Agilent

Basics of Measuring the Dielectric

Properties of Materials
Application Note
 Contents
Introduction ..............................................................................................3
Dielectric theory .....................................................................................4
Dielectric Constant ............................................................................4
Permeability........................................................................................7
Electromagnetic propagation .................................................................8
Dielectric mechanisms ........................................................................10
Orientation (dipolar) polarization ................................................11
Electronic and atomic polarization ..............................................11
Relaxation time ................................................................................12
Debye Relation .................................................................................12
Cole-Cole diagram............................................................................13
Ionic conductivity ............................................................................13
Interfacial or space charge polarization ..................................... 14
Measurement Systems .........................................................................15
Network analyzers ..........................................................................15
Impedance analyzers and LCR meters .........................................16
Fixtures .............................................................................................16
Software ............................................................................................16
Measurement techniques .....................................................................17
Coaxial probe ...................................................................................17
Transmission line ............................................................................20
Free space .........................................................................................23
Resonant cavity ...............................................................................25
Parallel plate ...................................................................................27
Comparison of methods ........................................................................28
References ..............................................................................................30
Web Resources ......................................................................................32

2
Introduction Every material has a unique set of electrical characteristics that are
dependent on its dielectric properties. Accurate measurements of these
properties can provide scientists and engineers with valuable information to
properly incorporate the material into its intended application for more
solid designs or to monitor a manufacturing process for improved quality
control.

A dielectric materials measurement can provide critical design parameter

information for many electronics applications. For example, the loss of a
cable insulator, the impedance of a substrate, or the frequency of a dielectric
resonator can be related to its dielectric properties. The information is also
useful for improving ferrite, absorber, and packaging designs. More recent
applications in the area of industrial microwave processing of food, rubber,
plastic and ceramics have also been found to benefit from knowledge of
dielectric properties.

Agilent Technologies Inc. offers a variety of instruments, fixtures, and

software to measure the dielectric properties of materials. Agilent measure-
ment instruments, such as network analyzers, LCR meters, and impedance
analyzers range in frequency up to 325 GHz. Fixtures to hold the material
under test (MUT) are available that are based on coaxial probe,
coaxial/waveguide transmission line techniques, and parallel plate.

3
 Dielectric Theory The dielectric properties that will be discussed here are permittivity and
permeability. Resistivity is another material property which will not be
discussed here. Information about resistivity and its measurement can be
found in the Agilent Application Note 1369-11. It is important to note that
permittivity and permeability are not constant. They can change with
frequency, temperature, orientation, mixture, pressure, and molecular
structure of the material.

Dielectric constant
A material is classified as dielectric if it has the ability to store energy
when an external electric field is applied. If a DC voltage source is placed
across a parallel plate capacitor, more charge is stored when a dielectric
material is between the plates than if no material (a vacuum) is between the
plates. The dielectric material increases the storage capacity of the capacitor
by neutralizing charges at the electrodes, which ordinarily would contribute
to the external field. The capacitance with the dielectric material is related
to dielectric constant. If a DC voltage source V is placed across a parallel
plate capacitor (Figure 1), more charge is stored when a dielectric material
is between the plates than if no material (a vacuum) is between the plates.

A +
C0 =
t A
C = C 0 k' V - - - -
-
C t + - + -
+
+ - +
k' = er' = + + +
C0

Figure 1. Parallel plate capacitor, DC case

Where C and C0 are capacitance with and without dielectric, k' = e'r is the
real dielectric constant or permittivity, and A and t are the area of the
capacitor plates and the distance between them (Figure 1). The dielectric
material increases the storage capacity of the capacitor by neutralizing
charges at the electrodes, which ordinarily would contribute to the external
field. The capacitance of the dielectric material is related to the dielectric
constant as indicated in the above equations. If an AC sinusoidal voltage
source V is placed across the same capacitor (Figure 2), the resulting
current will be made up of a charging current Ic and a loss current Il that is
related to the dielectric constant. The losses in the material can be
represented as a conductance (G) in parallel with a capacitor (C).

4
 I
+
I = I c + I l = V ( j wC 0 k'+G )
If G = w C 0 k" , then
A
V - - - -
C G
I = V ( j wC 0 )( k' - j k" ) = V ( j wC0 ) k t + -
+
+ -
+
-
+
+ -
+
+

w = 2 f
-

Figure 2. Parallel plate capacitor, AC case

The complex dielectric constant k consists of a real part k' which represents
the storage and an imaginary part k'' which represents the loss. The follow-
ing notations are used for the complex dielectric constant interchangeably
k = k* = er = e*r .

From the point of view of electromagnetic theory, the definition of electric

displacement (electric flux density) Df is:

Df = eE

where e = e* = e0er is the absolute permittivity (or permittivity), er is the

relative permittivity, e0 36
1 x 10-9 F/m is the free space permittivity and

E is the electric field.

Permittivity describes the interaction of a material with an electric field E

and is a complex quantity.
k = e = er = er jer''
e0
Dielectric constant (k) is equivalent to relative permittivity (er) or the
absolute permittivity (e) relative to the permittivity of free space (e0). The
real part of permittivity (er') is a measure of how much energy from an
external electric field is stored in a material. The imaginary part of permit-
tivity (er'') is called the loss factor and is a measure of how dissipative or
lossy a material is to an external electric field. The imaginary part of permit-
tivity (er") is always greater than zero and is usually much smaller than (er').
The loss factor includes the effects of both dielectric loss and conductivity.

