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Instrumentation Training Tutorial1
Instrumentation Training Tutorial1
This tutorial provides minimal engineering science necessary to complete the rest of the
tutorials. Greater depth of the individual topics can be found on the web site. It is useful to
anyone studying measurement systems and instrumentation but it is provided mainly in
support of the EC module D227 Control System Engineering. This tutorial is very basic.
On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to explain and use the following basic
relationships used in mechanical and electrical engineering science.
Basic units.
Springs.
D.J.Dunn 1
1. UNITS
Also used in phys ics is luminous intensity Candela (Cd). All other quantities used are multiples of these
units.
2.1. VELOCITY
2.2 ACCELERATION
This concerns the force required to overcome the inertia of a body. Inertia (or mass) is that property of a
body which opposes changes to its motion.
Linear Angular
2.4. SPRING
D.J.Dunn 2
2.5. PRESSURE
Pressure = Force per unit area (N/m2)
p = F/A
1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 10 5 Pa
3.3 INDUCTANCE
This law is equivalent to the 2nd. law of motion. Inductance (L Henries) is that property of a component
that resists changes to the flow of current. The emf (E) produced is
E = L di/dt
E = L d2q/dt2
3.4. CAPACITANCE
This law is equivalent to the spring law. Capacitance (C Farads) is the property of a component which
enables it to store electric charge.
Q = C V (Coulombs)
2. A mass of 30 kg is accelerated at a rate of 4 m/s2. Calculate the force used to do it. (120 N)
3. A flywheel is accelerated at a rate of 4 rad/s2 by a torque of 10 Nm. Calculate the moment of inertia.
(2.5 kg m2 )
4. A force of 5000 N acts on an area of 400 mm2. Calculate the pressure in Pascals. (12.5 MPa)
5. A pipe 100 mm diameter carries oil at a mean velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate the flow rate in m3 /s.
(0.0157 m3 /s)
6. The current in an inductive coil changes at 30 A/s and the back emf is 3 V. Calculate the inductance
in H. (0.1 H)
8. A flywheel turns 120 radians in 3 seconds at a constant rate. Calculate the angular velocity. (40 rad/s)
D.J.Dunn 3
4. STRESS AND STRAIN
When a force F acts directly on an area A as shown in figure 1, the resulting direct stress is the force per
unit area and is given as
= F/A.
where
F is the force normal to the area in Newtons
A is the area in m2
and (sigma) is the direct stress in N/m2 or Pascals.
Since 1 Pa is a small unit kPa , MPa and GPa are commonly used also.
If the force pulls on the area so that the material is stretched then it is a tensile force and stress and this is
positive.
If the force pushes on the surface so that the material is compressed, then the force and stress is
compressive and negative.
Figure 1
Strains are normally very small so often to indicate a strain of 10-6 we use the name micro strain and
write it as .
For example we would write a strain of 7 x 10-6 as 7.
Many materials are elastic up to a point. This means that if they are deformed in any way, they will spring
back to their original shape and size when the force is released. It has been established that so long as the
material remains elastic, the stress and strain are related by the simple formula
E= /
and E is called the MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. The units are the same as those of stress.
D.J.Dunn 4
ELASTIC LIMIT
A material is only elastic up to a certain point. If the elastic limit is exceeded, the material becomes
permanently stretched. The stress-strain graph for some metals are shown below. The modulus of
elasticity does not apply above the elastic limit. Strain gauges should not be stretched beyond the elastic
limit of the strain gauge material which is approximately 3000.
Figure 2
A metal bar which is part of a frame is 50 mm diameter and 300 mm long. It has a tensile force acting
on it of 40 kN which tends to stretch it. The modulus of elasticity is 205 GPa. Calculate the stress and
strain in the bar and the amount it stretches.
SOLUTION
F = 40 x 103 N.
A = D2/4 = x 502/4 = 1963 mm2
= F/A = (40 x103 )/(1963 x 10-6) = 20.37 x 106 N/m2 =20.37 MPa
E = / = 205 x 109 N/m2
= /E = (20.37 x 106)/(205 x 109) = 99.4 x 10-6 or 99.4
= L/L
L= x L = 99.4 x 10-6 x 300 mm = 0.0298 mm
( x)/( y) = -
1. A metal wire is 1 mm diameter and 1 m long. It is stretched by a force of 2 N. Calculate the change in
diameter. E = 90 GPa and = 0.3 (Answer -8.5 x 10-6 mm).
5. RESISTIVITY
The resistance of a conductor increases with length L and decreases with cross sectional area A so we
may say R is directly proportional to L and inversely proportional to A.
R = Constant x L/A
The constant is the resistivity of the material hence R = L/A Ohms
1. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire 5 m long and 0.3 mm diameter. The resistivity is 1.7 x 10-8
Ohm metre. (Answer 1.202 )
2. Calculate the resistance of a nichrome wire 2 m long and 0.2 mm diameter given = 108 x 10-8
(Answer 68.75 )
The resistance of conductors changes with temperature. This is a problem when strain gauge devices are
used. Usually the resistance increases with temperature. The amount by which the resistance changes per
degree per ohm of the original resistance is called the temperature coefficient of resistance and is denoted
. The units are Ohms per Ohm per degree.
1. A resistor has a nominal resistance of 120 at 0 oC. Calculate the resistance at 20oC. Calculate the
change in resistance when the temperature drops by 5 degrees. = 6 x 10 -3 / oC
(Answers 134.4 and - 3.6)
D.J.Dunn 6