Math Handbook of Formulas, Processes and Tricks: Trigonometry

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Trigonometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version1.09
January14,2015
Copyright20122015,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
TrigonometryHandbook

Thisisaworkinprogressthatwilleventuallyresultinanextensivehandbookonthesubjectof
Trigonometry. In its current form, the handbook covers many of the subjects contained in a
Trigonometrycourse,butisnotexhaustive.Inthemeantime,wearehopefulthatthismaterial
willbehelpfultothestudent.Revisionstothishandbookwillbeprovidedonwww.mathguy.us
astheybecomeavailable.
Version 1.09 Page 2 of 60 January 14, 2015

Trigonometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
6 Definitions(xandyaxes)
6 Radians
6 SineCosineRelationship
7 Definitions(RightTriangle)
7 SOHCAHTOA
7 TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
8 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
9 UnitCircle
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
10 BasicTrigFunctions
11 TableofTrigFunctionCharacteristics
12 SineFunction
14 CosineFunction
16 TangentFunction
18 CotangentFunction
20 SecantFunction
22 CosecantFunction
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
24 Definitions
24 PrincipalValuesandRanges
25 GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
Chapter4:VerifyingTrigonometricIdentities
26 StepsInvolvedinVerification
27 Techniques
Chapter5:KeyAngleFormulas
30 AngleAdditionFormulas
30 DoubleAngleFormulas
30 HalfAngleFormulas
31 PowerReducingFormulas
31 ProducttoSumFormulas
31 SumtoProductFormulas
32 Cofunctions
32 LawofSines
32 LawofCosines
32 PythagoreanIdentities

Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter6:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
33 SummaryofMethods
34 TheAmbiguousCase
36 FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
Chapter7:AreaofaTriangle
37 GeometryFormula
37 Heron'sFormula
38 TrigonometricFormulas
38 CoordinateGeometryFormula
Chapter8:PolarCoordinates
39 Introduction
39 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
40 ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
40 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
41 DeMoivre'sTheorem
42 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Chapter9:PolarFunctions
43 PartsofthePolarGraph
43 Symmetry
44 GraphingMethods
44 GraphingwiththeTI84PlusCalculator
45 GraphTypes(Circles,Roses,Limaons)
47 Rose
48 Cardioid
49 ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
Chapter10:Vectors
50 Introduction
50 SpecialUnitVectors
50 VectorComponents
51 VectorProperties
52 DotProduct
53 VectorProjection
53 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
53 Work
54 VectorCrossProduct
56 VectorTripleProducts
AppendixA
57 SummaryofPolarandRectangularForms
58 Index

Table of Contents
UsefulWebsites
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,basedontheauthor's
extensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandinmathtutoring.Containsfree
downloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
http://www.mathguy.us/
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontainsdefinitions,
explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTubeonnumerous
topics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
www.khanacademy.org
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJavaappletsto
exploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
Animportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentisa
SchaumsOutline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarious
topicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.
Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothestudentcanseeexamples
ofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandother
booksellers.
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High School
Trigonometry. Precalculus (4th edition) by Robert Blitzer was used to determine some of the subjects to
include in this guide.

TrigonometricFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions 1
( and axes) sin sin
csc
1
cos cos
sec

1 sin
tan tan tan
cot cos
1 cos
cot cot cot
tan sin
1
sec sec
cos
1
csc csc
sin
Radians( ) SineCosineRelationship
0 0 radians sin cos

2
30 radians
6 sin cos
2
45 radians
4 sin cos 1
60 radians
3
90 radians
2

TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions(RightTriangle)

SOHCAHTOA
sin sin sin
cos cos cos
tan tan tan

SpecialAngles
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles( )
Radians Degrees
0 0

30

45

60

90 undefined


TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureoftheanglefromthex
axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin.

Examples:
inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
For 120,baseyourworkon180 120 60

sin 60 ,so:

inQuadrantIIICalculate: 180
cos 30 ,so:

inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360

tan 45 1,so:


TheUnitCircle
TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany

pointontheunitcircle,the coordinateisequaltothecosineoftheangleandthe coordinateis
equaltothesineoftheangle.Usingthisdiagram,itiseasytoidentifythesinesandcosinesofangles
thatrecurfrequentlyinthestudyofTrigonometry.


GraphsofBasic(Parent)TrigonometricFunctions
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
sin and csc
csc sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
cos and sec
sec cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
1 1
tan and cot
cot tan

SummaryofCharacteristicsandKeyPointsTrigonometricFunctionGraphs
Function: Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosecant

ParentFunction sin cos tan cot sec csc
Domain , , , except , , except , , except , , except ,

where isanInteger where isanInteger
where isodd where isodd
,where isan ,where isodd ,where isan

VerticalAsymptotes none none ,where isodd
Integer Integer
Range 1, 1 1, 1 , , , 1 1, , 1 1,
Period 2 2 2 2
midwaybetween midwaybetween
intercepts ,where isanInteger ,where isodd none none
asymptotes asymptotes
(1)
OddorEvenFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction OddFunction EvenFunction OddFunction
GeneralForm sin cos tan cot sec csc
Amplitude,Period, 2 2 2 2
PhaseShift,VerticalShift
| |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , , | |, , ,
(2)
when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote
when verticalasymptote
when verticalasymptote
Notes:
(1) Anoddfunctionissymmetricabouttheorigin,i.e. .Anevenfunctionissymmetricaboutthe axis,i.e., .
(2) AllPhaseShiftsaredefinedtooccurrelativetoastartingpointofthe axis(i.e.,theverticalline 0).

GraphofaGeneralSineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasinefunctionis: .
Inthisequation,wefindseveralparametersofthefunctionwhichwillhelpusgraphit.Inparticular:
Amplitude: | |.Theamplitudeisthemagnitudeofthestretchorcompressionofthe
functionfromitsparentfunction: sin .
Period: .Theperiodofatrigonometricfunctionisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhich
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof sin .
PhaseShift: .Thephaseshiftisthedistanceofthehorizontaltranslationofthe
function.Notethatthevalueof inthegeneralformhasaminussigninfrontofit,justlike
doesinthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .So,
o Aminussigninfrontofthe impliesatranslationtotheright,and
o Aplussigninfrontofthe impliesaimpliesatranslationtotheleft.
VerticalShift: .Thisisthedistanceoftheverticaltranslationofthefunction.Thisis
equivalentto inthevertexformofaquadraticequation: .
Example:
Themidlinehastheequationy D. Inthisexample,themidline
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:

; ; ;
Amplitude: | | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:

GraphingaSineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthesinefunctionhasthreezeropoints(pointsonthexaxis) Example:

atthebeginningoftheperiod,attheendoftheperiod,andhalfwayinbetween. .
Step1:PhaseShift: .
.
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof Thepointis: ,
theOrigin.
Step2:Period: . .Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe waveendsatthepoint:
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins. , ,
Step3:Thethirdzeropoint The pointis:

islocatedhalfwaybetween

thefirsttwo. , ,
Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:

pointhalfwaybetweenthe

leftandcenterzeropointsis , ,
" ".


centerandrightzeropoints , ,
is .
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points. ofonewaveofthefunction.
Step7:Duplicatethewave
totheleftandrightas Note:If 0,allpoints
desired. onthecurveareshifted
verticallyby units.

GraphofaGeneralCosineFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosinefunctionis: .
functionfromitsparentfunction: cos .
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasineorcosine
function,thisisthelengthofonecompletewave;itcanbemeasuredfrompeaktopeakor
fromtroughtotrough.Notethat2istheperiodof cos .
Example:
is:y 3.Onewave,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:

; ; ;
Amplitude: | | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:

GraphingaCosineFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Awave(cycle)ofthecosinefunctionhastwomaxima(orminimaif 0)
oneatthebeginningoftheperiodandoneattheendoftheperiodanda Example:

minimum(ormaximumif 0)halfwayinbetween. .
Step1:PhaseShift: .
,
Thefirstwavebeginsatthe
point unitstotherightof Thepointis: ,
thepoint , .
Step2:Period: . .Thefirst
Thefirstwaveendsatthe waveendsatthepoint:
point unitstotherightof
wherethewavebegins. , ,
Step3:The valueofthe Thepointis:

pointhalfwaybetweenthose

inthetwostepsaboveis , ,
" ".


leftandcenterextremais , ,
" ".


centerandrightextremais , ,
" ".
Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthefivekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points. ofonewaveofthefunction.
verticallyby units.

GraphofaGeneralTangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofatangentfunctionis: .
functionfromitsparentfunction: tan .
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof tan .
Example:
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:
Notethat,forthe
; ; ;
tangentcurve,we
typicallygraphhalf Amplitude: | | | |
oftheprincipal
cycleatthepoint Period:
ofthephaseshift,
andthenfillinthe PhaseShift:
otherhalfofthe
cycletotheleft VerticalShift:
(seenextpage).


GraphingaTangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthetangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin Example:

between.Itflowsupwardtotherightif 0anddownwardtotherightif 0. .

Step1:PhaseShift: .
.
Thefirstcyclebeginsatthe
zeropoint unitstothe Thepointis: ,
rightoftheOrigin.

Step2:Period: . . .
Placeaverticalasymptote Therightasymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe

beginningofthecycle.

Step3:Placeavertical Theleftasymptoteisat:

asymptote unitstothe

leftofthebeginningofthe

cycle.


zeropointandtheright , ,
asymptoteis" ".


leftasymptoteandthezero

, ,
pointis" ".

Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points,approachingthe ofonewaveofthefunction.
asymptotesoneachside.

verticallyby units.
Trigonometry

GraphofaGeneralCotangentFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacotangentfunctionis: .
functionfromitsparentfunction: cot .
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Foratangentor
cotangentfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutiveasymptotes(itisalso
thedistancebetween intercepts).Notethatistheperiodof cot .
Example:
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow. Forthisexample:
Notethat,forthe
; ; ;
cotangentcurve,
wetypicallygraph Amplitude: | | | |
theasymptotes
first,andthen Period:
graphthecurve
betweenthem(see PhaseShift:
nextpage).
VerticalShift:

GraphingaCotangentFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecotangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin Example:

between.Itflowsdownwardtotherightif 0andupwardtotherightif 0. .

