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Part 2:
Complex Numbers with Applications
i= 1, i2 = 1, ei = 1
Contents
2 Complex Numbers 1
2.1 Definitions and Basic Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Arithmetic of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Solving Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 The Argand Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Polar Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Exponential Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 De Moivres Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
December 7, 2016
F17XB 1
2 Complex Numbers
We now write
x+3=8
and solve to get x = 5. How about solving the equation
x2 2x = 3
for x? Rearranging gives
x2 2x 3 = 0
and we have a nice formula for solving such equations (courtesy of 1000s of years of work from the
Babylonians in 2000 BC, the Indians 8th century BC, the Greeks, the Chinese until finally the
Persians, Egyptians and other Islamic mathematicians in the 9th and 10th century AD cracked
it):
2 4 + 12
x = = 1 2 = 1, 3.
2
Now let us try to solve the equation
1 2
x x + 1 = 0.
2
Proceeding as before gives
1 12
x = = 1 1.
1
Maybe you are unhappy about taking the square root of a negative number? You are in good
company. It took many years from initial work by Bombelli (1572 AD) for them to be accepted
in the work of Euler (1707-1783) and Gauss (1777-1855). We cant spend 200 years convincing
you lets just carry on!
F17XB 2
Definition: We write
i= 1, and so i2 = 1.
NB In Electrical Engineering it is conventional to use the notation j = 1 instead.
5 + i2, 7 i, 4 + 3i, e, i.
Notes:
i3 = 3i.
e = e + i0 and i = 0 + i.
The real and imaginary parts of the above numbers are as follows:
Number 5 + i2 7i 4 + 3i e i
Real part 5 7 -4 e 0
Imaginary part 2 -1 3 0
Equality:
A basic question is when are 2 complex numbers the same? Well, two complex numbers are equal
if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal.
We have: a + ib = c + id when a = c and b = d.
Addition:
(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)
Subtraction:
(a + ib) (c + id) = (a c) + i(b d)
Multiplication:
(a + ib)(c + id) = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)
To see where this formula comes from, multiply out the brackets as usual:
Example 2.5.
Complex Conjugate:
Division is a bit more complicated and we need to introduce the so-called complex conjugate first.
Example 2.9. We will use a trick...to multiply by 1, although written in a fancy way!
4 + 3i 4 + 3i 1 2i
=
1 + 2i 1 + 2i 1 2i
(4 + 3i)(1 2i)
=
(1 + 2i)(1 2i)
(4 + 6) + i(8 + 3) 10 5i
= = = 2 i.
(1 + 4) + i(2 + 2) 5
Example 2.10. (a) If z = 1 + i then z = 1 i. (b) If z = 2i, then z = 2i. (c) If z = 4, then
z = 4.
Having introduced the notion of complex conjugate, we can now go on to see how to do division
in general.
Division:
To divide two complex numbers multiply and divide by the complex conjugate of the denominator.
1
Example 2.11. Express in the form a + ib.
2i
Solution: Note that 2 i = 2 + i so we get
1 1 2+i 2+i 2+i 2 1
= = = = + i.
2i 2i 2+i (2 i)(2 + i) 5 5 5
Why does this work? The answer is the fact that any number multiplied by its complex
conjugate is a real number, i.e., zz is real. Let us check this for a general complex number
(a + ib). We have
which is real as predicted. Hence multiplying the denominator in division by its complex conjugate
produces a real denominator.
1
Example 2.12. Express in the form a + ib.
3 + 4i
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 5
1
Example 2.13. Write in the form a + ib.
i
[Solution in lecture.]
1
This property = i is a particularly useful one to remember.
i
The algebraic operations for complex numbers satisfy the same properties as the corre-
sponding operations for real numbers. e.g.
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
z1 z2 = z2 z1
1
z 3 =
z3
There are many more.
Example 2.16. Find the 2 solutions z1 , z2 of the equation z 2 + 14z + 58 = 0, and check that
z 1 = z2 .
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 6
-4 0 6 12
How do we visualize complex numbers? Firstly note that a complex number consists of two pieces
of data, a real part and an imaginary part. This gives us two real numbers we can use as co-
ordinates on the plane. The number a + ib is represented by the point with co-ordinates (a, b) in
the plane.
Imaginary
axis
6
4
2 + 4i
3
2
2+i
1
- Real
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 axis
1
2
3 2i
3
3 3i
4
Such a diagram is called an Argand Diagram or the complex plane. A useful feature of the
Argand diagram is that it provides a simple visual way of representing many of the key properties
of complex numbers.
Example 2.17. If z is a point in the Argand diagram then z, the complex conjugate of z, is the
point obtained by reflection in the real axis.
Im
1 + 3i
2+i
Re
2i
1 3i
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Solution: The imaginary part is always 5 while the real part is whatever you like. This leads to
the following picture:
Im
Re
Example 2.19. Plot all complex numbers a + ib with the property that a2 + b2 = 2.
