Advanced Math CHAPTER 5 ComplexNumbers

5 Complex numbers
5.1 Overview
Complex numbers have many real-world applications, however, they are most commonly used in
engineering and physics. For example, complex numbers can be used to analyse variations in voltage and
current in an AC circuit. In mathematics, complex numbers are used to solve equations that were once
thought to be ‘impossible’. With the introduction of the imaginary number i, the complex number system
was created, producing a new field of mathematics and visually striking objects such as the Mandelbrot set.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
5.1 Overview
5.2 Complex numbers in Cartesian form
5.3 Complex numbers in polar form
5.4 De Moivre’s theorem
5.5 The complex plane (the Argand plane)
5.6 Roots of complex numbers
5.7 Factorisation of polynomials
5.8 Review: exam practice
Fully worked solutions are available for this chapter in the resources section of your eBookPLUS at
www.jacplus.com.au.
CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 261

5.2 Complex numbers in Cartesian form
5.2.1 The definition of a complex number
The complex number system is an extension of the real number system. Complex numbers are numbers
that include the number i, known as the imaginary unit.
The imaginary number

The imaginary unit i is defined as i2 = −1
This means that solutions to equations such as x2 = −1 can now be found in terms of i.
The general form of a complex number is represented by z and defined as z = a + bi, where a and b ∈ R,
and z ∈ C, where C is used to denote the set of complex numbers (in the same way that R denotes the set of
real numbers). Note that z = a + bi is one single number but is composed of two parts: a real part and an
imaginary part. The real part is written as Re(z) = a and the imaginary part is written as Im(z) = b.
A complex number in the form z = a + bi, where both a and b are real numbers, is called the Cartesian
form or rectangular form or standard form of a complex number. Throughout this chapter, it is assumed that
all equations are solved over C.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Evaluate each of the following. ( )
a. Re (6 − 12i) b. Im 3 − i + i3
THINK WRITE
a. The real part of the complex number 6 − 12i is 6. a. Re (6 − 12i) = 6
( ) ( )
b. 1. Simplify 3 − i + i3 first by recalling that i2 = −1. b. Im 3 − i + i3 = Im 3 − i + i2 × i
= Im (3 − i − i)
= Im (3 − 2i)
2. Look for the coefficient of i to determine the Im (3 − 2i) = −2
imaginary part of any complex number.
5.2.2 Review of basic operations on complex numbers in

Cartesian form
Real numbers are represented on a number line. This representation
Im(z)
helps us to understand certain properties
√ of these numbers. We see (Imaginary axis)
5
that 4 is bigger than 3 and that 2 lies between 1 and 2. Complex 4 3 + 4i
numbers are represented in two dimensions using the Argand 3
diagram, and this image helps us to visualise the complex number. 2
For example, the complex number 3 + 4i can be represented on the 1
Argand plane or Argand diagram shown right. 0
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 Re(z)
You will recall that complex numbers can be added, subtracted, –1
(Real axis)
–2
multiplied and divided. However, subtraction and division are not
–3
treated as distinct operations. Subtraction of a number is achieved
–4
by adding the negative of that number and division is achieved by
multiplying by the inverse of the number.
262 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics Units 3 & 4 for Queensland
Review of complex number arithmetic
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then
Addition: z + w = a + bi + c + di = (a + c) + (b + d)i
Subtraction: z − w = z + (−w) = (a − c) + (b − d)i
Scalar multiplication: k × z = k(a + bi) = ka + kbi, where k ∈ R
Multiplication: z × w = (a + bi) × (c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
If p = 5 − 3i and q = −2 + 7i, evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.
a. 2p − q b. p × q c. (p + q)2
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Substitute for p and q. a. 2p − q = 2(5 − 3i) − (−2 + 7i)
2.Multiply each part of p by 2. = 10 − 6i + 2 − 7i
3.Simplify the real and imaginary parts. = 12 − 13i
b. Substitute for p and q. b. p × q = (5 − 3i) × (−2 + 7i)
Use the Distributive Law to expand the brackets. = −10 + 35i + 6i − 21i2
Simplify the real and imaginary parts recalling that = −10 + 41i − 21 × −1
i2 = −1. = 11 + 41i
2 2
c. 1. Substitute for p and q. c. (p + q) = ((5 − 3i) + (−2 + 7i))
2. Simplify the real and imaginary parts. = (3 + 4i)2
2
3. Expand by recalling (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 . = 9 + 24i + 16i2
4. Simplify 9 + 24i + 16i2 by recalling that i2 = −1. = 9 + 24i − 16
= −7 + 24i
TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

a. 1. Note: i can be entered a. 1. On a Run-Matrix
by pressing the 𝜋 ⊳ screen, select
button to open a menu. SHIFT
MENU
Complex Mode
a + bi
Once this has been set,
press the EXIT
button.
2. On a Calculator page, 2. On a Run-Matrix

complete the entry line screen, complete
2 (5 − 3i) − (−2 + 7i) the entry line
2 (5 − 3i) − (−2 + 7i)
Note: i can be entered
by selecting SHIFT
followed by 0.

3. Press the ENTER 3. Press the EXE button.
button. The answer appears
The answer appears on on the screen.
the screen.
b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On a Run-Matrix

(5 − 3i) (−2 + 7i) the entry line
(5 − 3i) (−2 + 7i)
by selecting SHIFT
followed by 0.

The answer appears on on the screen.
the screen.
Equality of complex numbers

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts and their imaginary parts are both equal. For
example, if 5 + yi = x − 3i, then from equating the real part, we find that x = 5, and from equating the
imaginary part, we find that y = −3.
Powers of i
As i2 = −1, it follows that
i3 = i × i2 = i × −1 = −i
( )2
i4 = i2 = (−1)2 = 1
and i5 = i × i4 = i × 1 = i.
A pattern can be seen for repetitions of the powers of i. Any even power of i will give ±1, while any odd
power of i will give ±i.
Multiplication by i
If z = a + bi, then iz is given by
iz = i(a + bi)
= ia + i2 b
= −b + ai
The complex number iz is a rotation of z by 90° anticlockwise.
Im(z)
iz a
b z
b 0 a Re(z)
5.2.3 The Complex conjugate of a complex number

The complex conjugate z, is a reflection of the point a + bi about the Re (z) axis. The geometric
interpretation is shown in the diagram below.
Im(z)
b z = a + bi
a Re(z)
_
−b z = a − bi
The complex conjugate

If z = a + bi, the complex conjugate of z is denoted by z and is defined as z = a − bi.
The complex conjugate can be determined by changing the sign of the imaginary component.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Determine the complex conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.
√
a. v = 12 − 6i b. w = −3 + 6i
THINK WRITE
a. Change the sign of the imaginary component. v = 12 + 6i
√
b. Change the sign of the imaginary component. w = −3 − 6i
5.2.4 Inverses and division of complex numbers

The multiplicative inverse z−1 of a complex number exist such that z × z−1 = 1. Given a non-zero complex
number z, the inverse can be calculated by applying your knowledge of the complex conjugate.
The multiplicative inverse of a complex number

1 1 z a − bi
If z = a + bi with z ≠ 0, then z−1 = = × = 2 .
z z z a + b2

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Determine z−1 given z = −8 + 2i.

THINK WRITE
1 1 1
1. Write z−1 as a rational expression: z−1 = . z−1 = =
z z −8 + 2i
1 −8 − 2i
2. Multiply the numerator and denominator by the = ×
complex conjugate of −8 + 2i. −8 + 2i −8 − 2i
−8 − 2i
=
64 − 4i2
−8 − 2i
=
68
2 1
3. Express in standard form, a + bi. =− − i
17 34

1. On a Calculator page, 1. On a Run-Matrix
(−8 + 2i)−1 the entry line
(−8 + 2i)−1
by selecting SHIFT
followed by 0.

button. The answer The answer appears on
appears on the screen. the screen.
Complex conjugates are helpful when dividing complex numbers. The following investigation will
z
consider the two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di. To perform the operation 1 we must begin
z2
by multiplying the numerator and denominator by z2 .
z1 a + bi
=
z2 c + di
a + bi c − di z2
= × Multiply the fraction by
c + di c − di z2
ac − adi + bci − bdi2
= 2 Simplify the numerator and denominator by applying the distributive
c − cdi + cdi − d2 i2 law of multiplication.
(ac + bd) + (bc − ad) i
= Collect real and imaginary components
c2 + d2
(ac + bd) (bc − ad) i
= 2 + 2 Expressed in the form a + bi
c + d2 c + d2
Division of complex numbers
For division of complex numbers z1 and z2
z1 z z
= 1× 2 where z2 ≠ 0
z2 z2 z2
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
1 − 3i
Express in the form a + bi.
4+i
THINK WRITE
1 − 3i 4 − i
1. Multiply both the numerator and denominator by ×
the complex conjugate of 4 + i. 4+i 4−i
4 − i − 12i + 3i2
2. Expand and simplify the expressions obtained in the =
numerator and denominator. 42 − 4i + 4i − i2
1 − 13i
=
17
1 13
3. Express in standard form, a + bi. = − i
17 17
Units 3 & 4 Area 3 Sequence 1 Concept 1

Complex numbers in Cartesian form Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 5.2 Complex numbers in Cartesian form

Technology Free
1. Using the imaginary number i, write expressions for:
√
√ √ 4 √
a. −25 b. −144 c. − d. −23
25
2. Express each of the following in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers.
( )
a. i3 + i2 b. 2i12 + 3i15 c. 2i5 − 3i6 + 4i7 d. i i4 + i5
3. WE1 Evaluate each of the following.
( ) ( )
a. Re (8 − 9i) b. Im 12 − i2 + 2i5 c. Im (17 − i) d. Im 7 − 3i2 + i4 − 2i
4. a. Draw an Argand diagram and mark on it the complex numbers: u = 2 + i, v = 1 + 2i, and w = −2i.
b. On the same diagram mark the points: iu, iv and iw.
c. Describe, geometrically, the relationship between the complex number z and iz on the Argand
diagram.
5. a. Draw an Argand diagram and mark on it the complex numbers: u = 2 + i, v = 1 + 2i, and w = −2i.
b. On the same diagram mark the points: −u, −v and −w.
c. Describe, geometrically, the relationship between the complex numbers z and −z on the Argand
diagram.