Step1:PhaseShift: . .Theleft
Placeaverticalasymptote
asymptoteisat:
unitstotherightofthe
axis.

Step2:Period: . .

Placeanothervertical Therightasymptoteisat:
asymptote unitstothe
rightofthefirstone.

Step3:Azeropointexists
halfwaybetweenthetwo Thepointis: ,
asymptotes.
,


leftasymptoteandthezero , ,
pointis" ".


zeropointandtheright , ,
asymptoteis" ".

Step6:Drawasmooth
curvethroughthethreekey Thiswillproducethegraph
points,approachingthe ofonewaveofthefunction.

verticallyby units.

Trigonometry

GraphofaGeneralSecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofasecantfunctionis: .
functionfromitsparentfunction: sec .
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof sec .
Example:
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthesecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one Forthisexample:
openingupandoneopeningdown.
; ; ;
Amplitude: | | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:

GraphingaSecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthesecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingcosinefunctionbecausesec .
Thecosinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthesecantfunction.
Maximaforthecosinefunctionproduceminimaforthesecantfunction.
Minimaforthecosinefunctionproducemaximaforthesecantfunction. Example:

SecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown. .

Step1:Graphonewaveof Theequationofthe
thecorrespondingcosine correspondingcosine

function. functionfortheexampleis:

Step2:Asymptotesforthe Thezeropointsoccurat:
secantfunctionoccuratthe , 0 and , 0
zeropointsofthecosine
Secantasymptotesare:
function.
and

Step3:Eachmaximumof Cosinemaximaand,

thecosinefunction therefore,secantminimaare
representsaminimumfor at: , 4 and ,4
thesecantfunction.

Step4:Eachminimumof Thecosineminimum and,
thecosinefunction therefore,thesecant

representsamaximumfor maximumisat: , 4
thesecantfunction.

Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach Thiswillproducethegraph

keypoint,approachingthe ofonewaveofthefunction.


totheleftandrightas
Note:If 0,allpoints
desired.Erasethecosine
onthecurveareshifted
functionifnecessary.
verticallyby units.


GraphofaGeneralCosecantFunction
GeneralForm
Thegeneralformofacosecantfunctionis: .
functionfromitsparentfunction: csc .
thecurvetravelsbeforeitbeginstorepeatitself(i.e.,beginsanewcycle).Forasecantor
cosecantfunction,thisisthehorizontaldistancebetweenconsecutivemaximaorminima(itis
alsothedistancebetweeneverysecondasymptote).Notethat2istheperiodof csc .
Example:
is:y 3.Onecycle,shiftedtotheright,isshowninorangebelow.
OnecycleofthecosecantcurvecontainstwoUshapedcurves,one Forthisexample:
openingupandoneopeningdown.
; ; ;
Amplitude: | | | |
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:

GraphingaCosecantFunctionwithNoVerticalShift:
Acycleofthecosecantfunctioncanbedevelopedbyfirstplottingacycleofthe
correspondingsinefunctionbecausecsc .
Thesinefunctionszeropointsproduceasymptotesforthecosecantfunction.
Maximaforthesinefunctionproduceminimaforthecosecantfunction.
Minimaforthesinefunctionproducemaximaforthecosecantfunction. Example:

CosecantcurvesareUshaped,alternatelyopeningupandopeningdown. .

Step1:Graphonewaveof Theequationofthe
thecorrespondingsine correspondingsinefunction

function. fortheexampleis:

Step2:Asymptotesforthe Thezeropointsoccurat:
cosecantfunctionoccurat
,0 , ,0 , ,0
thezeropointsofthesine
Cosecantasymptotesare:
function.
, ,

Step3:Eachmaximumof Thesinemaximumand,

thesinefunctionrepresents therefore,thecosecant
aminimumforthecosecant minimumisat: , 4
function.

Step4:Eachminimumof Thesineminimumand,
thesinefunctionrepresents therefore,thecosecant

amaximumforthecosecant maximumisat: , 4
function.

Step5:DrawsmoothU
shapedcurvesthrougheach Thiswillproducethegraph

keypoint,approachingthe ofonewaveofthefunction.


totheleftandrightas
Note:If 0,allpoints
desired.Erasethesine
onthecurveareshifted
functionifnecessary.
verticallyby units.


InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:

sin 0.5 askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin 0.5.
tan 1askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan 1.
PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswerthesequestions.
So,mathematicianshavedefinedaprincipalsolutionforproblems
involvinginversetrigonometricfunctions.Theanglewhichisthe
principalsolution(orprincipalvalue)isdefinedtobethesolutionthat
liesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthefigureatright.Forexample:
Thesolutionsto sin 0.5are 2

2 .Thatis,thesetofallsolutionstothisequationcontainsthe
twosolutionsintheinterval 0, 2 ,aswellasallanglesthatare
integermultiplesof2 lessorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.
Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematiciansdefineda
principalvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.
Theprincipalvalueof forwhich sin 0.5liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis .
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Therangesoftheinversetrigonometric
functionsaretherangesoftheprincipalvalues RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
ofthosefunctions.Atablesummarizingthese Function Range
isprovidedinthetableatright.
sin
2 2
AnglesinQ4aregenerallyexpressedas
negativeangles. cos 0
tan
2 2

GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions

VerifyingIdentities
AsignificantportionofanytrigonometrycoursedealswithverifyingTrigonometricIdentities,i.e.,
statementsthatarealwaystrue(assumingthetrigonometricvaluesinvolvedexist).Thissection
dealswithhowthestudentmayapproachverificationofidentitiessuchas:
1 tan 1 sin 1
InverifyingaTrigonometricIdentity,thestudentisaskedtoworkwithonlyonesideoftheidentity
and,usingthestandardrulesofmathematicalmanipulation,derivetheotherside.Thestudentmay
workwitheithersideoftheidentity,sogenerallyitisbesttoworkonthesidethatismostcomplex.
Thestepsbelowpresentastrategythatmaybeusefulinverifyingidentities.
VerificationSteps
1. Identifywhichsideyouwanttoworkon.LetscallthisSideA.Letscallthesideyouarenot
workingonSideB.So,youwillbeworkingonSideAtomakeitlooklikeSideB.
a. Ifonesidehasamultipleofanangle(e.g.,tan 3 )andtheothersidedoesnot(e.g.,
cos ),workwiththesidethathasthemultipleofanangle.
b. Ifonesidehasonlysinesandcosinesandtheotherdoesnot,workwiththeonethat
doesnothaveonlysinesandcosines.
c. Ifyougetpartwaythroughtheexerciseandrealizeyoushouldhavestartedwiththe
otherside,startoverandworkwiththeotherside.
2. Ifnecessary,investigateSideBbyworkingonitalittle.Thisisnotaviolationoftherulesas
longas,inyourverification,youcompletelymanipulateSideAtolooklikeSideB.Ifyou
choosetoinvestigateSideB,moveyourworkoffalittletothesidesoitisclearyouare
investigatingandnotactuallyworkingsideB.
3. Simplifyasmuchaspossiblefirst,butremembertolookattheothersidetomakesureyou
aremovinginthatdirection.Dothisalsoateachstepalongtheway,aslongasitmakesSide
AlookmorelikeSideB.
a. UsethePythagoreanIdentitiestosimplify,e.g.,ifonesidecontains 1 sin and
theothersidecontainscosinesbutnotsines,replace 1 sin withcos .
b. Changeanymultiplesofangles,halfangles,etc.toexpressionswithsingleangles(e.g.,
replacesin 2 with2 sin cos ).
c. Lookfor1s.Oftenchanginga1intosin cos willbehelpful.
4. RewriteSideAintermsofsinesandcosines.
5. Factorwherepossible.
6. SeparateorcombinefractionstomakeSideAlookmorelikeSideB.
Thefollowingpagesillustrateanumberoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtoverifyidentities.

VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques
Technique:InvestigateBothSides
Often,whenlookingatanidentity,itisnotimmediatelyobvioushowtoproceed.Inmanycases,
investigatingbothsideswillprovidethenecessaryhintstoproceed.
Example:
1 1
sin cos cot 1

1 1 cot 1

sin cos
Yuk!Thisidentitycontainsalotoffunctionsthataredifficulttodealwith.Letsinvestigateitby
convertingtosinesandcosinesonbothsides.Notethatontheright,Imovemynewfractionoff
tothesidetoindicateIaminvestigatingonly.Idothisbecausewemustverifyanidentityby
workingonlyonesideuntilwegettheotherside.
1 1 cos cos
cos cos
sin sin
cos
1 1 cos

sin cos sin cos
NoticethatIchangedeach1intheexpressionontherightto becauseIwanttoget
somethingthatlooksmoreliketheexpressionontheright.
LookingatwhatIhavenow,Inoticethatthetwoexpressionslookalotalike,exceptthatevery
placeIhavea1intheexpressionontheleftIhavecos intheexpressionontheright.
Whatismynextstep?Ineedtochangeallthe1sintheexpressiononthelefttocos .Icando
thismymultiplyingtheexpressionontheleftby .
1 1
cos cos
sin
cos 1 1

sin cos

Noticethatthismatchestheorangeexpressionabove.

cot 1 cot 1

cot 1 cot 1

VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:BreakaFractionintoPieces
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhenthenumeratorhasthesamenumberoftermsas
existontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example:
cos
1 tan tan
cos cos
First,itsagoodideatoreplacecos withitsequivalent:
cos cos sin sin

cos cos
Next,breakthefractionintotwopieces:
cos cos sin sin

cos cos cos cos
Finally,simplifytheexpression:
sin sin
1
cos cos
1 tan tan 1 tan tan

VerifyingIdentitiesTechniques(contd)
Technique:GetaCommonDenominatoronOneSide
Whenafractioncontainsmultipletermsinthenumerator,itissometimesusefultobreakitinto
separateterms.Thisworksespeciallywellwhenthenumeratorhasthesamenumberoftermsas
existontheothersideoftheequalsign.
Example:
cos 1 sin