5
 When complex permittivity is drawn as a simple vector diagram (Figure 3),
the real and imaginary components are 90 out of phase. The vector sum
forms an angle d with the real axis (er'). The relative lossiness of a material is
the ratio of the energy lost to the energy stored.

e r''
"
tan d = e r' = D =
er
1
Q
er
Energy Lost per Cycle
=
Energy Stored per Cycle

e r'
Figure 3. Loss tangent vector diagram

The loss tangent or tan d is defined as the ratio of the imaginary part of the
dielectric constant to the real part. D denotes dissipation factor and Q is
quality factor. The loss tangent tan d is called tan delta, tangent loss or
dissipation factor. Sometimes the term quality factor or Q-factor is used
with respect to an electronic microwave material, which is the reciprocal
of the loss tangent. For very low loss materials, since tan d d, the loss
tangent can be expressed in angle units, milliradians or microradians.

6
Permeability
Permeability () describes the interaction of a material with a magnetic
field. A similar analysis can be performed for permeability using an inductor
with resistance to represent core losses in a magnetic material (Figure 4). If
a DC current source is placed across an inductor, the inductance with the
core material can be related to permeability.

R
L = L0 '
L
'=
L0
L

Figure 4. Inductor

In the equations L is the inductance with the material, L0 is free space

inductance of the coil and ' is the real permeability. If an AC sinusoidal
current source is placed across the same inductor, the resulting voltage will
be made up of an induced voltage and a loss voltage that is related to
permeability. The core loss can be represented by a resistance (R) in series
with an inductor (L). The complex permeability (* or ) consists of a real
part (') that represents the energy storage term and an imaginary part ('')
that represents the energy loss term. Relative permittivity r is the
permittivity relative to free space:

r = = r j r''
0
0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m is the free space permeability

Some materials such as iron (ferrites), cobalt, nickel, and their alloys have
appreciable magnetic properties; however, many materials are nonmagnetic,
making the permeability very close to the permeability of free space ( r = 1).
All materials, on the other hand, have dielectric properties, so the focus of
this discussion will mostly be on permittivity measurements.

7
 Electromagnetic In the time-varying case (i.e., a sinusoid), electric fields and magnetic fields
appear together. This electromagnetic wave can propagate through free
Wave Propagation space (at the speed of light, c = 3 x 108 m/s) or through materials at slower
speed. Electromagnetic waves of various wavelengths exist. The wavelength
l of a signal is inversely proportional to its frequency f (l = c/f), such that as
the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases. For example, in free
space a 10 MHz signal has a wavelength of 30 m, while at 10 GHz it is just
3 cm. Many aspects of wave propagation are dependent on the permittivity
and permeability of a material. Lets use the optical view of dielectric
behavior. Consider a flat slab of material (MUT) in space, with a TEM wave
incident on its surface (Figure 5). There will be incident, reflected and
transmitted waves. Since the impedance of the wave in the material Z is
different (lower) from the free space impedance (or Z0) there will be
impedance mismatch and this will create the reflected wave. Part of the
energy will penetrate the sample. Once in the slab, the wave velocity v, is
slower than the speed of light c. The wavelength ld is shorter than the
wavelength l0 in free space according to the equations below. Since the
material will always have some loss, there will be attenuation or insertion
loss. For simplicity the mismatch on the second border is not considered.

h or Z 0 Z =h er'
h h = Z0 = 0
Z = = 120
er' e0
c
ld = l0 v= TEM
e '
er'
r
Air e0' MUT er'
Impedance lower
Wavelength shorter
Velocity slower
Magnitude attenuated

Figure 5. Reflected and transmitted signals

8
Figure 6 depicts the relation between the dielectric constant of the Material
Under Test (MUT) and the reflection coefficient |G| for an infinitely long
sample (no reflection from the back of the sample is considered). For small
values of the dielectric constant (approximately less than 20), there is a lot
of change of the reflection coefficient for a small change of the dielectric
constant. In this range dielectric constant measurement using the reflection
coefficient will be more sensitive and hence precise. Conversely, for high
dielectric constants (for example between 70 and 90) there will be little
change of the reflection coefficient and the measurement will have more
uncertainty.

0.9

Reflect ion coefficient | G |

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Dielectric constant er'

Figure 6. Reflection coefficient versus dielectric constant

9
 Dielectric Mechanisms A material may have several dielectric mechanisms or polarization effects
that contribute to its overall permittivity (Figure 7). A dielectric material
has an arrangement of electric charge carriers that can be displaced by an
electric field. The charges become polarized to compensate for the electric
field such that the positive and negative charges move in opposite directions.