6. a. Draw an Argand diagram and mark on it the numbers: u = 2 + i, v = 1 + 2i, and w = −2i.
b. On the same diagram mark the points: −iu, −iv and −iw.
c. Describe, geometrically, the relationship between the complex numbers z and −iz on the Argand
diagram.
7. WE2 If p = 6 − 2i and q = −3 + 3i, evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.
2
a. 2p − q b. p × q c. (p + q)
8. If s = 4 + i, t = 5 − 4i and u = −7 + 8i, evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.
a. s − u b. 3 (t + u) c. s × t d. s (tu)
9. WE3 Determine the complex conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.
√ √
a. e = 14 + 9i b. f = −2 + 7i c. g = 9 − 2 7i d. h = −1 − i
10. If v = 2 + 3i and w = 5 − i, demonstrate that v − w = v − w.
11. WE4 Determine z−1 given z in each of the following cases.
a. z = 1 + i b. z = 2 − 6i c. z = −3 + 2i d. z = −4 − 4i
3−i
12. WE5 Express in the form a + bi.
2 + 5i
13. If w = 3 + 3i and v = 8 − 2i, then:
a. MC Im(w v) is equal to:
A. −30 B. −32 C. −34 D. 30
b. MC The expression vw is equal to:
A. 30 + 18i B. 30 − 18i C. −30 − 18i D. −30 + 12i
14. Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di. Prove the identity, z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .
15. Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di. Prove the identity, z1 × z2 = z1 × z2
16. Suppose p = (a1 , b1 ), q = (a2 , b2 ) and r = (a3 , b3 ).
Prove the distributive law: p (q + r) = pq + pr.
17. Calculate the values of x and y that satisfy each of the following.
a. (3 + 2i) (x + yi) = 37 − 10i b. (5 + 4i) (x + yi) = −32 − i
5.3 Complex numbers in polar form

5.3.1 Review of complex numbers in polar form
In the preceding section, we expressed complex numbers in Cartesian form. Im(z)
Another way in which complex numbers can be represented is polar form.
This form has two parts: the modulus and the argument. a + bi
b r = |z|
To demonstrate this, consider the complex number z = a + bi as pictured
in the Argand diagram on the right.
The length, magnitude or modulus of the complex number is the distance θ
of the complex number from the origin. This distance is represented by a Re(z)
r or |z|. Note that this distance is always a positive real number.
The modulus of a complex number

For z = a + bi, the modulus of z is defined by
√
r = |z| = a2 + b2
The angle 𝜃 that the line segment makes with the positive real axis is called the argument of z, and is
denoted by arg(z).
The argument of a complex number

For z = a + bi, the argument of z is defined by
( )
−1 b
arg(z) = 𝜃 = tan
a
Usually this angle is given in radians, as multiples of 𝜋, although it can also be given in degrees. Angles
measured anticlockwise from the positive real axis are positive angles, and angles measured clockwise from
the positive real axis are negative angles. Because any integer multiple of 2𝜋 radians (or 360°) can be added
or subtracted to any angle to get the same result on the Argand plane, all complex numbers have more than
one representation. That is, there is no unique angle to represent a complex number.
To overcome this problem, we often refer to the principal value of the argument of z. The principal value
is defined to be the angle Arg(z) where Arg(z) ∈ (−𝜋, 𝜋]. (Note the use of the capital letter A to denote the
principal value.)
Principal value of the argument

For a non-zero complex number z, the principal value of the argument of z is defined by
−𝜋 < Arg(z) ≤ 𝜋
Polar form
In the diagram on the previous page, the trigonometric properties of a right-angled triangle can be used to
deduce that a = r cos(𝜃) and b = r sin(𝜃). Therefore, a complex number z = a + bi can be written as
z = r cos(𝜃) + r sin(𝜃)i. This latter form is known as polar form of a complex number. It is sometimes
called the modulus-argument form of a complex number.
Polar form of a complex number

To express a complex number is polar form:
z = r cos (𝜃) + r sin (𝜃)i
z = r (cos (𝜃) + i sin (𝜃))
z = r cis (𝜃)
where ‘cis’ is shorthand for ‘cos + i sin’.
Note that the polar form of a complex number can also be written as z = |z|cis(𝜃), since r = |z|.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
√
a. Express 2 − 2 3 i in polar form.
( )
𝜋
b. Express 6 cis in Cartesian form.
4

THINK WRITE
√
( √ )2
a. 1. To express a complex number in polar form, a. r= (2)2 + −2 3
r and 𝜃 are required √
√ for r cis (𝜃). = 4 + 12
Recall that r = a2 + b2 . =4 ( √ )
−2 3
2. Calculate 𝜃 in radians. Recall 𝜃 = tan−1
( ) 2
b
𝜃 = tan−1 for a + bi. 𝜋
a =−
3
√ √ ( )
𝜋
3. Express 2 − 2 3i in polar form, that is in the 2 − 2 3i = 4 cis −
form r cis (𝜃). 3
( )
𝜋 𝜋
b. 1. Identify r and 𝜃. b. For 6 cis ; r = 6 and 𝜃 =
4 4
( ) ( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2. To convert into Cartesian form, use the 6 cis = 6 cos + 6 sin i
4 4 4
relationship z = r cos(𝜃) + r sin(𝜃)i. √ √
2 2
=6× + 6i ×
2 2
√ √ √
= 3 2 + 3 2i or 3 2 (1 + i)

a. 1. On Home page, select a. 1. On a Run-Matrix
5 Settings screen, complete
2: Document Settings the entry
√ line
2 − 2 3i
2. Set the calculator to the 2. To convert the

appropriate format by complex number
completing the entry into polar form, select
lines OPTN
Angle: Degree COMPLEX
Real or Complex: ⊳ r∠𝜃
Rectangular
3. On a Calculator page, 3. Press the EXE button.

complete
[ the entry line The answer appears on
√ ]
2, −2 3 the screen.
ID:c0005-t0940
ID:c0005-t0880
ID:c0005-t0970
ID:c0005-p0650
ID:c0005-t0910
ID:c0005-t1000
ID:c0005-t0955
ID:c0005-t0985
ID:c0005-t1015
4. To convert the complex
number to Polar form,
select
MENU
2: Number
9: Complex Number
Tools
6: Convert to Polar
5. Press the ENTER

button.
The answer appears on
the screen.
Note: The answer states
the
( angle in degrees
)
𝜋
−60° = − .
3
b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On a Run-Matrix screen,

complete the entry line complete the entry line
(6 ∠ 45) 𝜋
6∠
Note: The ∠ symbol 4
can be entered by
pressing
CTRL
2. To convert a complex 2. To convert the complex

number from Polar to number from Polar to
Cartesian form, select Cartesian form,
MENU select
2: Number OPTN
9: Complex Number COMPLEX
Tools ⊳ a + bi
7: Convert to
Rectangular
3. Press ENTER. 3. Press the EXE button.

The answer appears on The answer appears on
the screen. the screen.
√
Note that the TI calculator will only return an approximate answer to 2 3.
Pdf_Folio:271

5.3.2 The complex conjugate in polar form
We have seen previously that the complex conjugate Im(z)
is a reflection of the point z in the horizontal (real) axis.
As polar form uses angles as a means of determining the z
location of a complex number, it can be seen in the
diagram on the right that the complex conjugate of a
complex number positioned at an angle of 𝜃 from the
positive real axis would be located at an angle of −𝜃
from the positive real axis. θ
0 –θ Re(z)
If the polar form of a complex number z is r cis(𝜃), then
it follows that the complex conjugate in polar form is
given by r cis(−𝜃).
z = r cos(−𝜃) + r sin(−𝜃)i _
z
= r cos(𝜃)
[ − r sin(𝜃)i]
= r cos(𝜃) − i sin(𝜃)
= r cis(−𝜃)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The trigonometric identities, sin −𝜃 = −sin 𝜃 and cos −𝜃 = cos 𝜃 were used to simplify the above
calculation. These will also be useful when proving modulus and argument identities in polar form.
The complex conjugate in polar form

( ) ( )
If z = r cis 𝜃 , then z = r cis −𝜃
5.3.3 Basic operations on complex numbers in polar form