Solution: Recall that a2 + b2 = 2 is the equation of a circle with radius 2. Thus a complex
number a + ib satisfies a2 + b2 = 2 if it lies on this circle.
Im
1+i
2
Re
1 i
The Modulus
How big is a complex number? To answer this we need to know what big means. One way of
measuring this is to take the distance from the given complex number to the origin in the Argand
diagram.
Im
a + ib
Re
The modulus of a complex number z gives us an idea of how big this number is. On the
Argand diagram |z| is the distance of the complex number z from the origin.
1 1
Example 2.21. Find 1. |i|, 2. | 9 |, 3. i .
2 2
[Solution in lecture.]
Example
2.22. In the Argand diagram, draw the set of all complex numbers z with modulus
|z| = 2.
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 9
Example 2.23. Plot the set of complex numbers z satisfying 1 |z| 2 in the complex plane.
Solution: Since the modulus is the distance to the origin the set consists of all those complex
numbers which are a distance 1 and 2 from the origin. This gives the area shown below.
Im
2i
i
Re
1 2
The Argument
A point z in the Argand diagram determines an angle with the positive real axis.
Im 6
z
} -
Re
Suppose z is a complex number. The principal argument of z is the angle in radians that
z makes with the positive real axis, chosen so that < .
The principal argument of z is written as Arg(z).
How do we compute this angle? The simplest method is by drawing the diagram.
Example 2.26. Arg(1) = 0, Arg(i) = , Arg(1) = , Arg(i) = (and 6= 3/2 which
2 2
would be out of the range of the principal argument).
Example
2.27. Use the /6, /3 right angle triangle to show that Arg( 3 + i) = /6, Arg(1 +
i 3) = /3 etc.
These are all simple cases for which we can obtain the angles by drawing and using our experience
with simple triangles. We should however develop a more systematic method to use when this
simple method fails.
Suppose z = a + ib is a complex number which determines an angle with the real axis.
Im 6
z
b
r = |z|
o -
a Re
We have
b
tan() = .
a
b
So the trick is to compute tan() = a and then use your calculator to find .
Im
2 1 + 2i
Re
1
Using the above formula we know that tan() = 2/1 = 2. Using a calculator we get
b
WARNING! For a given a and b there are two values of < with tan() = . These
a
two values always differ by . Using tan1 on your calculator gives the value between /2
and /2.
Example 2.29. tan(/4) = 1, and tan(3/4) = 1. However, if you compute tan1 (1) on
your calculator, it just returns the single value /4. Try it (you do of course need to have your
calculator set to radians mode - remember this in the exam!).
So for a given z = a + ib, how do we know if tan1 (b/a) gives us the correct value for the
argument? The answer is you draw the point z in the Argand diagram to see whether Arg(z) > 0
or Arg(z) < 0. If the answer you get from tan1 (b/a) has the wrong sign, you add or subtract
from it to give the correct argument.
1. Draw a picture showing the angle. If the angle is obvious - stop. If not:
2. Work out which quadrant the point is in and use the following:
If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, then we are inside one of the four quadrants and
Im
1 b 1 b
tan + tan
a a
Im
1 + 2i 2
Re
1
We see that 0 < Arg(1 + 2i) < , but the value is not obvious from the picture. Using the above
formula we know that tan() = 2/1 = 2. Using a calculator we then get
to 3 d.p. This is not in the correct range for ; recall that since the complex number is above the
real line, we want 0 . Adding gives
Polar Form:
Given a complex number we can determine its modulus and argument. How about going the
other way?
Let z be a complex number with modulus r and principal argument .
Im 6
z
o
-
Re
Then, remembering a little trigonometry, this right-angle has base length r cos() and height
r sin(). Hence, we have
z = r cos() + i sin() .
z = r cos() + i sin() is called the polar form of the complex number z.
Example 2.33. Suppose |z| = 2 and Arg(z) = /3. Write z in polar form.
If we are given a complex number in the form a + ib and want to write it in polar form, we:
We will see in the next subsection that we can also write this as z = r ei .
It is not at all obvious, but it is a fact that the RHS sums to something finite for all complex
z so long as |z| < . However, adding up the terms in the infinite series is usually not a good
way to evaluate ez or indeed cos , sin below.
This remarkable formula was obtained by Leonhard Euler in around 1768. The special case
(one of the Top 10 equations ever!) links 3 fundamentally important numbers: e, and i that
have their origin in different branches of mathematics. Using Eulers formula we can get a new
and very useful representation for complex numbers in polar form.
F17XB 15
then we can use Eulers formula to write it in the exponential form: z = rei .
To write a complex number z in exponential form:
3. Write z = rei .
In the above examples, we have shown how to write a complex number of the form a + ib in
the exponential form rei . Going in the opposite direction is very easy:
Example 2.39. Write the complex number z = 2ei/4 in the form a + ib.
[Solution in lecture.]
ez ew = ez+w .