At the microscopic level, several dielectric mechanisms can contribute to

dielectric behavior. Dipole orientation and ionic conduction interact strongly
at microwave frequencies. Water molecules, for example, are permanent
dipoles, which rotate to follow an alternating electric field. These mechanisms
are quite lossy which explains why food heats in a microwave oven. Atomic
and electronic mechanisms are relatively weak, and usually constant over
the microwave region. Each dielectric mechanism has a characteristic cutoff
frequency. As frequency increases, the slow mechanisms drop out in turn,
leaving the faster ones to contribute to e'. The loss factor (er'') will
correspondingly peak at each critical frequency. The magnitude and cutoff
frequency of each mechanism is unique for different materials.
Water has a strong dipolar effect at low frequencies but its dielectric con-
stant rolls off dramatically around 22 GHz. Teflon, on the other hand, has no
dipolar mechanisms and its permittivity is remarkably constant well into the
millimeter-wave region.

er' Dipolar
(Rotational)
+

+ +
-
- -
Atomic
Ionic Electronic

e r''
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
10
15
f, Hz
MW IR V UV

Figure 7. Frequency response of dielectric mechanisms

A resonant effect is usually associated with electronic or atomic polariza-

tion. A relaxation effect is usually associated with orientation polarization.

10
Orientation (dipolar) polarization
A molecule is formed when atoms combine to share one or more of theirs
electrons. This rearrangement of electrons may cause an imbalance in charge
distribution creating a permanent dipole moment. These moments are
oriented in a random manner in the absence of an electric field so that no
polarization exists. The electric field E will exercise torque T on the electric
dipole, and the dipole will rotate to align with the electric field causing
orientation polarization to occur (Figure 8). If the field changes the
direction, the torque will also change.

E

F

F
+

Figure 8. Dipole rotation in electric field

The friction accompanying the orientation of the dipole will contribute to

the dielectric losses. The dipole rotation causes a variation in both er' and
er'' at the relaxation frequency which usually occurs in the microwave
region. As mentioned, water is an example of a substance that exhibits a
strong orientation polarization.

Electronic and atomic polarization

Electronic polarization occurs in neutral atoms when an electric field dis-
places the nucleus with respect to the electrons that surround it. Atomic
polarization occurs when adjacent positive and negative ions stretch under
an applied electric field. For many dry solids, these are the dominant polar-
ization mechanisms at microwave frequencies, although the actual resonance
occurs at a much higher frequency. In the infrared and visible light regions
the inertia of the orbiting electrons must be taken into account. Atoms can
be modeled as oscillators with a damping effect similar to a mechanical
spring and mass system (Figure 7). The amplitude of the oscillations will
be small for any frequency other than the resonant frequency. Far below
resonance, the electronic and atomic mechanisms contribute only a small
constant amount to er' and are almost lossless. The resonant frequency is
identified by a resonant response in er' and a peak of maximum absorption
in er''. Above the resonance, the contribution from these mechanisms
disappears.

11
 Relaxation time
Relaxation time is a measure of the mobility of the molecules (dipoles) that
exist in a material. It is the time required for a displaced system aligned in
an electric field to return to 1/e of its random equilibrium value (or the time
required for dipoles to become oriented in an electric field). Liquid and solid
materials have molecules that are in a condensed state with limited freedom
to move when an electric field is applied. Constant collisions cause internal
friction so that the molecules turn slowly and exponentially approach the
final state of orientation polarization with relaxation time constant . When
the field is switched off, the sequence is reversed and random distribution is
restored with the same time constant.

The relaxation frequency fc is inversely related to relaxation time:

=
1
=
1
wc 2 fc
At frequencies below relaxation the alternating electric field is slow enough
that the dipoles are able to keep pace with the field variations. Because the
polarization is able to develop fully, the loss (er'') is directly proportional to
the frequency (Figure 9). As the frequency increases, er'' continues to
increase but the storage (er') begins to decrease due to the phase lag
between the dipole alignment and the electric field. Above the relaxation
frequency both er'' and er' drop off as the electric field is too fast to
influence the dipole rotation and the orientation polarization disappears.

Debye relation
Materials that exhibit a single relaxation time constant can be modeled by
the Debye relation, which appears as a characteristic response in permittivity
as a function of frequency (Figure 9). er' is constant above and below the
relaxation with the transition occurring near the relaxation frequency
(22 GHz). Additionally, er'' is small above and below relaxation and peaks in
the transition region at the relaxation frequency.

er' , er''
60 er'
Debye equation : e (w) = e + es e
1 + j w 40

For w = 0, e( 0) = es
w = , e( ) = e 20
For
e r"
0.1 1 10 100 f, GHz

Figure 9. Debye relaxation of water at 30 C

In calculating the above curves the static (DC) value of the dielectric
constant is es= 76.47, the optical (infinite frequency) value of the dielectric
constant is e= 4.9 and the relaxation time = 7.2 ps.

12
Cole-Cole diagram
The complex permittivity may also be shown on a Cole-Cole diagram by
plotting the imaginary part (er'') on the vertical axis and the real part (er')
on the horizontal axis with frequency as the independent parameter
(Figure 10). A Cole-Cole diagram is, to some extent, similar to the Smith
chart. A material that has a single relaxation frequency as exhibited by the
Debye relation will appear as a semicircle with its center lying on the
horizontal er'' = 0 axis and the peak of the loss factor occurring at 1/. A
material with multiple relaxation frequencies will be a semicircle (symmetric
distribution) or an arc (nonsymmetrical distribution) with its center lying
below the horizontal er''= 0 axis.

