RNAV

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A DME station is located 1000 feet above MSL. An aircraft flying at FL 370 in ISA
conditions which is 15 NM away from the DME station, will have a DME reading of:

These are best answered using Pythagoras' Theorem.

DME Range^2 = Ground Range^2 + Height^2

Ground Range = 15 NM

Height = 37000 - 1000 (ABOVE MSL) = 36,000 (Divided by 6,080 = ~6 NM) - Accurate
enough!

DME^2 = (15 x 15) + (6 x 6)

DME^2 = 225 + 36

DME^2 = 261

DME = SQRT (261)

DME = 16.15 NM

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VHF transmissions propogate using line-of-sight.

Max theoretical range is therefore given by the formula - 1.25 X (the square root
of ht 1 + the square root of ht 2).

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If you double transmitter power you will increase your range by the square root of
2. Which is 1.414 time the range.

therefore 4 x pwr = 10nm x 1.414 = 14.14 x 1.414 = 19.99nm

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This is not really a radio question, it is all to do with the 1 in 60 rule!

If the aircraft is at a range of 100nm, and at the edge of the airway (ie 5nm off
track), then:

TEA = DIST OFF TRACK X 60/ RANGE

= 5 X 60/ 100

= 300/100

=3 degrees

At 2 degrees per dot, that would give 1.5 dots displacement

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The greatest cross track error acceptable is 5nm off the airway centreline.

We assume that the aircraft flies out of one beacon and then switches over half way
to home

to the next beacon so the greatest possible error will occur at the half way point.

The 1 in 60 rule can be used here. Expressed as a formula it is:

distance off track = track error angle

distance gone 60

or,

distance gone = distance off track x 60

track error angle

The maximum distance off track is 5nm, track error angle is 5.5 so

distance to half way = 5 x 60 5.5 = 54.5nm

distance between the beacons is twice that, 109 nm.

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VOR practicalities:

1. If you fly the setting on the instrument (CDI centred) it will take you in the
direction of the aid,

as indicated by the flag - instrument indications in 'correct' or 'command sense'.

Flying '284 TO' in command sense will put the aircraft heading 284 TO the aid. You
must be on the 104 radial.

Flying '104 FROM' could also see you on the 104 radial heading to the aid,

but you would require an aircraft heading of 284 and be in reverse command
(instrument indications opposite sense).

That's easy then!

But true, in practical terms not impossible.

Note that the VOR indication is completely independent of the aircraft's heading.

The TO/FROM indication will not change unless you reset the OBI to the track you
intend to fly (in this case to 284).

The instrument does not know if you turn unless you tell it.

If your intention and the VOR indication match, obey the indicator.

Other thumb rule is: TO/FROM show TO and you are flying TOWARDS the

beacon, Obey the indicator.

If FROM and flying AWAY, Obey the indicator.

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DME uses pulse pairs, and they are unique because the PRF is randomised or jittered

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The design requirements for DME stipulate that, at a range of 100 NM, the maximum
systematic error should not exceed:

0.25 + (.0125x100) = 1.5nm ......so it is an application of the same thing ..

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A DME equipment with a groundspeed readout will calculate groundspeed by using rate
of change of range.
Obviously for the groundspeed readout to be accurate the slant range must be as
close as possible to the plan range.

The only time that will occur is at long ranges from the DME.

Similarly, the rate of change of range will only produce an accurate groundspeed
when

flying directly towards or away from the beacon.

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In the MAPPING MODE the airborne weather radar utilises a:

fan shaped beam effective up to a maximum of 50 NM to 60 NM

Go with the 50-60nm range.

Comes from an age when the maximum range achievable was 50-60nm on old RAF radars.

The CAA are still stuck in this era unfortunately and think 50-60nm is correct.

In reality (something the CAA isn't working in) radars can have a much longer range
than that in mapping mode.

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The information reaching the aircraft from a VOR is the radial from the station
(QDR) encoded

in the phase difference between the signals (that's what the 9 is saying in the A9W
designator).

The RMI takes this and simply drives the tail of the needle to that figure on the
card and therefore

the needle pointer is over the QDM. If the RMI is slaving properly and showing the
correct heading then

the orientation will be correct and the needle will also be pointing at the beacon
so you can see the relative bearing also.

However if it has failed the card won't rotate. So you've kept radial information
and lost relative bearing.

The NDB has no information on the signal (thats what the 0 in the N0N designator
means)

all the information is derived from the onboard equipment which rotates the loop
aerial together

with the needle which is slaved to it until it gets the null in the cardioid.

So now you can see that the needle will always point to the station whatever the
orientation of the card or the aircraft,
so relative bearing information is kept but radial information is lost.

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The VOR system is limited to about 1 of accuracy. One degree at 200 NM represents
a width of:

This question is really a 1 in 60 rule question rather than a VOR issue. Hopefully
you will recall the 1 in 60 formula:

Track Error Angle = (dist off track x 60) / range

Therefore: 1 = (dist off track x 60) / 200

Therefore: dist off track = 200 / 60 = 3.33nm

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A primary radar relies on reflection, and most use pulses.

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The greatest effect on ADF accuracy is created by Skywave interference with the
surface wave signal,

which only occurs at night, the greatest interference occurring at dawn and dusk.

Owing to the attenuation of the signal by the lower ionospheric D and E layers

during the day no daytime Skywave is produced. However, at night the D and E
Layers

disappear and the F1 and F2 layers combine into one higher and weaker F layer

which doesnt attenuate the signal totally but refracts it back to earth at
greater ranges than the surface wave.

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