phosphor and carbon)
The amount of stress/restraint
Joint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
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Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low melting
point compounds)
During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals push
still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place of
solidification, weld centerline.
The bonding between the grains which are themselves
under great stress and may now be very poor to maintain
cohesion and a crack will result, weld centerline.
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Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ
Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

On solidification the On solidification the
bonding between the bonding between the grains
grains may be adequate to may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur crack may result
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Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
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Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint
during welding
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints and
any other sulphur containing product)
Joint design selection depth to width ratios
4/23/2007 630 of 691

Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking
large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area with
high concentration of impurities
Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,

phosphorous and other impurities).
High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal

conductivity, with high resultant residual stress
same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels with extra
emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution controls.
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Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
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Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion boundary
of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
Joint design, direction of stress
The amount of stress acting across the joint during welding
Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing under
very low levels of stress
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Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.
High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate

(know as the short transverse direction).
T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress

component in the through thickness direction.
Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld Corner butt weld

(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
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Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area
Critical
area
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Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Prior welding both An open corner joint

plates may be grooved may be selected to
to avoid lamellar tearing avoid lamellar tearing
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Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
The use of buttering runs
A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place
Joint design selection
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
Hydrogen precautions
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Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
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Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing
Friction Welded Caps

Short Tensile Specimen
Sample of Parent Material
Through
Thickness
Ductility
The results are given as a STRA value

Short Transverse Reduction in Area
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Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
Lamellar tear
High contractional
strains
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Welding Inspector
Practical Visual Inspection
Section 22
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Fillet Weld Gauges
10mm
G.A.L.
L S.T.D.
16mm
Leg Length Gauge
10mm
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
16mm
Throat Thickness Gauge

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HI-LO Welding Gauge
6
Root gap
dimension
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge
Internal
alignment
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Plate / Pipe Inspection
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Plate Inspection Examination
Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors

examination your are required to conduct a practical
examination of a plate test weld, complete a thumb
print sketch and a final report on your findings
Time allowed 1 hour and 15 minutes
The code is provided
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Plate Inspection Points
1) Use a pencil for the arrow lines, but make all

written comments and measurements in ink
only
2) Report everything that you can observe
3) Do not forget to compare and sentence your

report
4) Do not forget to date & sign your report
5) Make any observations, such as

recommendations for further investigation for
crack-like imperfections.
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Plate Thumb Print Report
After you have observed an imperfection and

determined its type, you must be able to take
measurements and complete the thumb print report
sketch
The first thumb print report sketch should be in the
form of a repair map of the weld. (i.e. All
observations are Identified Sized and Located)
The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP exam
will look like the following example.
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Plate Inspection Final Report
After you have completed your thumb print report

sketch of your test plate the next step is to complete
your final report again the report must be completed in
ink (no pencil).
The report must be completed to your thumb print
sketch, do not leave any boxes empty, every box must
be completed or dashed out. You must also make any
comments you feel are necessary regarding any
defects observed.
The report form used in CSWIP will look like the

following example.
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Pipe Inspection
Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors

examination your are required to conduct a
practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete
a thumb print sketch and a final report on your
findings
Time allowed 1 hour and 45 minutes
The code is nominated e.g API 1104
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Welding Inspector
Application & Control of Pre heat

Section 23
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Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately before
any welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
normally expressed as a maximum
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature

Pre heat maintenance temperature = the minimum temperature in the
weld zone which shall be maintained if welding is interrupted and shall be
monitored during the interruption.
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Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean; Component
cannot be moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local overheating; Less
controllable;Portable; Manual operation possible; Component
can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours); Large
power supply; Expensive equipment
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Measuring pre heat in Welding
The purposes
of measuring
Demonstration of Welding
conformance to process
specified requirements control
Parameters to be measured:
welding current preheat/interpass
arc voltage temperature
travel speed force/pressure
shielding gas flow rate humidity
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Pre-heat Application
Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than local if
possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
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Pre-Heat Application
Electrical Heated Manual Gas Operation