The multiplication formula can be used together with Eulers formula as follows:
Solution: We have
(to 2 d.p.)
and
ei ei = cos() + i sin() (cos() i sin()) = 2i sin()
and we rearrage to get the following:
Example 2.43. Use complex exponentials to show that 2 sin() cos() = sin(2).
[Solution in lecture.]
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d ix d2 ix eix
Z
e = ieix , e = (i)2 eix = 2 eix , eix dx = + C.
dx dx2 i
Solution: This just follows immediately from the general multiplication rule in the previous sub-
section with z = w = cos() + i sin().
Solution: This follows by using the multiplication rule for complex numbers n times, e.g., for n = 3
we have
ei ei ei = ei2 ei = ei3 .
Solution: We could do this by multiplying out 8 times, but this would be rather tedious and it far
easier to use De Moivres Theorem. First of all we write 1 + i in polar form as
1 + i = 2 cos(/4) + i sin(/4) .
Then we have
8 8
(1 + i)8 = ( 2)8 cos(/4) + i sin(/4) = 16 cos(/4) + i sin(/4)
= 16 cos(2) + i sin(2) = 16.
Given a complex number z = r ei and integer n, there are precisely n different nth roots
of z. They are given by
For square roots of z = r ei we have n = 2 and so two roots with the same modulus, but
arguments 2/2 = radians apart.
Example 2.50. If z = 9 ei/3 then find the two values of z and verify that they are correct.
Solution:
z = z 1/2 = 91/2 ei/6 and 91/2 ei(/3+2)/2
= 3 ei/6 and 3 ei7/6
imaginary part
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
2 0 2 2 0 2
real part real part
4th roots of z = 1+i2 5th roots of z = 1+i2
3 3
2 2
imaginary part
1 imaginary part 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
2 0 2 2 0 2
real part real part
Note the equal spacing in wedges with angle 2/n around a circle of radius r1/n for nth roots of
z = rei , where
r = |z|, = Arg(z).
Example 2.51. Find the 5th roots of z = 1 + i2. See plot above.
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 21
Example 2.52. Prove the identity cos(2) = cos2 () sin2 () using De Moivres Theorem.
The identity follows by taking the real part of both sides of this equation. Note, that if we take
the imaginary part, we get the additional identity
for free!
Example 2.53. Prove the identity sin(3) = 3 cos2 () sin()sin3 () using De Moivres Theorem.
[Solution in lecture.]
w = 0.5(z+1/z)
1.5
Imgainary part of w
Imgainary part of z
1 0.5
0.5
0
0
0.5
0.5
1
2 1 0 1 1 0.5 0 0.5
Real part of z Real part of w
Using a complex function to convert between an aerofoil shape (on the right) and a circle.
This can be used to make fluid dynamics calculations easier. Each dot on the left plot (the z
values) is connected to one on the right (the w values) by the formula
1 1
w= z+ .
2 z
The highlighted circles and diamonds show where their z values end up on the w value plot.
B Tutorial Exercises on Complex Numbers
/3
2
1
/6
3
Section 2.3
1. (a) 4i, 4i, (b) 5i, 5i, (c) 7 i, 7 i 2. (a) z = 1 2i, (b) z = 2 3i 3. (a) z = 3 i,
(b) z = 3 5 i 4. z1 = 23 + 25 i , z2 = 32 25 i 5. z1 = 5 + 2i, z2 = 5 2i
Section 2.4
1. Multiplication by i is the same thing as an anti-clockwise rotation by 90 degrees about the origin.
2. Vertical line going through 3 on the real axis.
3. Circle of radius 1 centred at 0.
4. Filled in circle of radius 2 centred at 0.
5. Quarter ring shape
6. Circle of radius 1 centred at 1.
7. Circle of radius 2 centred at 1 + i.
Section 2.5
1. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1.
2. 0.464, 0.927, 0, 1.571, 2.356, 0.983, 2.820.
3. /6, 5/6, 2/3, /3.
6. 2(cos(/6) + i sin(/6)), 2(cos(/3) + i sin(/3)).
7. 2.236(cos(0.464) + i sin(0.464)), 5(cos(0.927) + i sin(0.927)), 5(cos(0) + i sin(0)), 6(cos(/2) + i sin(/2)).
Section 2.6
1. 10.85
+ 16.90i to 2 d.p., 3.07 6.72i to 2 d.p.
2. 2ei/4 , ei/2 .
i/2
3. 2e , 2ei3/4 , ei/4 / 2
4. A = 2 i, B = 2 + i.
5. C = i/2, D = i/2.
Section 2.7
1. cos(6/7) + i sin(6/7)
2. 8 i8 3, 4096 4096i.
4. 4ei/2 , 2ei/4 , 2ei5/4 .
5. ei0 , ei/2 , ei , ei/2 . 1, i, 1, i.
6. 2ei0 , 2ei2/3 , 2ei4/3 . 2, 1 i 3, 1 + i 3.