When performing operations in polar form, there is no convenient method for adding and subtracting. For
addition or subtraction, the complex numbers need to be converted to Cartesian form first. Multiplying and
dividing complex numbers are much easier when they are expressed in polar form. Consider the two
complex numbers z1 and z2 given by,
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
z1 = r1 cos 𝜃1 + i sin 𝜃1 and z2 = r2 cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2 .
To determine the product z1 × z2 :
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
z1 × z2 = r1 cos 𝜃1 + i sin 𝜃1 × r2 cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
= r1 r2 cos 𝜃1 + i sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
= r1 r2 cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1 i sin 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + i2 sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
= r1 r2 cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1 i sin 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2
[ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))]
= r1 r2 cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + i cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2
Using the following trigonometric identities,
sin (𝜃1 ± 𝜃2 ) = sin (𝜃1 ) cos (𝜃2 ) ± cos (𝜃1 ) sin (𝜃2 ) [1]
cos (𝜃1 ± 𝜃2 ) = cos (𝜃1 ) cos (𝜃2 ) ∓ sin (𝜃1 ) sin (𝜃2 ) [2]
2 2
cos (𝜃) + sin (𝜃) = 1 [3]
we have
( ( ) ( ))
z1 × z2 = r1 r2 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
( )
= r1 r2 cis 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
We can follow a similar process for division of complex numbers in polar form, shown below.
( ( ) ( ))
z1 r1 cos 𝜃1 + i sin 𝜃1
= ( ( ) ( ))
z2 r2 cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
r1 cos 𝜃1 + i sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − i sin 𝜃2
= ( ( ) ( )) × ( ( ) ( ))
r2 cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2 cos 𝜃2 − i sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
r1 cos 𝜃1 × cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1 × −i sin 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃1 × cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃1 × −i sin 𝜃2
= ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
r2 cos 𝜃2 × cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃2 × −i sin 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2 × cos 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃2 × −i sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
r1 cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − i cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + i cos 𝜃2 sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2
= ( ( ) ( )((((( ) ( )((((( ) ( ))
r2 cos2 𝜃2 ( ((
−i(cos 𝜃(2 sin 𝜃2 ( ((
+i(cos 𝜃( 2
2 sin 𝜃2 + sin 𝜃2
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )))
r1 cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + i cos 𝜃2 sin 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2
= ( ( ) ( ))
r2 cos2 𝜃2 + sin2 𝜃2
Using [1], [2] and [3]

( ( ) ( ))
z1 r1 cos 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 + i sin 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
=
z2 r2
r1 ( )
= cis 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
r2
In summary,
Multiplication and division in polar form

If z1 = r1 cis(𝜃1 ) and z2 = r2 cis(𝜃2 ), then
( ) z r ( )
z1 × z2 = r1 r2 cis 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 and 1 = 1 cis 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
z2 r2
A simple way to remember these formulas is to follow

MMAA: multiply moduli, add arguments
DMSA: divide moduli, subtract arguments
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
( ) ( )
2𝜋 𝜋
If z1 = 4 cis and z2 = 5 cis , determine
3 4
z1
a. z1 × z2 b.
z2
THINK WRITE
( ) ( )
2𝜋 𝜋
a. 1. Simplify using the multiplication rule a. z1 × z2 = 4 cis × 5 cis
3 4
z1 × z2 = r1 r2 cis (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ). ( )
2𝜋 𝜋
= 4 × 5 cis +
3 4

( )
11𝜋
2. The argument lies between −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 so it does = 20 cis
not need to be simplified. 12
Express the answer in the required format.
( 2𝜋 )
z1 4 cis 3
b. 1. Simplify using the rule b. = ( )
z1 r z2 5 cis 𝜋4
= 1 cis (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ).
z2 r2 ( )
4 2𝜋 𝜋
2. The argument lies between −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 so it does = cis −
5 3 4
not need to be simplified. ( )
Express the answer in the required format. 4 5𝜋
= cis
5 12

b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On a Run-Matrix
complete the entry line screen, complete the
(4∠120) / (5∠45) entry line
2𝜋 𝜋
4∠ ÷ 5∠
3 4
2. Press the ENTER 2. Press the EXE

button. button.
The answer appears on The answer
the screen in Cartesian appears on the
form. screen in Cartesian
form.
3. To convert the answer 3. To convert the

to Polar form, select answer to polar,
CTRL select
(−) SHIFT(−)
MENU OPTN
2: Number COMPLEX
9: Complex Number ⊳ r∠𝜃
Tools
6: Convert to Polar
4. Press the ENTER 4. Press the EXE

button. button.
The answer appears on The answer
the screen. appears on the
screen in Polar form.
5.3.4 Proving identities involving the modulus and argument
The product of a complex number and its conjugate, z × z, is a real number. Consider the following where
a, b ∈ R.
zz = (a + bi) × (a − bi)
= a2 − abi + abi − b2 i2
= a2 + b2
= |z|2
This is an example of using a Cartesian approach to prove the identity zz = |z|2 .

Below is a list of some common complex number identities which can be proved using the polar form of a
complex number.
i. zz = |z|2
ii. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )
( )
| z1 | |z1 | z
iii. | | = and arg 1 = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ), z2 ≠ 0
| z2 | |z2 | z2
n n n
iv. |z | = |z| and arg(z ) = narg (z)
( )
|1| 1 1
v. | n | = n and arg n = −narg (z), z ≠ 0
| z | |z| z
vi. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
vii. z1 × z2 = z1 × z2
viii. z + z = 2Re (z)
ix. z − z = 2iIm (z)
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
a. Prove the identity z z = |z|2 using polar arithmetic.( )

𝜋
b. Verify the identity z − z = 2i Im (z) using z = 2 cis .
6
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Define the complex number z a. Let z = |z| cis (𝜃) and z = |z| cis (−𝜃)
and its conjugate z in polar form.
2. Begin with the LHS. Substitute the expressions LHS = zz( ) ( )
for z and z. = |z| cis (𝜃) × |z| cis (−𝜃)
3. Recall and apply the rule = |z| × |z| cis (𝜃 + (−𝜃))
z1 × z2 = r1 r2 cis (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) to expand zz .
4. Simply the modulus and argument components. = |z|2 cis (0)
5. Recall that cis (𝜃) is short for = |z|2 (cos (0) + i sin (0))
cos (𝜃) + i × sin (𝜃). Use exact values to = |z|2 (1 + i × 0)
evaluate cos (0) and sin (0).
6. The LHS has been simplified to |z|2 . = |z|2
= RHS
7. Finalise the proof with a suitable statement. Since the LHS = RHS then zz = |z|2 .

( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋
b. 1. Define the complex number z and its conjugate b. Let z = 2 cis and z = 2 cis −
z in polar form. 6 6
2. Begin with the LHS. Substitute the expressions LHS = z − z( ) ( )
for z and z. 𝜋 𝜋
= 2 cis − 2 cis −
6 6
( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋
Since there is no rule to follow for subtracting = 2 cos + 2 sin i −
6 6
complex numbers in polar form we must ( ( ) ( ) )
convert them into Cartesian form first. Recall 𝜋 𝜋
2 cos − + 2 sin − i
that cis (𝜃) is short for cos(𝜃) + i × sin(𝜃). 6 6
√ √
3 1 3 −1
3. Use exact values and simplify where possible. =2× +2× ×i−2× −2× i
2 2 2 2
√ √
= 3 + i − 3 + i
= 2i
4. In this case, polar arithmetic needs to be RHS = 2i Im (z)
( ( ))
applied to simplify the RHS.
( ) Make a 𝜋
= 2i Im 2 cis
𝜋 6
substitution for z = 2 cis .
6 ( ( ) ( ) )
𝜋 𝜋
5. Recall that cis (𝜃) is short for = 2i Im 2 cos + 2 sin i
cos(𝜃) + i × sin(𝜃). 6 6
( ( ))
𝜋
6. Extract the imaginary component of z. = 2i × 2 sin
6
1
7. Simplify the RHS. = 2i × 2 ×
2
= 2i
= LHS
8. Finalise the proof with a suitable statement. Since the LHS = RHS then ( )
𝜋
z − z = 2i Im (z) for z = 2 cis .
6

Complex numbers in polar form Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 5.3 Complex numbers in polar form

Technology Free
1. Determine the modulus of each of the following.
√
a. z=3+i b. z = 12 + 5i c. z = 2 + 5i
2. Calculate the Argument of z for each of the following in the interval (−𝜋, 𝜋], giving an exact answer.
√
1 3 √
a. z = 8 + 8i b. z = + i c. z = − 3 + i
2 2
√
3. a. WE6 Express 2 3 + 2i in polar form.
( )
2𝜋
b. Express 15 cis in Cartesian form.
3
1 1
c. Express − √ − i in polar form.
3 3
( )
𝜋
d. Express 4 cis − in Cartesian form.
4
( ( ) ( )) ( )
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
4. Simplify 3 cos + i sin + 4 cis , giving your answer in Cartesian form.
3 3 6
5. Express each of the following using a principal argument.
( ) ( ) ( )
7𝜋 −12𝜋 7𝜋
a. cis b. cis c. cis
4 11 5
( ) ( )
𝜋 3𝜋
6. WE7 If z1 = 2 cis and z2 = 6 cis , determine:
6 4
z2
a. z1 × z2 b.
z1
( )
7. Express each of the following in the form r cis 𝜃 where 𝜃 ∈ (−𝜋, 𝜋].
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
a. 3 cis × 4 cis b. 15 cis ÷ 5 cis
4 2 6 3
√ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
−7𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
c. 5 cis × 4 cis d. 6 cis ÷ 2 cis
12 12 4 8
√ ( ) √ ( ) ( ) ( )
3𝜋 4𝜋 −7𝜋 5𝜋
e. 7 cis − × 7 cis − f. 14 cis ÷ 7 cis
4 5 12 6
√ ( )
𝜋
8. Given u = 1 + 3i and v = 4 cis , determine each of the following, expressing your answers in
6
exact polar form where possible.
v
a. uv b. 2u − 3v c.
u( )
𝜋
9. WE8 Verify the identity z − z = 2i Im (z) using z = 3 cis .
3
10. Use polar arithmetic to prove the following identities.
a. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | b. arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )
11. Prove the following identities using a polar approach.
( )
| z1 | |z1 | z1
a. | | = b. arg = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )
| z2 | |z2 | z2
12. Prove the following identities using polar arithmetic.
a. |zn | = |z|n b. arg(zn ) = n arg(z)
( )
13. Given z = r cis 𝜃 , prove the following identities.
( )
|1| 1 1
a. | | = , z ≠ 0 b. arg = −n arg(z), z ≠ 0
| zn | |z|n zn
( ) ( )
𝜋 𝜋
14. Verify the following identities if z1 = 4 cis and z2 = 7 cis .
3 6
a. |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | b. z1 + z1 = 2Re (z1 )
( )
z1
c. arg = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ) d. arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )
z2
15. Prove the identity, z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 using polar arithmetic.