The curve in Figure 10 is a half circle with its center on the x-axis and its
radius s
e e . The maximum imaginary part of the dielectric constant
2
e'rmax will be equal to the radius. The frequency moves counter clockwise on
the curve.

e r"

30 Increasing
e " e -e
= s = 35.8
f (GHz)
r max
20 2

10

Center
e r'
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

e = 4 . 9 es = 76.47

Figure 10. Cole-Cole diagram of Figure 9

Ionic conductivity
The measured loss of material can actually be expressed as a function of
both dielectric loss (erd'') and conductivity (s).
s
er'' = erd'' +
we0
At low frequencies, the overall conductivity can be made up of many differ-
ent conduction mechanisms, but ionic conductivity is the most prevalent in
moist materials. er'' is dominated by the influence of electrolytic conduction
caused by free ions which exist in the presence of a solvent (usually water).
Ionic conductivity only introduces losses into a material. At low frequencies
the effect of ionic conductivity is inversely proportional to frequency and
appears as a 1/f slope of the er'' curve.

13
 Interfacial or space charge polarization
Electronic, atomic, and orientation polarization occur when charges are
locally bound in atoms, molecules, or structures of solids or liquids. Charge
carriers also exist that can migrate over a distance through the material
when a low frequency electric field is applied. Interfacial or space charge
polarization occurs when the motion of these migrating charges is impeded.
The charges can become trapped within the interfaces of a material. Motion
may also be impeded when charges cannot be freely discharged or replaced
at the electrodes. The field distortion caused by the accumulation of these
charges increases the overall capacitance of a material which appears as an
increase in er'.

Mixtures of materials with electrically conducting regions that are not in

contact with each other (separated by non-conducting regions) exhibit the
Maxwell-Wagner effect at low frequencies. If the charge layers are thin
and much smaller than the particle dimensions, the charge responds
independently of the charge on nearby particles. At low frequencies the
charges have time to accumulate at the borders of the conducting regions
causing er' to increase. At higher frequencies the charges do not have time to
accumulate and polarization does not occur since the charge displacement is
small compared to the dimensions of the conducting region. As the frequency
increases, er' decreases and the losses exhibit the same 1/f slope as normal
ionic conductivity.

Many other dielectric mechanisms can occur in this low frequency region
causing a significant variation in permittivity. For example, colloidal
suspension occurs if the charge layer is on the same order of thickness or
larger than the particle dimensions. The Maxwell-Wagner effect is no longer
applicable since the response is now affected by the charge distribution of
adjacent particles.

14
Measuring Systems Network analyzers
A measurement of the reflection from and/or transmission through a material
along with knowledge of its physical dimensions provides the information
to characterize the permittivity and permeability of the material. Vector
network analyzers such as the PNA, PNA-L, ENA, and ENA-L make swept
high frequency stimulus-response measurements from 300 kHz to 110 GHz
or even 325 GHz (Figure 12). A vector network analyzer consists of a signal
source, a receiver and a display (Figure 11). The source launches a signal at
a single frequency to the material under test. The receiver is tuned to that
frequency to detect the reflected and transmitted signals from the material.
The measured response produces the magnitude and phase data at that
frequency. The source is then stepped to the next frequency and the
measurement is repeated to display the reflection and transmission
measurement response as a function of frequency. More information on the
network analyzer functioning and architecture is available in the Application
Notes 1287-12 and 1287-23.

Simple components and connecting wires that perform well at low frequencies
behave differently at high frequencies. At microwave frequencies wavelengths
become small compared to the physical dimensions of the devices such that
two closely spaced points can have a significant phase difference. Low
frequency lumped-circuit element techniques must be replaced by transmis-
sion line theory to analyze the behavior of devices at higher frequencies.
Additional high frequency effects such as radiation loss, dielectric loss and
capacitive coupling make microwave circuits more complex and expensive.
It is time consuming and costly to try to design a perfect microwave network
analyzer.

Fixture
Incident Transmitted

MUT

Source Reflected

Signal
separation

Incident Reflected Transmitted

(R) (A) (B)

Receiver/detector

Processor/display

Figure 11. Network analyzer

Instead, a measurement calibration is used to eliminate the systematic

(stable and repeatable) measurement errors caused by the imperfections of
the system. Random errors due to noise, drift, or the environment
(temperature, humidity, pressure) cannot be removed with a measurement
calibration. This makes a microwave measurement susceptible to errors from
small changes in the measurement system. These errors can be minimized
by adopting good measurement practices, such as visually inspecting all
connectors for dirt or damage and by minimizing any physical movement of
the test port cables after a calibration. More information on the network
analyzer calibration is available in the Application Note 1287-34.
15
 Impedance analyzers and LCR meters
Impedance analyzers and LCR meters such as the ones listed in Figure 12
are used to measure the material properties at lower frequencies. The
material is stimulated with an AC source and the actual voltage across the
material is monitored. Material test parameters are derived by knowing the
dimensions of the material and by measuring its capacitance and dissipation
factor.

ENA, ENA-L
Network
analyzers PNA, PNA-L

Legacy 8712, 8753, 8720, 8510

Impedance/material
E4991A
analyzer
4192A, 4194A, 4263B, LCR meters
4294A, 4285A, 4278A Impedance analyzers

DC 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 11 f (Hz)

Figure 12. Frequency coverage of Agilent Technologies instruments used for dielectric measurements

Fixtures
Before the dielectric properties of a material can be measured with network
analyzer, impedance analyzer, or LCR meter, a measurement fixture (or
sample holder) is required to apply the electromagnetic fields in a predictable
way and to allow connection to the measurement instrument. The type of
fixture required will depend on the chosen measurement technique and the
physical properties of the material (solid, liquid, powder, gas).