1 sin cos
Ifweweretosolvethislikeanequation,wemightcreateacommondenominator.Remember,
however,thatwecanonlyworkononeside,sowewillusethecommondenominatoronlyon
thatside.Inthisexample,thecommondenominatorwouldbe:cos 1 sin .
cos cos

cos 1 sin
cos

cos 1 sin
Oncewehaveinsertedthedenominatorfromtherightsideintheexpressionontheleft,therest
oftheexpressionshouldsimplify.Tokeepthecos intheexpression,weneedtoworkwiththe
numerator.Acommonsubstitutionistoworkbackandforthbetweensin andcos .
1 sin

cos 1 sin
Noticethatthenumeratorisadifferenceofsquares.Letsfactorit.
1 sin 1 sin

cos 1 sin
Finally,wesimplifybyeliminatingthecommonfactorinthenumeratoranddenominator.
1 sin 1 sin

cos cos

KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin cos cos cos sin sin

tan tan

DoubleAngleFormulas
sin 2 2 sin cos cos 2 cos sin

1 2 sin
2 cos 1

tan 2

HalfAngleFormulas
Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich

sin theangle resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
cos
ByQuadrant

sin+ sin+
tan cos cos+

tan tan+
x

sin sin
cos cos+

tan+ tan


KeyAngleFormulas(contd)
PowerReducingFormulas

sin cos

tan

ProducttoSumFormulas
SumtoProductFormulas

KeyAngleFormulas(contd)
Cofunctions
EachtrigonometricfunctionhasacofunctionwithsymmetricpropertiesinQuadrantI.Thefollowing
identitiesexpresstherelationshipsbetweencofunctions.
sin cos 90 cos sin 90
tan cot 90 cot tan 90
sec csc 90 csc sec 90
c b
B a C
LawofSines(seeaboveillustration) LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)
2 cos

2 cos
2 cos

PythagoreanIdentities(foranyangle)
sin cos 1
sec 1 tan
csc 1 cot

SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe180).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.
GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom180toobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.
GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.

SolvinganObliqueTriangle(contd)
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:
Therearethreecasesinwhich .
Case1: Producesnotrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
Case2: Producesone(right)trianglebecause isexactlylongenoughtoreachthe
base. formsarightanglewiththebase,andistheheightofthetriangle.
Case3: Producestwotrianglesbecause istherightsizetoreachthebaseintwo
places.Theanglefromwhich swingsfromitsapexcantaketwovalues.
Thereisonlyonecaseinwhich .
Case4: Producesonetrianglebecause isnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.

SolvingaTriangle(contd)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Howdoyousolvethetriangleineachofthecasesdiscussedabove.Assumetheinformationgivenis
thelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasureofAngle .Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angle ). Step1:Use
Step2:Considerthevalueofsin :
sin sin
Ifsin 1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.

Ifsin 1,then 90,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.

Ifsin 1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.
Step3:Considerwhether .
If ,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.Calculatethevaluesofeachangle ,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.
If ,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.

SolvinganObliqueTriangle(contd)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase(SSA)contd
Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles

and .IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachangle.
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngle asfollows: 180
Step5:Calculate .Finally,wecalculatethevalueof usingtheLawofSines.Notethatinthecase

wheretherearetwotriangles,thereisanAngle ineach.So,theLawofSinesshouldbeused
relatingAngles and .
sin

sin sin sin
AmbiguousCaseFlowchart
Start Here
1 Value of 1 yes
Is ?
sin
1 no
Two triangles
Calculate , and then .

Steps 4 and 5, above

AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
Therearetwoformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformationaboutthetriangle
isavailable.
Formula1:Theformulamostfamiliartothestudentcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofthe
triangleareeitherknownorcanbedetermined.

where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthemeasureofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or or
Formula2:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhen
thelengthsofallofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,though
lessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
where, . Note: issometimescalledthesemiperimeterofthetriangle.
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

AreaofaTriangle(contd)
TrigonometricFormulas
Thefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecomefromtrigonometry.Whichoneisused
dependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandaside:
Twosidesandanangle:
CoordinateGeometry
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letthethreepointsinthecoordinateplanebe: , , , , , .Then,theareaofthe
triangleisonehalfoftheabsolutevalueofthedeterminantbelow:
Example:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:

PolarCoordinates
PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandtheanglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.First,lets
investigatetherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates , anditspolar
coordinates , .
Themagnitude,r, isthedistanceofthepointfromtheorigin:
Theangle,,istheanglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.Generally,thisangleisexpressedin
radians,notdegrees.
tan or tan
Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
cos and sin
Example1:Expresstherectangularform(4,4)inpolar
coordinates:
Given: 4 4
4 4 42
tan tan tan 1 inQuadrantII,

so
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
Rectangularcoordinates: 4, 4 PolarCoordinates: 42,
Example2:Expressthepolarform(42, )inrectangularcoordinates:
Given: 42

cos 42 cos 42 4

sin 42 sin 42 4
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
PolarCoordinates: 42, Rectangularcoordinates: 4, 4