16. Prove the identity, z1 × z2 = z1 × z2 by considering all complex numbers in polar form.
17.
( ) to prove the identity, z + z = 2Re (z).
Use polar arithmetic
18. Given z = |z|cis 𝜃 , prove the identity, z − z = 2iIm (z).
( )
1 (√ ) √ 𝜋
19. a. Let u = 3 − i and v = 2 cis .
4 4
i. Determine uv, working with both numbers in Cartesian form and giving your answer in Cartesian
form.
ii. Determine uv, working with both numbers in polar form and giving your answer in polar form.
( )
𝜋
iii. Hence, deduce the exact value of sin .
12
( )
𝜋
iv. Using the formula sin(x − y), verify your exact value for sin .
12
√ ( )
2𝜋
b. Let u = 2 (1 − i) and v = 2 cis .
3
i. Determine uv, working with both numbers in Cartesian form and giving your answer in Cartesian
form.
ii. Determine uv, working with both numbers in polar form and giving your answer in polar form.
( )
5𝜋
iii. Hence, deduce the exact value of sin .
12
( )
5𝜋
iv. Using the formula sin(x − y), verify your exact value for sin .
12
5.4 De Moivre’s theorem

In the previous section you would have observed that multiplying and dividing complex numbers is a
simpler process when the complex numbers are in polar form.
The product and quotient of complex numbers can be determined using
( ) z r ( )
z1 × z2 = r1 r2 cis 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 and 1 = 1 cis 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 where r1 = |z1 | and r2 = |z2 |.
z2 r2
To calculate powers of z it is necessary to complete repeated multiplication.
Consider zn = z × z × z × ... × z (n times)
( )
Now consider the repeated multiplication of the complex number z = r cis 𝜃 .
( )
z1 = r1 cis 𝜃
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z2 = r cis 𝜃 × r cis 𝜃 = r × r cis 𝜃 + 𝜃 = r2 cis 2𝜃
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z3 = r cis 𝜃 × r cis 𝜃 × r cis 𝜃 = r3 cis 3𝜃
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z4 = r cis 𝜃 × r cis 𝜃 × r cis 𝜃 × r cis 𝜃 = r4 cis 4𝜃
This can be generalized in a form known as De Moivre’s theorem.
De Moivre’s theorem
De Moivre’s theorem states that (r cis(𝜃))n = rn cis(n𝜃), where n ∈ Z.
This theorem can be proved using mathematical induction demonstrated in the following worked example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Prove De Moivre’s theorem, (r cis(𝜃))n = rn cis(n𝜃), for positive integer values of n through the
process of mathematical induction.
THINK WRITE
1. State the proposition. Let P (n) be the proposition that
(r cis (𝜃))n = rn cis (n𝜃), n ∈ N, n ≥ 1.
2. State what is required to RTP: Both P (1) is true and P (k + 1) is true given P (k) is
prove (RTP). true.
3. Test for when n = 1. n = 1; LHS = (r cis (𝜃))1
= r cis (𝜃)
RHS = r1 cis (1 × 𝜃)
= r cis (𝜃)
LHS = RHS ⇒ P (1) is true.
4. Assume the theorem is true Assume P (k) is true k ∈ N, k ≥ 1
for n = k. (r cis (𝜃))k = rk cis (k𝜃)
[ ]k
r (cos 𝜃 + i sin 𝜃) = rk (cos k𝜃 + i sin k𝜃)
5. Rewrite De Moivre’s RTP: (r cis (𝜃))k+1 = rk+1 cis ((k + 1) 𝜃)
theorem for when n = k + 1.
6. Approach the proof by LHS:
considering the LHS. (r cis (𝜃))k+1 = (r cis (𝜃))k × (r cis (𝜃))1
= rk cis (k𝜃) × r1 cis (𝜃)1
= rk+1 (cos(k𝜃) + i sin(k𝜃)) (cos(𝜃) + i sin(𝜃))
( )
cos(k𝜃) cos(𝜃) + cos(k𝜃) i sin(𝜃)
= rk+1
+i sin(k𝜃) cos(𝜃) + i2 sin(k𝜃) sin(𝜃)
⎛(cos(k𝜃) cos(𝜃) ) ⎞
( − sin(k𝜃) sin(𝜃))
7. Simplify by grouping the real = rk+1 ⎜ cos(k𝜃) sin(𝜃) ⎟
⎜ +i ⎟
and imaginary components. ⎝ + sin(k𝜃) cos(𝜃) ⎠

8. Recall the trigonometric = rk+1 (cos(k𝜃 + 𝜃) + i sin(k𝜃 + 𝜃))
identities used in = rk+1 (cos((k + 1) 𝜃) + i sin((k + 1) 𝜃))
Section 5.3.3. The HCF is 𝜃
= rk+1 cis ((k + 1) 𝜃)
so simplify by factorising.
= RHS of P (k + 1)
That is P (k + 1) is true whenever P (k) is true.
9. Write the answer. By the principle of mathematical inductionit is true for all
values of n. That is, (r cis (𝜃))n = rn cis (n𝜃) is true for all
values of n ∈ N, n ≥ 1.
De Moivre’s theorem is also applicable for negative integer values of n. A proof will not be conducted
here, however an opportunity to do so exists in Exercise 5.4.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Simplify the following using De Moivre’s theorem.
( ( ))5 ( ( ))−3
𝜋 2𝜋
a. 3 cis b. 8 cis
4 3
THINK WRITE
( ( ))5 ( )
𝜋 5 𝜋
a. 1. Use De Moivre’s theorem for calculating the result a. 3 cis = 3 cis 5 ×
of raising a complex number to a power. 4 4
( )
3𝜋
2. Evaluate 35 and convert the angle into a principal = 243 cis −
value. 4
5𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋
= − 2𝜋 = − .
4 4 4 ( ( ))−3 ( )
2𝜋 −3 2𝜋
b. 1. Use De Moivre’s theorem for calculating the result b. 8 cis = 8 cis −3 ×
of raising a complex number to a power. 3 3
( )
1 2𝜋
2. Use index laws to help simplify 8−3 and simplify = 3 cis −3 ×
the argument. 8 3
1
3. Express the angle as a principal value. =
cis (−2𝜋)
512
1
= cis (0)
512
1 1
4. Write r cis (𝜃) in expanded form to simplify further. = cos(0) + i × sin(0)
512 512
1
=
512
a. 1. On a Calculator page, a. 1. On a Run-Matrix
complete the entry line screen,
(3∠45)5 complete the entry
( )5
𝜋
line 3∠
4

The answer appears on on the screen in
the screen in Cartesian Cartesian form.
form.
3. Convert the answer to 3. To convert the answer

Polar form. to polar form,
The answer appears on select
the screen. SHIFT(−)
OPTN
COMPLEX
⊳ r∠𝜃
4. Press the EXE button.

The answer appears
on the screen.
Units 3&4 Area 3 Sequence 1 Concept 3

De Moivre’s theorem Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 5.4 De Moivre’s theorem

Technology Free
( ( ))n ( )
1. WE9 Prove De Moivre’s theorem, r cis 𝜃 = rn cis n𝜃 , for negative integer values of n through
the process of mathematical induction.
2. Simplify the following using De Moivre’s theorem.
WE10
( ( ))5 ( ( ))6 ( ( ))−4 ( ( ))−6
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
a. 2 cis b. 3 cis − c. 3 cis d. cis −
4 4 6 3
3. Use De Moivre’s theorem to simplify each of the following.
( ( ))5 ( ( ))6 ( ( ))5 ( ( ))−3
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
a. 2 cis × 3 cis b. 4 cis × 2 cis
4 8 4 6