Software
The measured data from the instrument is not always presented in the most
convenient terminology or format. In this case, software is required to
convert the measured data to permittivity or permeability. Software may
also be required to model any interaction between the fixture and MUT to
allow the extraction of the bulk material properties.

16
Measurement Coaxial probe
Techniques Method features
Broadband
Simple and convenient (non-destructive)
Limited er accuracy and tan d low loss resolution
Best for liquids or semi-solids

Material assumptions
Semi-infinite thickness
Non-magnetic
Isotropic and homogeneous
Flat surface
No air gaps

The open-ended coaxial probe is a cut off section of transmission line. The
material is measured by immersing the probe into a liquid or touching it to
the flat face of a solid (or powder) material. The fields at the probe end
fringe into the material and change as they come into contact with the
MUT (Figure 13). The reflected signal5 (S11) can be measured and related to
er*.
A typical measurement system using a coaxial probe method consists of a
network or impedance analyzer, a coaxial probe and software. Both the
software and the probe are included in the 85070E dielectric probe kit. An
external computer is needed in many cases to control the network analyzer
through GP-IB. The 82357A USB to GPIB interface provides a convenient
and flexible way to realize this connection. For the PNA family of network
analyzers the software can be installed directly in the analyzer and there is
no need for an external computer.

Solids

Semisolids (powder)

Reflection
(S 11)

Liquids
S11 er

Figure 13. Coaxial probe method

17
 Figure 14 shows the two probes that are available in the 85070E kit; the high
temperature probe (a) and the slim form probe (b). The high temperature
probe (a) is shown with the shorting block to the right. Three slim probes
are shown at the bottom of (b) with the short on the top and a couple of
other accessories.

Short

(a) (b) Short

Flange

Aperture
Slim probes
High temperature probe

Figure 14. Two dielectric probe configurations

Rugged in design, the high temperature probe features a hermetic glass-to-

metal seal, which makes it resistant to corrosive or abrasive chemicals. The
probe withstands a wide 40 to +200 C temperature range, which allows
measurements versus frequency and temperature. The large flange allows
measurements of flat surfaced solid materials, in addition to liquids and
semi-solids. The slim form probe features a slim design, which allows it to fit
easily in fermentation tanks, chemical reaction chambers, or other equip-
ment with small apertures. The slim design also allows it to be used with
smaller sample sizes. This probe is best used for liquids and soft semi-solids.
For castable solids, the probe is economical enough to be cast into the
material and left in place. Because of the consumable nature of this design,
these probes are offered in sets of three. The Slim Form probe kit comes
with a sealed Slim Form holder that adapts a 2.2 mm outer diameter to
10 mm inner diameter bracket included in the kit as well as commercially
available Midi sized adapters and bushings. Additional detailed information
is available in the Dielectric Probe Technical Overview6 and Software Online
Help7.

The dielectric probes are compatible with the Agilent network analyzers
and the E4991A impedance analyzer. With the impedance analyzer the high
temperature probe is specified from 10 MHz.

Before measuring, calibration at the tip of the probe must be performed. A

three-term calibration corrects for the directivity, tracking, and source
match errors that can be present in a reflection measurement. In order to
solve for these three error terms, three well-known standards are measured.
The difference between the predicted and actual values is used to remove
the systematic (repeatable) errors from the measurement. The three known
standards are air, a short circuit, and distillate and de-ionized water.
Even after calibrating the probe, there are additional sources of error that
can affect the accuracy of a measurement. There are three main sources of
errors:

Cable stability
Air Gaps
Sample thickness

18
 It is important to allow enough time for the cable (that connects the probe to
the network analyzer) to stabilize before making a measurement and to be
sure that the cable is not flexed between calibration and measurement. The
automated Electronic Calibration Refresh feature recalibrates the system
automatically, in seconds, just before each measurement is made. This
virtually eliminates cable instability and system drift errors.

For solid materials, an air gap between the probe and sample can be a signif-
icant source of error unless the sample face is machined to be at least as flat
as the probe face. For liquid samples air bubbles on the tip of the probe can
act in the same way as an air gap on a solid sample.

The sample must also be thick enough to appear infinite to the probe.
There is a simple equation6 to calculate the approximate thickness of the
sample for the high temperature probe sample and suggested thickness for
the slim probe sample. A simple practical approach is to put a short behind
the sample and check to see if it affects the measurement results.

Figure 15 shows a comparison of measurements of dielectric constant

and loss factor of methanol at room temperature (25 C) using the high
temperature probe, with theoretical calculations using the Cole-Cole model.
The following parameters are used in the Cole-Cole calculations:
es = 33.7, e = 4.45, = 4.95 x 10-11, = 0.036.

e' e"
r r
30
Theory Measurement
10
20

5 Theory Measurement
10

0.1 1 10 f, GHz 0.1 1 10 f, GHz

(a) (b)

Figure 15. Measured dielectric constant (a) and loss factor (b) of methanol at 25 C compared
with Cole-Cole model

A disadvantage of the dielectric probe method is the limited accuracy, under

some conditions, when compared to other methods like the transmission
line method using the 85071E and resonator method.