PolarFormofComplexNumbers
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.
Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesas ,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesas cos sin ,with 0, 2 .Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsfor are:
ConvertRectangulartoPolar ConvertPolartoRectangular
Magnitude:| | xcoordinate: cos
Angle: tan ycoordinate: sin
Since willgenerallyhavetwovalueson 0, 2 ,youneedtobecarefultoselecttheangleinthe

quadrantinwhich resides.
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Anotherexpressionthatmaybeusefulis: cos sin ,acomplexnumbercanbeexpressed
asanexponentialformof .Thatis:
cos sin
Itisthisexpressionthatisresponsibleforthefollowingrulesregardingoperationsoncomplex
numbers.Let: cos sin , cos sin .Then,
Multiplication: cos sin

So,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheirangles.
Division: cos sin
So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.
Powers: cos sin

Thisresultsdirectlyfromthemultiplicationrule.
Roots: cos sin also,seeDeMoivresTheorembelow

Thisresultsdirectlyfromthepowerruleiftheexponentisafraction.

DeMoivresTheorem
AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhoprovideduswithaveryuseful
Theoremfordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
Ifwelet cos sin ,DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
page:
cos sin
Example1:Find 3 7
First,since ,wehave 3and 7.
Then, 3 7 4; 4 4,096

And, tan 138.590inQ II
6 831.542 ~ 111.542
So,
3 7 4,096 cos 111.542 sin 111.542
1,504.0 3,809.9
Example2:Find 5 2
Then, 5 2 3; 3 243
And, tan 221.810inQIII

5 1,109.052 ~ 29.052
So,
5 2 243 cos 29.052 sin 29.052
212.4 118.0


DeMoivresTheoremforRoots
Let cos sin .Then, has distinctcomplex throotsthatoccupypositions

equidistantfromeachotheronacircleofradius .Letscalltheroots: , , , Then,these
rootscanbecalculatedasfollows:
2 2
cos sin
Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2 replacedby360ifthishelpsinthecalculation.
Example:Findthefifthrootsof .
Then, 2 3 13; 13 ~ 1.2924
And, tan 56.310; 11.262
Theincrementalangleforsuccessiverootsis:360 5 roots 72.

Thencreateachartlikethis:
Fifthrootsof ~ . .
Angle( )
0 11.262 1.2675 0.2524
1 11.262 72 60.738 0.6317 1.1275
2 60.738 72 132.738 0.8771 0.9492
3 132.738 72 204.738 1.1738 0.5408
4 204.738 72 276.738 0.1516 1.2835
Noticethatifweaddanother72,weget348.738,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
11.262because 348.738 360 11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.
Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof
havethesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesthatare72apartfrom
eachother,thattheyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewith
center 0, 0 andradius 13 ~ 1.2924.


PolarGraphs
Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphssuchastheone
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).
PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4, .

ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).

ThePolarAxisisthe axis.
TheLine: isthe axis.

Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthePolarAxis.

Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricabouttheline .

PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:
Symmetryabout: QuadrantsContainingSymmetry SymmetryTest(1)
ThePole Opposite(IandIIIorIIandIV) Replace with intheequation

Leftorrighthemispheres(IIandIII
ThePolarAxis Replace with intheequation
or IandIV)
Upperorlowerhemispheres(Iand Replace , with , inthe
TheLine
IIorIIIandIV) equation
(1)
Ifperformingtheindicatedreplacementresultsinanequivalentequation,theequationpasses
thesymmetrytestandtheindicatedsymmetryexists.Iftheequationfailsthesymmetrytest,
symmetrymayormaynotexist.

GraphsofPolarEquations
GraphingMethods
Method1:Pointplotting
Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa
twocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof thatcanbeusedtoplota
rectangularcoordinatesequation(e.g., 4 3).
The valuesyouselectforpurposesofpointplottingshouldvarydependingontheequation
youareworkingwith(inparticular,thecoefficientof intheequation).However,asafebet
istostartwithmultiplesof 6(including 0).Ploteachpointonthepolargraphand
seewhatshapeemerges.Ifyouneedmoreorfewerpointstoseewhatcurveisemerging,
adjustasyougo.
Ifyouknowanythingaboutthecurve(typicalshape,symmetry,etc.),useittofacilitate
plottingpoints.
Connectthepointswithasmoothcurve.Admiretheresult;manyofthesecurvesare
aestheticallypleasing.
Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform .UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform ,youmay
needtoentertwofunctions, and ,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.

GraphTypes(PolarEquations)
Circle

Equation: sin Equation: cos Equation:
Location: Location: Location:
abovePolarAxisif 0 rightofline /2if 0 CenteredonthePole
belowPolarAxisif 0 leftofline /2if 0
Radius: /2 Radius: /2 Radius:
Symmetry:Line /2 Symmetry:PolarAxis Symmetry:Pole,PolarAxis,
Line /2
Rose
Characteristicsofroses:
Equation: sin
o Symmetricabouttheline /2( axis)
Equation: cos
o SymmetricaboutthePolarAxis( axis)
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e, 1).