4. Use De Moivre’s theorem to simplify each of the following.
( ( ))4 ( ( ))7
𝜋 2𝜋
3 cis 4 cis
3 3
a. ( ( ))3 b. ( ( ))−6
𝜋 3𝜋
cis − 2 cis −
3 5
5. Use De Moivre’s theorem to express the following in the form a + bi.
(√ √ )−6
4
a. (2 − 2i) b. 2 + 6i
6. Determine the integer values for a and b that satisfy the following equation
( √ )7 √
1 − 3i = a + b 3i.
(( )4 ( )4 )
4 + 4i 1
7. If 4 − = a + bi, determine the value of a and b.
1−i 1+i
( √ )n ( √ )n
8. Determine all values of n such that − 3 + 1 + − 3 − i = 0.
9. a. If z = 2 + 2i, determine each of the
( following.
)
i. z8 ii. Arg z8
√
b. If z = −3 3 + 3i, calculate each of the following.
( )
i. z6 ii. Arg z6
( )
10. If z = cis 𝜃 , show that
( )
𝜃 𝜃
a. |z + 1| = 2 cos b. Arg (1 + z) =
2 2
( ( ))2 ( )
11. a. By considering the real and imaginary parts of the equation cis 𝜃 = cis 2𝜃 , show that
( ) ( ) 2
( )
i. cos 2𝜃 = cos2 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
( ) ( ) ( )
ii. sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
( ( ))3 ( )
b. By considering the real and imaginary parts of the equation cis 𝜃 = cis 3𝜃 , show that
( ) ( ) ( )
i. cos 3𝜃 = 4 cos3 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃
( ) ( ) 3
( )
ii. sin 3𝜃 = 3 sin 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃
5.5 The complex plane (the Argand plane)
In previous sections, complex numbers have been used to represent points on the Argand plane. If we
consider z as a complex variable, we can sketch subsets or regions on the Argand plane.
In this section, z = a + bi will be expressed as z = x + yi.
5.5.1 Circles √
The equation |z| = r where z = x + yi can be rewritten as x2 + y2 = r Im(z)
(by definition of the modulus of z). Squaring both sides yields x2 + y2 = r2 . r
|z| = r
This represents a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r. Geometrically,
|z| = r represents the set of points, or what is called the locus of points,
on the Argand plane that are at r units from the origin. r
–r 0 Re(z)
–r
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: |z + 2 − 3i| = 4}.
THINK WRITE
1. Consider the equation. |z + 2 − 3i| = 4
Substitute z = x + yi into the given statement. |x + yi + 2 − 3i| = 4
2. Group the real and imaginary parts. |(x + 2) + i(y − 3)| = 4
√
3. Recall√that if z = x + yi then (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4
|z| = x2 + y2 .
4. Square both sides. (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 16
The equation represents a circle with
centre (−2, 3) and radius 4.
5. Sketch and identify the graph on the Argand plane. Im(z)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3
5.5.2 Lines
If z = x + yi, then Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y. The equation a Re(z) + bIm(z) = c where a, b and c ∈ R
represents the line ax + by = c.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: 2Re(z) − 3Im(z) = 6}.
THINK WRITE
1. Consider the equation. 2Re(z) − 3Im(z) = 6,
As z = x + yi, then Re(z) = x and
Im(z) = y.
This is a straight line with the
Cartesian equation 2x − 3y = 6.
2. Determine the axial intercepts. When y = 0, 2x = 6 ⇒ x = 3.
(3, 0) is the intercept with the real axis.
When x = 0, −3y = 6 ⇒ y = −2.
(0, −2) is the intercept with the
imaginary axis.
3. Identify and sketch the equation. The equation represents the line
2x − 3y = 6.
Im(z)
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3
–4
Lines in the complex plane can also be represented as a set of points that are equidistant from two other
fixed points. The equations of a line in the complex plane can thus have multiple representations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: |z − 2i| = |z + 2|}.
THINK WRITE
1. Consider the equation as a set of points. |z − 2i| = |z + 2|
Substitute z = x + yi into the given statement. |x + yi − 2i| = |x + yi + 2|
2. Group the real and imaginary parts together. |x + (y − 2)i| = |(x + 2) + yi|
√ √ √
3. Recall that if z = x + yi then |z| = x2 + y2 . x2 + (y − 2)2 = (x + 2)2 + y2
4. Square both sides, expand, and cancel like terms. x2 + y2 − 4y + 4 = x2 + 4x + 4 + y2
−4y = 4x
5. Identify the required line. y = −x
6. Identify the line geometrically. The line is the set of points that is
equidistant from the two points (0, 2)
and (−2, 0).
7. Sketch the required line. Im(z)
3
(0,2)
2
(–2,0) 1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3
5.5.3 Intersection of lines and circles

The coordinates of the points of intersection between a straight line and a circle can be found algebraically
by solving the system of equations. If there are two solutions to the equations, the line intersects the circle at
two points. If there is one solution to the equation, the line and the circle touch at one point, and the line is a
tangent to the circle at the point of contact. If there are no solutions to the equations, the line does not
intersect the circle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
a. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 5} and
T = {z: 2Re(z) − Im(z) = 10}. Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection
between S and T.
b. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 3} and
T = {z: 2Re(z) − Im(z) = k}. Determine the values of k for which the line
through T is a tangent to the circle S.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Find the Cartesian equation of S. a. |z| = 5
Substitute z = x + yi into the statement. |x + yi| = 5
√ √
2. Recall that if z = x + yi then |z| = x2 + y2 . x2 + y2 = 5
3. Square both sides and identify the boundary of S. x + y2 = 25
2
[1]
S is a circle with centre (0, 0) and
radius 5.
4. Find the Cartesian equation of T. Substitute z = x + yi:
Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y
2Re(z) − Im(z) = 10
2x − y = 10 [2]
T is a straight line.
5. Solve equations [1] and [2] for x and y by y = 2x − 10 [2]
2 2
substitution. x + (2x − 10) = 25 [1]

6. Expand and simplify. x2 + 4x2 − 40x + 100 = 25
5x2 − 40x + 75 = 0
5(x2 − 8x + 15) = 0
7. Solve for x. x2 − 8x + 15 = 0
(x − 5)(x − 3) = 0
x = 5 or x = 3
8. Find the corresponding y-values. From y = 2x − 10 [2],
when x = 5 ⇒ y = 0
and when x = 3 ⇒ y = −4.
9. State the coordinates of the two points of The points of intersection are (5, 0)
intersection. and (3, −4).
b. 1. Find the Cartesian equation of S. b. |z| = 3
Substitute z = x + yi into the statement. |x + yi| = 3
√ √
2. Recall that if z = x + yi then |z| = x2 + y2 . x2 + y2 = 3
3. Square both sides and identify the boundary of S. x + y2 = 9
2
[1]
S is a circle with centre (0, 0) and
radius 3.
4. Find the Cartesian equation of T. Substitute z = x + yi:
Re(z) = x and Im(z) = y
2Re(z) − Im(z) = 2x − y = k [2]
T is a straight line.
5. Solve equations [1] and [2] for x and y by y = 2x − k [2]
substitution. x2 + (2x − k)2 = 9 [1]
6. Expand and simplify. x2 + 4x2 − 4kx + k2 = 9
5x2 − 4kx + k2 − 9 = 0
7. If the line through T is a tangent to the circle S, The discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac = 0,
there will be only one solution for x. For a quadratic where
equation, one solution can be found by determining a = 5, b = −4k and c = k2 − 9.
when the discriminant = 0. Δ = (−4k)2 − 4 × 5 × (k2 − 9)
= 16k2 − 20(k2 − 9)
= −4k2 + 180
= 4(45 − k2 )
8. Solve the discriminant equal to zero for k. 45 − k2 = 0
√
k = ± 45
√
9. State the value of k for which the line through T is k = ±3 5
a tangent to the circle S.
5.5.4 Rays
Arg(z) = 𝜃 represents the set of all points on the half-line or ray that has one end at the origin and makes an
angle of 𝜃 with the positive real axis. Note that the endpoint, in this case the origin, is not included in the set.
We indicate this by placing a small open circle at this point.
Im(z)
Arg(z) = θ
θ
O Re(z)
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
{ }
𝜋
Determine the Cartesian equation and sketch the graph defined by z: Arg (z − 1 + i) = − .
4
THINK WRITE
𝜋
1. Find the Cartesian equation of the ray. Arg(z − 1 + i) = −
Substitute z = x + yi into the statement. 4
𝜋
Arg(x + yi − 1 + i) = −
4
𝜋
2. Group the real and imaginary parts. Arg((x − 1) + (y + 1)i) = −
4
( )
y+1 𝜋
3. Use the definition of the ( ) tan−1 = − for x > 1
y x−1 4
argument.Arg(z) = tan−1 .
x ( )
y+1 𝜋
4. Simplify by taking the tangent of both sides = tan −
then use your knowledge x−1 4
( )of exact values of y+1
𝜋 = −1 for x > 1
tan to evaluate tan − . x−1
4
y + 1 = −(x − 1) for x > 1
5. State the Cartesian equation of the ray. y = −x for x > 1.
𝜋
6. Rewrite the original statement in the form Arg (z − 1 + i) = − becomes
Arg(z − 𝛼) to identify the point from which 4
𝜋
the ray starts. Arg (z − (1 − i)) = −
4
The ray starts from the point (1, −1).
𝜋
7. Determine the angle the ray makes. The ray makes an angle of − with the
4
positive real axis.
8. Describe the ray. The point (1, −1) is not included.
Alternatively, consider the ray from the
𝜋
origin making an angle of − with the
4
positive real axis to have been translated
one unit to the right parallel to the real
axis, and one unit down parallel to the
imaginary axis.