19
 Transmission line
Transmission line methods involve placing the material inside a portion of
an enclosed transmission line. The line is usually a section of rectangular
waveguide or coaxial airline (Figure 16). er* and r* are computed from the
measurement of the reflected signal (S11) and transmitted signal (S21).

Material assumptions
Sample fills fixture cross section
No air gaps at fixture walls
Smooth, flat faces, perpendicular to long axis
Homogeneous

Method features
Broadband low end limited by practical sample length
Limited low loss resolution (depends on sample length)
Measures magnetic materials
Anisotropic materials can be measured in waveguide

Waveguide

Reflection Transmission
(S11) (S21)

Coax
S11 er
S 21 r

Figure 16. Transmission line method; waveguide and coaxial line case

20
 Coaxial transmission lines cover a broad frequency range, but a toroid-
shaped sample is more difficult to manufacture (Figure 17(a)). Waveguide
fixtures extend to the mm-wave frequencies and the samples are simpler to
machine, but their frequency coverage is banded (Figure 17(b)). A typical
measurement system using a transmission line technique consists of a vector
network analyzer, a coaxial airline or waveguide section, software such as
the 85071E to perform the conversion to er* and r*, and an external com-
puter. For the PNA family of network analyzers the software can be installed
inside the network analyzer so there is no need for an external computer.
Additional information about the 85071E software can be found in the
Technical Overview8 and Software Online Help9.

(a) (b)
Figure 17. Coaxial 7 mm air line with samples (a) and X-band waveguide straight section
with samples (b)

The 50 Ohm airline from Agilent verification kits (Figure 17(a)) is the
recommended coaxial sample holder. Every waveguide calibration kit in the
11644A family contains a precision waveguide section (Figure 17(b)),
recommended for a waveguide sample holder.

21
 Figure 18 shows measurement results of permittivity (a) and loss tangent (b)
of two Plexiglas samples with lengths of 25 mm and 31 mm respectively, in
an X-band waveguide. The sample holder is the precise waveguide section of
140 mm length that is provided with the X11644A calibration kit (Figure 17(b)).
The network analyzer is a PNA, the calibration type is TRL and the precision
NIST algorithm9 is used for calculation. In both graphs below there are two
pairs of traces for two different measurements of the same samples. The
top two measurements of each graph are performed for the case when the
sample holder is not calibrated out.

er' tan d
25 mm
25 mm
2.58 0.005
31 mm 31 mm

25 mm
2.56 0.004 25 mm
31 mm calibrated out
sample holder 31 mm
calibrated out
sample holder
2.54 0.003
9 10 11 12 f, GHz 9 10 11 12 f, GHz
(a) (b)

Figure 18. Measurement of two Plexiglas samples, 25 mm and 31 mm long in a X-band waveguide

In this case based on the sample length and sample holder length, the 85071E
software will rotate the calibration plane correctly to the sample face, but
will not compensate for the losses of the waveguide. The bottom two
measurements of the same samples are performed for the case when the
sample holder is part of the calibration and the waveguide losses and
electrical length are calibrated out. As expected, the loss tangent curves (b)
show lower values when the sample holder is calibrated out and they are
more constant with respect to frequency. This is due to the fact that the
waveguide losses are no longer added to the samples losses. With the PNA
network analyzer, besides calibrating out the sample holder, it is possible to
perform fixture de-embedding, which will lead to the same results. This
approach requires measuring the empty sample holder after the calibration.

22
Free space

Material assumptions
Large, flat, parallel-faced samples
Homogeneous

Method features
Non-contacting, non-destructive
High frequency low end limited by practical sample size
Useful for high temperature
Antenna polarization may be varied for anisotropic materials
Measures magnetic materials

Free-space methods use antennas to focus microwave energy at or through a

slab of material without the need for a test fixture (Figure 19). This method
is non-contacting and can be applied to materials to be tested under high
temperatures and hostile environments. Figure 19 shows two typical free-
space measurement setups: an S-parameter configuration (upper) and the
NRL arch (lower). An exemplary measurement system using a free-space
method consists of a vector network analyzer, a fixture (antennas, tunnels,
arches, etc.), software like the 85071, and a computer (not necessary if the
PNA family is used). Calibrating the network analyzer for a free space meas-
urement is challenging. Free space calibration standards present special
problems since they are connector-less. A calibration can be as simple as a
response calibration or as complex as a full two-port calibration depending
on the convenience and accuracy desired. A TRL (Thru-Reflect-Line) or
TRM (Thru-Reflect-Match) calibration may actually be easier than other
calibration techniques in free space.

Figure 19. Free space measurement setups

Time domain gating is often used to take the place of or supplement an

existing calibration. The 85071E software offers an optional free space
calibration routine called GRL (Gated Reflect Line). This calibration routine
increases the ease of use and reduces the costs associated with TRM and
TRL calibration methods. The Gated Reflect Line calibration technique
converts a coaxial or waveguide 2-port calibration into a full 2-port free
space calibration. Use of this option requires a PNA Series network analyzer
or an 8510 with the time domain option, an appropriate free space fixture,
and a metal calibration plate. This option also includes a gated isolation/
response calibration, which reduces errors from diffraction effects at the
sample edges and multiple residual reflections between the antennas.