GraphsofPolarEquations
LimaonofPascal

Equation: sin Equation: cos
Location:bulbabovePolarAxisif 0 Location:bulbrightofLine /2if 0
bulbbelowPolarAxisif 0 bulbleftofLine /2if 0
Symmetry:Line /2 Symmetry:PolarAxis
FourLimaonShapes
2 2
Innerloop Cardioid Dimple Nodimple
FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)

sinefunction sinefunction cosinefunction cosinefunction

0 0 0 0

GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example:
Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheforms sin and cos .

Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueof .
If isaneveninteger,therosewillhave2 petals.
If isanoddinteger,itwillhave petals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan

argumentof2,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin 0, 2
2 0, .Youcouldplotmore
0 0
points,butthisintervalissufficient
/12 2 7/12 2
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
/6 3.464 2/3 3.464 soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
/4 4 3/4 4
/3 3.464 5 /6 3.464 Oncesymmetryis
5 /12 2 11 /12 2 established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
/2 0 0
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe Bluepointsonthegraph
twopetalsrightofthe axis. correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe Orangepointsonthe
othertwopetalswithout graphcorrespondto
calculatingmorepoints. orangevaluesinthetable.
ThefourRoseforms:

GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example:
Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofform sin with .Theuseofthesinefunction

indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricaboutthe axis.The signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethe axis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:

Generally,youwanttolookat
valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
0 2
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
/6 3 7/6 1 dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
/3 3.732 4/3 0.268 functionandthecoefficientof .
/2 4 3/2 0
2 /3 3.732 5 /3 0.268
Oncesymmetryis
5 /6 3 11 /6 1 established,thesevalues
2 2 2 areeasilydetermined.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethexaxisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
from inQ1andQ2,
correspondtobluevalues
wherethesinefunctionis inthetable.
positive.
Similarly,theportionof Orangepointsonthe
thegraphbelowthexaxis graphcorrespondto
resultsfrom inQ3and orangevaluesinthetable.
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
ThefourCardioidforms:

ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for
Substitute for
Example:Convert8 3 10 0toapolarequationoftheform .
StartingEquation: 8 3 10 0
Substitute cos and sin : 8 cos 3 sin 10 0
Factorout : 8 cos 3 sin 10
Divideby 8 cos 3 sin :

PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute for cos
sin Substitute for sin
Substitute for
Example:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.

StartingEquation: r = 8 cos + 9 sin
Substitutecos , sin : 8 9
Multiplyby : 8 9
Substitute : 8 9
Subtract8 9 : 8 9 0
Completethesquare: 8 16 9 16
Simplifytostandardformforacircle:

Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewindblowing
towardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceof10kgweightbeing
pulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthepositive
axeswillbequiteusefultous.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector Direction Graphical

positive axis representationof
positive axis unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
positive axis
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifavectors
initialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is , , ,
thenthevectordisplaces inthe direction, inthe direction,and
inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:

Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:
Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:

Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofarighttriangle
withsides and .

VectorProperties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefulandrelatively
simple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If ,then cos and sin
Then, cos sin (note:thisformulaisused

inForcecalculations)
If and ,then
If ,then
Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat 0).Note:thezero

vectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
Note: canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation: , .Thisnotationisuseful

incalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
PropertiesofVectors
AdditiveIdentity
AdditiveInverse
CommutativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
1 MultiplicativeIdentity
Also,notethat:
| | MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof

VectorDotProduct
TheDotProductoftwovectors, and ,isdefinedasfollows:

Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar,notavector.Itdescribessomethingaboutthe
relationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Ausefulapproachtocalculatingthedot
productoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
, , alternative
vector
, , notation
General Example
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically. , , 4, 3, 2
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe , , 2, 2, 5
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
8 6 10
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
0 ZeroProperty
0 , and areorthogonaltoeachother.
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
Moreproperties:
If 0and and ,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).
Ifthereisascalar suchthat ,then and areparallel.

If istheanglebetween and ,thencos


VectorDotProduct(contd)
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector, ,ontoanothervector ,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.Theformula
usedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:

proj v

v2

Noticethat isascalar,andthatproj isavector.

v1 w
Inthediagramatright,v1 proj .
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector(Decomposition)
Avector, ,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectors and ,asshownintheabove
diagram.Theresultingvectorsare:

proj and

isparallelto isorthogonalto
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectoveraparticular
distance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompoint topoint .
bethevectorfrom to .
betheanglebetweenFand .
Then,wedefineworkas:
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichoneyouuseinaparticular
cos situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
Magnitude Distance Anglebetween

ofForce Traveled Vectors

VectorCrossProduct
CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
Let: u u u and v v v
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v
x sin
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathirdvectorthatis
orthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,normaltotheplane
containingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthesecondformulaabove, is
theunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.Itsorientation(direction)is
determinedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
Usingyourrighthand: x
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.Thatis,
vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
sin .

PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
x x ZeroProperty
x , x , x , and areorthogonaltoeachother
x , x , x Reverseorientationorthogonality
x Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
x x AnticommutativeProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
m x x m m x ScalarMultiplication
Moreproperties:
If x ,then and areparallel.