9. Sketch the required ray. Im(z)
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3

The complex plane (the Argand plane) Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 5.5 The complex plane (the Argand plane)

Technology Free
1. WE11 Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: |z − 3 + 2i| = 4}.
2. The region of the complex plane shown below can be described by {z: |z − (a + bi) | = r}. Find the
values of a, b and r.
Im(z)
2
1
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
3. WE12Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: 4Re(z) + 3Im(z) = 12}.
4. The region of the complex plane shown can be described by {z: aRe(z) + bIm(z) = 8}. Determine the
values of a and b.
Im(z)
5
4
3
2
1
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3
–4
5. WE13 Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: |z + 3i| = |z − 3|}.
6. Sketch and describe the region of the complex plane defined by {z: |z − i| = |z + 3i|}.
7. a. WE14 Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 3} and
T = {z: 3Re(z) − 4Im(z) = 12}. Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection between
S and T.
T = {z: 4Re(z) − 2Im(z) = k}. Determine the values of k for which the line through T is a tangent to
the circle S. √
8. a. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 29} and
T = {z: 3Re(z) − Im(z) = 1}. Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection between S
and T.
the circle S.
𝜋
9. WE15 Determine the Cartesian equation and sketch the graph defined by {z: Arg(z − 2) = }.
6
𝜋
10. Determine the Cartesian equation and sketch the graph defined by {z: Arg(z + 3i) = − }.
2
11. For each of the following, sketch and determine the Cartesian equation of the set, and describe the region.
a. {z: |z| = 3} b. {z: |z| = 2} c. {z: |z + 2 − 3i| = 2} d. {z: |z − 3 + i| = 3}
12. Illustrate each of the following and describe the subset of the complex plane.
a. {z: Im(z) = 2} b. {z: Re (z) + 2Im(z) = 4}
c. {z: 3Re(z) + 2Im(z) = 6} d. {z: 2Re(z) − Im(z) = 6}
13. Sketch and describe each of the following sets, clearly indicating which boundaries are included.
a. {z: |z − 2| = |z − 4|} b. {z: |z + 4i| = |z − 4|}
c. {z: |z + 4| = |z − 2i|} d. {z: |z + 2 − 3i| = |z − 2 + 3i|}
( )
z − 2i
14. a. Show that the complex equation {z: Im = 0} represents a straight line and determine its
z−3
equation.
( )
z − 2i
b. Show that the complex equation {z: Re = 0} represents a circle and determine its centre
z−3
and radius.
15. a. Determine the Cartesian equation of {z: |z − 3| = 2|z + 3i|}.
b. Determine the locus of the set of points in the complex plane given by {z: |z + 3| = 2|z + 6i|}.
c. Let S = {z: |z − 6| = 2|z − 3i|} and T = {z: |z − (a + bi)| = r}. Given that S = T, calculate the
values of a, b and r.
d. Let {z: |z + 3| = 2|z − 3i|} and T = {z: |z − (a + bi)| = r}. Given that S = T, calculatethe values of
a, b and r.

16. Four sets of points in the complex plane are defined by R = {z: (z − 3 + 4i) (z − 3 − 4i) = 25},
S = {z: |z − 3 + 4i| = 5}, T = {z: 3Re(z) − 4Im(z) = 25} and U = {z: |z| = |z − 6 + 8i|}.
a. Determine the Cartesian equations of T and U and show that T = U.
b. Determine the Cartesian equations of S and R and show that S = R.
c. Sketch S and T on one Argand plane and determine u : S = R where u ∈ C.
17. a. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 3} and
T = {z: 3Re(z) + 4Im(z) = 15}. Show that the line T is a tangent to the circle S and determine the
coordinates of the point of contact.
b. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = r} and
T = {z: 3Re(z) − 4Im(z) = 10}. Given that the line T is a tangent to the circle S, determine the value
of r.
c. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 6} and
T = {z: 3Im(z) − 4Re(z) = 8}. Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection between S and
T.
d. Two sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z| = 6} and
the circle S.
18. Sketch and describe the following subsets of the complex plane.
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
a. {z: Arg(z) = } b. {z: Arg (z + i) = } c. {z: Arg (z − 2) = } d. {z: Arg (z + 2 − i) = − }
6 4 4 2
𝜋
19. a. Let S = {z: |z| = 2} and T = {z: Arg(z) = }. Sketch the sets S and T on the same Argand diagram
4
and calculate z: S = T.
𝜋
b. Let S = {z: |z| = 3} and T = {z: Arg(z) = − }. Sketch the sets S and T on the same Argand diagram
4
and calculate z: S = T.
c. Sets of points in the complex plane are defined by S = {z: |z + 3 + i| = 5} and
3𝜋
R = {z: Arg(z + 3) = − }
4
i. Determine the Cartesian equation of S.
ii. Determine the Cartesian equation of R.
iii. If u ∈ C, calculate u where S = R.
20. a. Show that the complex equation |z − a|2 − |z − bi|2 = a2 + b2 , where a and b are real and b ≠ 0,
represents a line.
b. Show that the complex equation |z − a|2 + |z − bi|2 = a2 + b2 , where a and b are real, represents
a circle, and determine its centre and radius.
c. Show that the complex equation 3zz + 6z + 6z + 2 = 0 represents a circle, and determine its centre
and radius.
d. Consider the complex equation azz + bz + bz + c = 0 where a, b and c are real.
i. If b2 > ac and a ≠ 0, what does the equation represent?
ii. If a = 0 and b ≠ 0, what does the equation represent?
e. Show that the complex equation zz + (3 + 2i)z + (3 − 2i)z + 4 = 0 represents a circle, and
determine its centre and radius.
f. Consider the complex equation azz + bz + bz + c = 0 where a and c are real and b = 𝛼 + 𝛽i is
complex. Show that the equation represents a circle provided bb > ac and a ≠ 0, and determine the
circle’s centre and radius. ( )
z − ai
21. a. Show that the complex equation {z: Im = 0} where a and b are real represents a straight
z−b
line if ab ≠ 0. ( )
z − ai
b. Show that the complex equation {z: Re = 0} where a and b are real represents a circle if
z−b
ab ≠ 0. State the circle’s centre and radius.
5.6 Roots of complex numbers
5.6.1 Determine and examine the nth roots of complex numbers.
In Section 5.4, we(considered
) raising complex numbers in polar form to integer powers.
Given z = r cis 𝜃 , integer powers of z were calculated using De Moivre’s theorem where
( )
z = rn cis n𝜃 . The focus in this section is to find the solutions (or roots) to the equation zn = w, where
n
w ∈ C. That is, given zn , we are interested in calculating z, defined as an nth root of zn .

Consider the equation
( ) zn = w. ( )
Let z = r1 cis 𝜙 and w = r2 cis 𝜃
( ( ))n ( )
∴ r1 cis 𝜙 = r2 cis 𝜃
Applying De Moivre’s theorem,

( ( ) ( )) ( ( ) ( ))
rn1 cos n 𝜙 + i sin n 𝜙 = r2 cos 𝜃 + i sin 𝜃
Now equate the moduli and arguments from the left- and right-hand sides.
Modulus: Argument:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
rn1 = r2 cos n𝜙 + i sin(n𝜙) = cos( 𝜃) + i sin 𝜃
√ cis n𝜙 = cis 𝜃
∴r1 = n r2
1 n𝜙 = 𝜃 + 2k𝜋 where k ∈ Z
= (r2 ) n 𝜃 + 2k𝜋
𝜙= where k ∈ Z
n
The investigation above illustrates that if zn = w where z, w ∈ C and n ∈ N, the equation has n distinct
solutions, in which z is termed an nth root of w.
Because the solutions start repeating, we keep using k until n solutions are found. The roots are generally
denoted as z1 , z2 , ....zn where z1 represents the first root. The first root is commonly known as the principal
nth root of the complex number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
( )
2 𝜋
Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve z = 4 cis for z.
3
THINK WRITE
√ (𝜋 )
2 3 + 2k𝜋
1. Use De Moivre’s theorem. z = 4 cis
2
( )
𝜋
2. Simplify the modulus and argument. z = 2 cis + k𝜋
6
( )
𝜋
3. Let k = 0 to calculate the first root. Let k = 0, z1 = 2 cis +0×𝜋
6
( )
𝜋
= 2 cis
6

( )
𝜋
4. Let k = 1 to calculate the second root. Let k = 1, z2 = 2 cis +1×𝜋
6
( )
7𝜋
= 2 cis
6
( )
5𝜋
= 2 cis −
6
( ) ( )
𝜋 5𝜋
5. State both answers. z1 = 2 cis , z2 = 2 cis −
6 6
√ √
In cartesian form the roots are given by z1 = 3 + i and z2 = − 3 − i. Plotting the solutions on the
Argand plane, it can be seen that the roots to the equation lie on a circle with a radius of 2. The two solutions
are separated around the circle by 180°. Although there are two roots, they are not complex conjugates of
one another.
Im(z)
2
π z = 3+i
–
6
–2 0 2 Re(z)
5π
z = – 3 –i – ––
6
–2
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
√
a. If z3 = 4 − 4 3 i, solve the equation for z using a polar method.
b. Plot the solutions on an Argand diagram and comment on their location.
THINK WRITE
√
( √ )2
a. 1. Express z in polar form a. |z| = (4)2 + −4 3
(z = r cis (𝜃)). |z| = 8 ( √ )
−4 3
𝜃 = tan−1
4
−𝜋
𝜃=
3
√ ( )
−𝜋
∴ z = 4 − 4 3i = 8 cis
3
( )
𝜋
z3 = 8 cis −
3
√ ( 𝜋 )
3 − 3 + 2k𝜋
2. Use De Moivre’s theorem. z= 8 cis
3
( )
−𝜋 2k𝜋
3. Simplify the modulus and z = 2 cis +
argument. 9 3
( )
−𝜋 2 × 0 × 𝜋
4. Let k = 0 to calculate the first root. Let k = 0, z1 = 2 cis +
9 3
Convert z1 to standard form. ( )
−𝜋
= 2 cis
9
≈ 1.879(− 0.684i )
−𝜋 2 × 1 × 𝜋
5. Let k = 1 to calculate the second Let k = 1, z2 = 2 cis +
9 3
root. ( )
Convert z2 to standard form. 5𝜋
= 2 cis
9
≈ −0.347( + 1.970i )
−𝜋 2 × 2 × 𝜋
6. Let k = 2 to calculate the third root. Let k = 2, z3 = 2 cis +
9 3
Convert z3 to standard form. ( )
−7𝜋
= 2 cis
9
( ≈)−1.532(− 1.286i ) ( )
𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
State all answers. z = 2 cis − , 2 cis and 2 cis −
9 9 9
b. Use the Cartesian form to plot the b. Im(z)
solutions on an Argand diagram. 3
z2 2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
z1
–1
z3
–2
–3
The three roots are equally spaced around a circle of

radius 2.
2𝜋
The angle between each solution is (120°).
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
In the previous worked example there were 3 solutions that were evenly spaced by = . Consider
n 3
the problem below in which the fourth roots of a complex number are determined.