23
 Accurate free space measurements are now possible without expensive spot
focusing antennas, micro positioning fixtures, or direct receiver access. The
85070E software automatically sets up all the free space calibration
definitions and network analyzer parameters, saving engineering time. With
the PNA, additional ease and time savings is provided with ECal, electronic
calibration. A guided calibration wizard steps the user through the easy
calibration process. Figure 20 depicts the result of a GRL calibration meas-
uring Rexolite material in U-band (40-60 GHz) with a PNA network analyzer
and 85071E software. The fixture is made from a readily available, domestic
use, shelving unit to demonstrate that when doing a GRL calibration, even
with the simplest set up, it is still possible to perform precise measurements.

2.6

er'

2.5

2.4
45 50 55 f, GHz
Figure 20. Measurement of Rexolite sample in a U-band (40 60 GHz)

High temperature measurements are easy to perform in free space since the
sample is never touched or contacted (Figure 21). The sample can be heated
by placing it within a furnace that has windows of insulation material that
are transparent to microwaves. Agilent Technologies does not provide the
furnace needed for such a type of measurement. Figure 21 illustrates the
basic set up.

Heating panels
Thermal
Furnace
insulation

Thermocouple
Sample

Figure 21. High temperature measurement in free space

24
 Resonant cavity
Resonant versus broadband techniques

Resonant techniques
High impedance environment
Reasonable measurements possible with small samples
Measurements at only one or a few frequencies
Well suited for low loss materials

Broadband techniques
Low impedance environment
Requires larger samples to obtain reasonable measurements
Measurement at any frequency

Resonant cavities are high Q structures that resonate at certain frequencies.

A piece of sample material affects the center frequency (f) and quality factor
(Q) of the cavity. From these parameters, the complex permittivity (er) or
permeability (r) of the material can be calculated at a single frequency.
There are many different types of cavities and methods. Here, the most
widely used cavity perturbation method, as described in ASTM 252010, is
considered. This method uses a rectangular waveguide with iris-coupled end
plates, operating in TE10n mode (Figure 22). For a dielectric measurement
the sample should be placed in a maximum electric field and for a magnetic
measurement, in a maximum magnetic field. If the sample is inserted
through a hole in the middle of the waveguide length, then an odd number of
half wavelengths (n = 2k + 1) will bring the maximum electric field to the
sample location, so that the dielectric properties of the sample can be meas-
ured. An even number of half wavelengths (n = 2k) will bring the maximum
magnetic field to the sample location and the magnetic properties of the
sample can be measured.

Iris-coupled end plates

Q0
V (f f )
er' = c c s +1
QS

2V s f s

er" =
Vc
4V s ( 1
Qs

1
)
Qc Sample f
fS fC
V is the volume
index c is for the empty cavity,
f er or r
index s is for the sample loaded

Figure 22. Resonant cavity measurement

25
 The cavity perturbation method requires a very small sample such that the
fields in the cavity are only slightly disturbed to shift the measured resonant
frequency and cavity Q. This assumption allows simplifying the theory to use
the equations above to calculate the dielectric properties of the material.
Although Agilent Technologies does not provide a ready-made resonator (i.e.
iris-coupled end plates), this method is part of the 85071E software, which
allows for automatic measurement of all necessary parameters and calcula-
tion of the complex dielectric constant. It is easy to adapt the 140 mm long
precision waveguide section available in the X11644A waveguide calibration
kit for resonator measurements (Figure 23). A hole needs to be drilled exactly
in the middle of the waveguide length and the two iris-coupled end plates
need to be manufactured. The dimension of the iris hole is b/2.2, where b is
the narrow dimension of the waveguide cross section10.

Figure 23. X-band cavity resonator parts and inserted sample

26
 Figure 24 shows measurements of three different samples with this cavity.
The three measurements are presented on the same graph for comparison
purposes.

S21
fc = 9 . 9375 GHz 9.9375
Empty cavity
Vc = 32 . 516 cm 3 0.0035 Sample 1
Qc = 2105 Sample 2

0.0025
fs = 9 . 901 GHz
Vs = 0 . 046 cm 3
Qs = 2029 0.0015 Sample 3

e'r = 2.30 e"r = 0.003

9.8 9.9 f, GHz
Figure 24. Graphs of the empty cavity and three different samples

The resonant frequency of the empty cavity is fc = 9.9375 GHz (for TE107
mode) and it shifts to a lower frequency when the sample is inserted in the
cavity. When the resonator is loaded with a sample, the resonance curve
broadens, which results in a lower quality factor Q. On the y-axis of Figure
23 is the magnitude of the linear transmission coefficient |S21|. The 8720ES
network analyzer is used for these measurements. On the left of the figure is
a calculation for the Sample 2, which has a cross section of 0.29 by 0.157 cm.

A typical measurement system using the resonant cavity method consists of

a network analyzer, a cavity, software, and an external computer (except
when using a PNA Series). There is no need to calibrate the network analyzer
for this type of measurement.

Although the resonant cavity technique is extremely accurate, it is still

subject to errors. The network analyzer must have excellent frequency reso-
lution (1 Hz) to measure very small changes in the Q factor. The sample
cross-section dimensions must be known precisely. There is also additional
error due to the approximation in the analysis (perturbation theory). This
method has limitations for low-loss samples due to the comparatively low
Q-factor of the empty rectangular waveguide cavity. A cylindrical type of
cavity offers much higher Q-factors, but it has its own disadvantages, the
biggest of which is the difficulty to manufacture it.