Elements
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Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t < 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
welder
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Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
the temperature shall be
measured on the face
opposite to that being
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
equalisation
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Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
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Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.
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The Chill Effect of the Material
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Heating Temperature Control
TEMPILSTICKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not measure
max temp.
Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp.
Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate, measure
actual temp.
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Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive
materials:
crayons, paints and
pills
cheap
convenient, easy to
use
doesnt measure the
actual temperature!
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Contact thermometer
Accurate
Easy to use
Gives the actual temperature
Requires calibration
suitable for moderate
temperatures
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Thermocouple
based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference
between a hot junction (on weld) and a cold junction
accurate method
measures over a wide range of temperatures
gives the actual temperature
need calibration
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Thermistors
temperature-sensitive resistors
whose resistance varies inversely
with temperature
used when high sensitivity is
required
gives the actual temperature
need calibration
can be used up to 999C
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Temperature test equipment
Devices for contactless measurement
IR radiation and optical

pyrometer
measure the radiant energy
emitted by the hot body
contactless method, can be
used for remote measurements
very complex
for measuring high
temperatures
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Welding Inspector
Calibration
Section 24
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Calibration, validation and monitoring
Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined
point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
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Calibration and validation
Frequency - When it is required?
once a year unless otherwise specified
whenever there are indications that the
instrument does not register properly
whenever the equipment has been
damaged, misused or subject to severe
stress
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
or repaired
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
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Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
How accurate?
depends on the application
welding current - 2,5%
arc voltage - 5%
wire feed speed - 2,5%
gas flow rate - 20% (25% for backing gas flow rate)
temperature (thermocouple) - 5%
depends on the welding process
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
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PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
What does a PAMS measure?
Gas flow
Welding rate
current (Hall (heating
effect element
device) sensor)
Arc voltage
(connection Wire feed
leads) speed
Temperature (tachometer)
(thermocouple)
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PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
The purposes of
a PAMS
For measuring For calibrating

and recording and validating
the welding the welding
parameters equipment
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Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed
monitoring
Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator
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Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow
rate monitoring
Heating element
sensor
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Summary
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it has
meters fitted
the inspector should check for calibration stickers, dates

etc.
a welding power source without meters can only be

validated that the control knobs provide repeatability
the main role is to carryout in process monitoring to

ensure that the welding requirements are met during
production
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Welding Inspector
Macro/Micro Examination
Section 25
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Macro Preparation
Purpose
To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance that: -
The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS
The weld is free from defects
Specimen Preparation
Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick)
Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides
plus some unaffected base material
One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400)
Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ
Prepared face examined at up to x10 (& usually photographed for records)
Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey
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Micro Preparation
Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to:-
To examine the microstructure
Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Specimen Preparation
A small piece is cut from the region of interest
(typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm)
The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest

prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800)
Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror finish
Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition & then lightly
etched
Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600
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Macro / Micro Examination
Object:
Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a visual
evaluation of a cross-section of a welded joint
Carried out on full thickness specimens
The width of the specimen should include HAZ, weld and
parent plate
They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders
approval test
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Macro / Micro Examination
Will Reveal:
Weld soundness
Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ
Location and depth of penetration of weld
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions
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Macro Micro
Visual examination for Visual examination for
defects defects & grain structure
Cut transverse from the Cut transverse from a
weld weld
Ground & polished P400 Ground & polished P1200
grit paper grit paper, 1m paste
Acid etch using 5-10% Acid etch using 1-5%
nitric acid solution nitric acid solution
Wash and dry Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under 5x Visual evaluation under
magnification 100-1000x magnification
Report on results Report on results
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Metallographic Examination
Macro examination Micro examination
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Welding Inspector

Duties and Responsibilities

Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected to have

Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

Fillet Weld Gauges

HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)

For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout

A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and

The junction of members or the edges of members that are

A configuration of members (BS499)

Edge Open & Closed Corner Lap

Butt weld Spot weld

Edge weld Plug weld

Partial Penetration Butt Weld

Full Penetration Butt Weld

Design Throat Actual Throat

Weld cap width

Maximum solid solid-liquid Boundary

Root Face Root Face

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel

Root Face Root Gap Root Face

Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or

Single Bevel Single Vee

Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or

Double -Bevel Double -Vee

Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg Length:

Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7

Question: The Leg length is 14mm.

Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness

Calculating Leg Length from a known Design Throat

Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4

Question: The Design Throat is 10mm.

Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length

Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet

Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size

Fillet welds - Shape

Mitre Fillet Convex Fillet

EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat

H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)

J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)

Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)

Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)

Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Definition: the rate of weld progression

All welds have imperfections

A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

Standards for Welding Imperfections

BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes

Standards for Welding Imperfections

EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,

Cracks that may occur in welded materials are