√ Im(z)
z4 = −8 + 8 3i 3
√ z3 = –1 + √3i 2
⎧ z1 = 3+i
⎪ √
⎪z2 = − 3 − i 1 z1 = √ 3 + i
Solutions √
⎨z = −1 + 3i
⎪ 3
√
⎪ –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
⎩z4 = 1 − 3i
–1
z2 = – √ 3 – i
–2 z4 = 1 – √3i
–3
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
In the above case there are 4 solutions that were evenly spaced by = = . In general, equations
n 4 2
in the form if zn = w where z, w ∈ C and n ∈ N, have the following properties.
Solutions of zn = w
( )
n
√
n 𝜃 + 2k𝜋
Solutions to z = w where w ∈ C are in the form z = r cis , k = 0, 1, 2... , n − 1.
n
√
The solutions are equidistant from the origin and lie on a circle of radius n r.
2𝜋
The solutions are evenly spaced around the circle with the arguments differing by .
n
The following example demonstrates an alternative method for solving equations of the form zn = w
where w ∈ C.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Solve z2 = 3 − 4i using a Cartesian approach.

THINK WRITE
1. Express z in Cartesian form and substitute this into z = a + bi
the equation. (a + bi)2 = 3 − 4i
2
2. Expand the brackets using (a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2 a2 + 2abi + b2 i2 = 3 − 4i
and use i2 = −1 to simplify the equation. a2 − b2 + 2abi = 3 − 4i
3. Equate the coefficients of the real parts and the a2 − b2 = 3 and 2ab = −4
imaginary parts.
2
4. Rearrange 2ab = −4 for b. 2ab = −4 ⇒ b = −
a
( )2
2 2 2 2
5. Substitute this new equation into a − b = 3 and a − − =3
simplify. a
4
a2 − =3
a2
6. Multiply through by a2 . a4 − 4 = 3a2
a4 − 3a2 − 4 = 0
( 2 )2 ( )
7. Factorise this quartic by identifying the hidden a − 3 a2 − 4 = 0
quadratic equation. ( 2 )( )
a − 4 a2 + 1 = 0
8. Use the null factor theorem to calculate the answers a2 − 4 = 0 or a2 + 1 = 0
for a. Recall that for any complex number (a − 2) (a + 2) = 0 since a, b ∈ R
z = a + bi that a, b ∈ R. this means we can ignore ∴ a = 2 or a = −2
any solutions to (a2 + 1) = 0.
9. Determine the corresponding values of b for each When a = 2, b = −1 and when
values of a. a = −2, b = 1.
10. State the solutions to the equation. The solutions to the equation
z2 = 3 − 4i are z = 2 − i and
z = −2 + i.
5.6.2 Determine and examine the nth roots of unity

Since 1 = 1 + 0i = cis (0), De Moivre’s theorem is often Im(z)
n
used to solve equations in the form z = 1. The solutions 1.5
th
to this form of an equation and are known as the n roots z3
of 1 (unity). When interpreting the solutions geometrically, 1
z4 z2
the roots represent the n vertices of a regular polygon
0.5
of n sides inscribed inside a circle of radius one. This circle
is referred to as the unit circle defined by the equation |z| = 1. z5 z1
Using our knowledge of solving equations of the form –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 Re(z)
n
z = w where w ∈ C, we can deduce that the solutions to –0.5
the equation z8 = 1 where z ∈ C will lie on a circle of z6 z8
𝜋 –1 z
radius 1 and be evenly spaced around the circle by . 7
4
The eight 8th roots of 1 can be interpreted geometrically –1.5
using an Argand diagram.
√ (1 1 ) √ (1 1 ) √ ( 1 1 )
The solution set is z ∈ {1, −1, i, −i, 2 − i , 2 + i , 2 − + i ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ ( 1 1)
2 − − i }. If you were to examine the non-real roots you will find that they occur as conjugate
2 2
pairs. In this case, n is even so there are two real roots {1, −1}. If n is odd, the only real root will be 1 and the
other roots will be imaginary occurring as conjugate pairs.
If zn = 1, where z ∈ C and n ∈ N, then the nth roots of 1 (unity) are given by
( )
2k𝜋
z = cis , k = 0, 1, 2 . . . , n − 1.
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
a. Determine all solutions to the equation, z3 = 1, over C. Express the solutions in polar form.
b. Represent these solutions using a polar grid.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Express 1 in polar form. a. 1 = cis (0)
2. Use De Moivre’s theorem. z3 = cis (0)

√ ( )
3 0 + 2k𝜋
z= 1 cis
3
( )
2k𝜋
3. Simplify the modulus and argument. z = 1 cis
3
( )
2×0×𝜋
4. Let k = 0 to calculate the first root. Let k = 0, z1 = cis
3
= cis (0)
=1 ( )
2×1×𝜋
5. Let k = 1 to calculate the second root. Let k = 1, z2 = cis
3
( )
2𝜋
= cis
3
( )
2×2×𝜋
6. Let k = 2 to calculate the third root. Let k = 2, z3 = cis
3
( )
−2𝜋
= 2 cis
3
b. Plot the three roots on a polar grid. The circle has b. Im(z) π
2 2
2π π
a centre (0, 0) and radius, r = 1. 3 3
2𝜋
The three solutions are spaced by .
3 5π π
6 1 6
z2
π z1 0
–2 –1 0 1 2 Re(z)
z3
7π –1 11π
6 6
4π 5π
3 –2 3
3π
2
Note: If you were to construct lines between the three solutions, an equilateral triangle would be formed.
5.6.3 Solving zn = a where a ∈ R

Equations of the form zn = a where a ∈ R, can be solved in the same way in which equations of the form
zn = w where w ∈ C were solved. That is, if
zn = a, a ∈ R and ( n ∈ N, )
1 𝜃 + 2k𝜋
then z = |a| n cis , k = 0, 1, 2, . . ., n − 1.
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
{ }
Determine the solutions to z: z3 = −27 , stating the solution set in Cartesian form.
THINK WRITE
1. Express −27 in polar form. −27 = | − 27| cis (𝜋)
= 27 cis (𝜋)
2. Use De Moivre’s theorem. z3 = 27 cis (𝜋)
√ ( )
3 𝜋 + 2k𝜋
z = 27 cis
3
( )
𝜋 + 2k𝜋
z = 3 cis
3
3. Let k = 0 to calculate the first root. Let k = 0,( )
𝜋+2×0×𝜋
z1 = 3 cis
3
( )
𝜋
= 3 cis
3
4. Let k = 1 to calculate the second root. Let k = 1,( )
𝜋+2×1×𝜋
z2 = 3 cis
3
= 3 cis (𝜋)
5. Let k = 2 to calculate the third root. Let k = 2,( )
𝜋+2×2×𝜋
z1 = 3 cis
3
( )
5𝜋
= 3 cis
3
( )
𝜋
= 3 cis −
3
√ √
3 3 3 3 3 3
6. State the solution set in Cartesian form. Note that z1 = + i, z2 = −3, z3 = − i
the imaginary roots occur as a conjugate pair. 2 2 2 2

Roots of complex numbers Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 5.6 Roots of complex numbers

Technology Free
( )
2 𝜋
1. Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve z = 5 cis
WE16 for z.
6
( )
2𝜋
2. Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve z3 = 27 cis for z.
3

( )
4 −3𝜋
3. Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve z = 16 cis for z.
4
√
4. a. WE17 If z3 = −1 − 3i, solve the equation for z using a polar method.
5. a. If z4 = −5 − 5i, solve the equation for z using a polar method.
√
6. a. If z6 = 3 + 3i, solve the equation for z using a polar method.
7. Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve for z in the following cases.
a. z3 = i √ b. z4 = 64i
8. WE18 Solve z2 = 2 + 2 3i using a Cartesian approach.
9. Use the solutions from Worked Example 19 to verify that the product of the three cube roots of 1 is 1.
10. WE19
a. Determine all solutions to the equation, z4 = 1, over C. Express the solutions in polar form.
11. Use the solutions from Question 9 to verify that the sum of the four fourth roots of 1 is 0.
12. a. Determine all solutions to the equation, z5 = 1, over C. Express the solutions in polar form.
13. The solutions from Question 11 can defined as 𝜔0 , 𝜔1 , 𝜔2 , 𝜔3 and 𝜔4 . Describe how these solutions
would compare to the solutions to the equation, z5 = 10, over C.
14. WE20 Determine the solutions to the following equations, stating the solution set in Cartesian form.
a. z3 = 8 b. z4 = 256
10
15. Plot the solutions to z = 1 on a polar grid without determining the solutions using De Moivre’s
theorem.
5.7 Factorisation of polynomials