Parallel plate
The parallel plate capacitor method involves sandwiching a thin sheet of
material between two electrodes to form a capacitor. A typical measurement
system using the parallel plate method consists of an LCR meter or imped-
ance analyzer and a fixture such as the 16451B dielectric test fixture, which
operates up to 30 MHz. More information about other Agilent Technologies
low frequency materials measurement solutions is available in Application
Note 1369-11 and 380-111.

27
 Comparison of Methods Many factors such as accuracy, convenience, and the material shape
and form are important in selecting the most appropriate measurement
technique. Some of the significant factors to consider are summarized here:

Frequency range
Expected values of er and r
Required measurement accuracy
Material properties (i.e., homogeneous, isotropic)
Form of material (i.e., liquid, powder, solid, sheet)
Sample size restrictions
Destructive or nondestructive
Contacting or noncontacting
Temperature
Cost

Figure 25 provides a quick comparison between the measurement methods

that have been discussed already and, in Figure 26, are summarized the
available fixtures and instruments for materials measurements.

Broadband, convenient, non-destructive

Coaxial probe er Best for lossy MUTs; liquids or semi-solids

Broadband
Transmission line
er and r Best for lossy to low loss MUTs;
machineable solids

Free space Non-contacting

er and r Best for high temperatures; large, flat samples

Accurate
Resonant cavity
Best for low loss MUTs; small samples
er and r
Accurate
Parallel plate er Best for low frequencies; thin, flat sheets

Figure 25. Summary of the measurement techniques

28
 Transmission line software 85071E
Dielectric probe 85070E
16453A Dielectric material test fixture
16451B Dielectric test fixture

16452A Liquid test fixture

16454A Magnetic test fixture

DC 10Hz 100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz 100MHz 1GHz 10GHz 100GHz

4263B, 4284A, 4285A, 4294A LCR meters/impedance analyzers

E4991A Impedance/material analyzer
PNA, PNA-L
ENA, ENA-L
Network analyzers
Legacy 8712, 8753, 8720, 8510

Figure 26. Agilent Technologies instruments and fixtures

29
 References 1. Application Note 1369-1, Solutions for Measuring Permittivity and
Permeability with LCR Meters and Impedance Analyzers, Agilent
Literature Number 5980-2862EN, May 6, 2003
2. Application note 1287-1, Understanding the Fundamental Principles of
Vector Network Analysis, Agilent literature number 5965-7707E, 2000
3. Application note 1287-2, Exploring the Architectures of Network
Analyzers, Agilent literature number 5965-7708E, December 6,
August 2000
4. Application note 1287-3, Applying Error Correction to Network
Analyzer Measurements, Agilent literature number 5965-7709E,
March 27, 2002
5. D. V. Blackham, R. D. Pollard, An Improved Technique for Permittivity
Measurements Using a Coaxial Probe, IEEE Trans. on Instr. Meas.,
vol. 46, No 5, Oct. 1997, pp. 1093- 1099
6. Technical Overview, Agilent 85071E Materials Measurement Software,
Agilent literature number 5989-0222EN, November 6, 2003
7. Online Help for 85070 software
8. Technical Overview, Agilent 85070E Dielectric Probe Kit 200 MHz to
50 GHz, Agilent literature number 5988-9472EN, May 9, 2003
9. Online Help for 85071 software
10. ASTM Test methods for complex permittivity (Dielectric Constant) of
solid electrical insulating materials at microwave frequencies and
temperatures to 1650, ASTM Standard D2520, American Society for
Testing and Materials
11. Application Note 380-1, Dielectric constant measurement of solid
materials using the 16451B dielectric test fixture, Agilent literature
number 5950-2390, September 1998

30
Additional References Altschuler H.M., Dielectric Constant, Chapter IX of Handbook of
Microwave Measurements, M. Sucher and J. Fox ed., Wiley 1963
Arthur von Hippel (ed), Dielectric Materials and Applications,
Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 3rd printing, January 1961
J. Baker-Jarvis, M. D. Janezic, J. S. Grosvenor, R. G. Geyer, Transmission/
Reflection and Short-Circuit Methods for Measuring Permitivity and
Permeability, NIST Technical Note 1355-R, December 1993
H. E. Bussey, Measurement of RF properties of materials-A survey,
Proc. IEEE, vol. 55, No. 6, pp. 1046-1053, June 1967.
A. C. Lynch, Precise measurements on dielectric and magnetic materials,
IEEE Trans. on Instrum. Meas., vol. IM-23, No. 4, Dec. 1974, pp. 425-43
M. Afsar, J.B. Birch, R.N. Clarke, Ed. G.W. Chantry; Measurement of the
Properties of Materials, Proc. IEEE, vol. 74, No 1, pp. 183-199. Jan 1986
A. M. Nicolson, G. F. Ross, Measurement of the intrinsic properties of
materials by time-domain techniques, IEEE Trans. on Instrum. Meas.,
vol. IM-19, Nov 1970, pp. 377-82
W. B. Weir, Automatic measurement of complex dielectric constant and
permeability at microwave frequencies, Proc. IEEE, vol. 62, no. 1,
pp. 33-36, Jan. 1974.

31
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