If istheanglebetween and ,then
o x sin

o sin


VectorTripleProducts
ScalarTripleProduct
Let: u u u .Thenthetripleproduct x givesascalarrepresentingthe
volumeofaparallelepipedwith , ,and asedges:
u u u
x v v v
w w w
x x
OtherTripleProducts
x x Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
x x
x x x
Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif x 0.
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts


Appendix A
SummaryofRectangularandPolarForms
RectangularForm PolarForm
Coordinates Form , ,
Conversion cos
sin
tan
Complex Form cos sin or

Numbers
Conversion cos
sin
tan
Vectors Form
magnitude
directionangle
Conversion cos
sin
tan

Index
Page Subject
34 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
36 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
30 AngleAdditionFormulas
AreaofaTriangle
37 GeometryFormula
37 Heron'sFormula
38 TrigonometricFormulas
38 CoordinateGeometryFormula
46,48 Cardioid
45 Circles
32 Cofunctions
ComplexNumbers
40,57 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
40 OperationsinPolarForm
40 PolarForm
50 ComponentsofVectors
ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
40,57 ComplexNumbers
39,57 Coordinates
49 Equations
57 Vectors
7 CosecantFunction
7 CosineFunction
7 CotangentFunction
54 CrossProduct
7 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(RightTriangle)
6 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions(xandyaxes)
41 DeMoivre'sTheorem
42 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
52 DotProduct
30 DoubleAngleFormulas

Index
Page Subject
Equations
49 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
Graphs
10 BasicTrigFunctions
48 Cardioid
22 CosecantFunction
14 CosineFunction
18 CotangentFunction
25 InverseTrigonometricFunctions
46 LimaonofPascal
43 PolarFunctions
47 Rose
20 SecantFunction
12 SineFunction
16 TangentFunction
11 TrigFunctionCharacteristics(Table)
30 HalfAngleFormulas
37 Heron'sFormula
IdentitiesVerification
26 Steps
27 Techniques
24 Definitions
25 Graphs
24 PrincipalValues
24 Ranges
32 LawofCosines
32 LawofSines
46 LimaonofPascal
33 ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
40 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
39,57 PolarCoordinates
40,57 PolarFormofComplexNumbers

Index
Page Subject
45 PolarGraphTypes
39,57 PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
31 PowerReducingFormulas
24 PrincipalValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
31 ProducttoSumFormulas
53 ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
51 PropertiesofVectors
32 PythagoreanIdentities
6 Radians
39,51 RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
45,47 Rose
7 SecantFunction
7 SineFunction
6 SineCosineRelationship
7 SOHCAHTOA
31 SumtoProductFormulas
7 TangentFunction
8 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
7 TrigonometricFunctionsofSpecialAngles
56 TripleProducts
9 UnitCircle
50 UnitVectorsiandj
50 Vectors
50 Components
57 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarForms
54 CrossProduct
52 DotProduct
53 Projection
51 Properties
53 SpecialUnitVectorsiandj
56 TripleProducts
53 Work

Math Handbook of Formulas, Processes and Tricks: Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Math Handbook of Formulas, Processes and Tricks: Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MathHandbook

Version 1.09 Page 2 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 3 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 4 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 5 of 60 January 14, 2015

0 0 radians sin cos

Version 1.09 Page 6 of 60 January 14, 2015

sin sin sin

cos cos cos

tan tan tan

Version 1.09 Page 7 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 8 of 60 January 14, 2015

TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovides and valuesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany

Version 1.09 Page 9 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 10 of 60 January 14, 2015

Function: Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Secant Cosecant

ParentFunction sin cos tan cot sec csc

Domain , , , except , , except , , except , , except ,

,where isan ,where isodd ,where isan

GeneralForm sin cos tan cot sec csc

when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote

when verticalasymptote verticalasymptote

Version 1.09 Page 11 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 12 of 60 January 14, 2015

Step3:Thethirdzeropoint The pointis:

Step4:The valueofthe The pointis:

Step5:The valueofthe The pointis:

Version 1.09 Page 13 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 14 of 60 January 14, 2015

Step3:The valueofthe Thepointis:

Step4:The valueofthe Thepointis:

Step5:The valueofthe Thepointis:

Version 1.09 Page 15 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 16 of 60 January 14, 2015

Acycleofthetangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin Example:

Version 1.09 Page 17 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 18 of 60 January 14, 2015

Acycleofthecotangentfunctionhastwoasymptotesandazeropoint halfwayin Example:

Version 1.09 Page 19 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 20 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 21 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 22 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 23 of 60 January 14, 2015

Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:whichangle hasafunctionvalueof ?Forexample:

Thesolutionsto sin 0.5are 2

Theprincipalvalueof forwhich sin 0.5liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis .

Version 1.09 Page 24 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 25 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 26 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 27 of 60 January 14, 2015

cos cos sin sin

cos cos sin sin

1 tan tan 1 tan tan

Version 1.09 Page 28 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 29 of 60 January 14, 2015

sin 2 2 sin cos cos 2 cos sin

Version 1.09 Page 30 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 31 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 32 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 33 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 34 of 60 January 14, 2015

Version 1.09 Page 35 of 60 January 14, 2015

Step4:Calculate .Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsides and ,andthemeasuresofAngles