5.7.1 The fundamental theorem of algebra
A polynomial in z is an expression of the form P (z) = an zn + an−1 zn−1 + an−2 zn−2 + . . . + a1 z + a0 ,
where n ∈ N is the degree (highest power) of P(z) and an (with an ≠ 0) are the coefficients.
If an ∈ R, that is, all the coefficients are real, then P(z) is said to be a polynomial over R. Similarly, if at
least one of the an is complex, P(z) is said to be a polynomial over C.
For example, P (z) = 3z4 − 5z2 + 6 is a polynomial of degree 4 over R and P (z) = 2iz3 + 3z2 − 8i is a
polynomial of degree 3 over C.
If a polynomial P(x) has (x − a) as a factor, then P(x) can be written P (x) = (x − a) Q (x). From this it is
clear that P (a) = (a − a) Q (a) = 0. The converse can also be shown to be true; that is, if P (a) = 0 then
(x − a) is a factor of P(x). This result is known as the factor theorem.
Factor theorem: If P (a) = 0 then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).
The fundamental theorem of algebra
The fundamental theorem of algebra

In 1799 the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss proved that every polynomial over C
has at least one solution that is a complex number.
That is, if Pn (z) is a polynomial of degree n over C, then there exists a z1 ∈ C such that Pn (z1 ) = 0. This
important result can be used to show that a polynomial of degree n, with n ∈ N, has n solutions.
The proof relies on a repeated application of the fundamental theorem of algebra and the factor theorem.
Firstly, the fundamental theorem of algebra guarantees that there is a z1 ∈ C such that Pn (z1 ) = 0. The
factor theorem states that if Pn (z1 ) = 0 for some z1 then (z − z1 ) is a factor of Pn (z) so that
Pn (z) = (z − z1 )Pn−1 (z), where Pn−1 (z) is a polynomial of degree n − 1.
Now by applying the fundamental theorem of algebra to Pn−1 (z) there is a z2 ∈ C such that Pn−1 (z2 ) = 0
and the factor theorem ensures that Pn−1 (z) = (z − z2 )Pn−2 (z).
Hence Pn (z) = (z − z1 )(z − z2 )Pn−2 (z). By applying this method to each successive polynomial we can
state the following:
Implications of the fundamental theorem of algebra

A polynomial of degree n will always have exactly n linear factors. That is;
Pn (z) = (z − z1 )(z − z2 )(z − z3 ) . . . (z − zn )P0 (z)
where z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . , zn ∈ C and P0 (z) is a constant.
Note: Although n solutions are obtained, the fundamental theorem of algebra does not prescribe that they
are necessarily distinct.
5.7.2 Solving quadratic equations

Recall the quadratic equation az2 + bz + c = 0. If the coefficients a, b and c are all real, then the roots
depend upon the discriminant, ∆ = b2 − 4ac.
If ∆ > 0, then there are two distinct real roots.
If ∆ = 0, then there is one real root.
If ∆ < 0, then there is one pair of complex conjugate roots.
Relationship between the roots and coefficients

Given a quadratic equation with real coefficients, if the discriminant is negative, then the roots occur in
complex conjugate pairs. A relationship can be formed between the roots and the coefficients.
Given a quadratic az2 + bz + c = 0, if a ≠ 0, then
b c
z2 + z + = 0.
a a
Let the roots be 𝛼 and 𝛽, so the factors are
(z − 𝛼)(z − 𝛽).
Expanding gives
z2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)z + 𝛼𝛽 = 0 or
z2 − (sum of the roots) + (product of the roots) = 0

so that
b c
𝛼+𝛽 =− and 𝛼𝛽 = .
a a
This provides a relationship between the roots and coefficients.
Rather than solving a quadratic equation, consider the reverse problem of forming a quadratic equation
with real coefficients, given one of the roots.
A polynomial equation P (z) = 0 can be solved by first factorising P (z) so that:
if P (z) = (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) . . . (z − zn ) = 0
then z = z1 , z2 , . . ., zn .

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Solve z2 + 6z + 13 = 0 over C using the completing the square method.
THINK WRITE
1. Use the ‘complete the square’ method. 0 = z2 + 6z + 13
0 = z2 + 6z + 9 − 9 + 13
0 = (z + 3)2 + 4
2. Express the RHS as the difference of
( 2two squares
) 0 = (z + 3)2 − 4i2
by converting 4 into complex form i = −1 . 0 = (z + 3)2 − (2i)2
Write the expression in brackets as a quadratic. 0 = (z + 3 + 2i) (z + 3 − 2i)
3. Apply the null factor theorem to state the solutions. (z + 3 + 2i) = 0 or (z + 3 − 2i) = 0
The roots occur as a pair complex
conjugates: z = −3 − 2i, −3 + 2i.
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Determine the equation of the quadratic P (z) with real coefficients given that P (−11 + 2i) = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. State the given root. Let 𝛼 = −11 + 2i
2. The conjugate is also a root. Let 𝛽 = −11 − 2i
3. State the linear factors. P (z) = (z − 𝛼) (z − 𝛽)
= (z + 11 − 2i) (z + 11 + 2i)
4. Expand the linear factors and state the quadratic P (z) = (z + 11)2 − (2i)2
equation. = z2 + 22z + 121 − 4i2
= z2 + 22z + 125
A quadratic equation in the form P (z) = az2 + bz + c = 0

can also be solved by using the quadratic formula as an
alternative method. Given a, b and c ∈ R the equation can be
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
solved using z = .
2a
5.7.3 Solving cubic equations

A cubic polynomial equation of the form az3 + bz2 + cz + d = 0 with z ∈ C, but with all the coefficients
real, will have three linear factors. These may be repeated, but the cubic must have at least one real factor.
When solving az3 + bz2 + cz + d = 0, the roots can be three real roots, not necessarily all distinct, or they
can be one real root and one pair of complex conjugate roots.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Determine the roots of z3 + 6z2 + 61z + 106 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the real root using trial and error. P (−1) = (−1)3 + 6 (−1)2 + 61 (−1) + 106
= 50
P (−2) = (−2)3 + 6 (−2)2 + 61 (−2) + 106
=0
2. Apply the factor theorem. Therefore (z + 2) is a factor.
3. We can find the quadratic factor using algebraic P (z) = z3 + 6z2 + 61z + 106
methods. ( )
= (z + 2) z2 + bz + c
= z3 + bz2 + cz + 2z2 + 2bz + 2c
4. Compare the two expressions for P (z) to calculate c. 106 = 2c [1]
c = 53
5. Compare the two expressions for P (z) and use 61z = 2bz + cz [2]
equation [1] to calculate b. 61z = 2bz + 53z
61z − 53z
b=
2z
b=4
6. State P (z) as the product of a linear and quadratic P (z) = z3 + 6z2 + 61z + 106
factor. ( )
= (z + 2) z2 + 4z + 53
( )
7. Factorise the quadratic equation by completing the 0 = (z + 2) z2 + 4z + 4 − 4 + 53
square. Apply the null factor theorem. ( )
0 = (z + 2) (z + 2)2 + 49
( )
0 = (z + 2) (z + 2)2 − (7i)2
0 = (z + 2) (z + 2 + 7i) (z + 2 − 7i)
8. State the three roots. The roots are one real and one pair of
complex conjugates:
z = −2, −2 + 7i, −2 − 7i
The conjugate root theorem

The preceding results are true not only for quadratic and cubic equations, but for any nth degree polynomial.
In general, provided that all the coefficients of the polynomial are real, if the roots are complex, they must
occur in conjugate pairs.
Note that if one of the coefficients is a complex number, then the roots do not occur in conjugate pairs.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
If P (z) = z3 + bz2 + cz − 87 = 0 where b and c are real, and P (−2 + 5i) = 0, determine the values
of b and c, and state all the roots of P (z) = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. State the given root. Let 𝛼 = −2 + 5i

2. The conjugate is also a root. Let 𝛽 = −2 − 5i
3. Express P (z) as the product of three P (z) = (z − 𝛼) (z − 𝛽) (z − 𝜒)
linear factors. = (z + 2 + 5i) (z + 2 − 5i) (z − 𝜒)
( )
4. Expand the complex conjugate factors P (z) = (z + 2)2 − (5i)2 (z − 𝜒)
to form a quadratic factor. ( )
= z2 + 4z + 4 − 25i2 (z − 𝜒)
( )
= z2 + 4z + 29 (z − 𝜒)
( )
5. Compare the two expressions for P (z). z3 + bz2 + cz − 87 = (z − 𝜒) z2 + 4z + 29
Expand the linear and quadratic factors. = z3 + 4z2 + 29z − 𝜒z2 − 4𝜒z − 29𝜒
= z3 + (4 − 𝜒) z2 + (29 − 4𝜒) z − 29𝜒
6. Compare the two expressions for P (z) −87 = −𝜒 × 29 [1]
and equate the constant terms to find 𝜒. 𝜒=3
7. Compare the two expressions for P (z) bz = (4 − 𝜒) z2 and cz = (29 − 4𝜒) z
2
and equate coefficients to find b and c. bz2 = (4 − 3)

z2 and cz = (29 − 4 × 3) z
b=1 and c = 17
8. State the values for b and c along with P (z) = (z − 3) (z + 2 + 5i) (z + 2 − 5i) = 0
the three zeros of P (z) over C. ∴ b = 1 and c = 17
The roots are one real root and one pair of
complex conjugates: z = 3, −2 − 5i, −2 + 5i.
5.7.4 Solving quartic equations

A quartic of the form P(z) = az4 + bz3 + cz2 + dz + e with all real coefficients can have four linear factors.
The roots can be either all real roots; two real roots and one pair of complex conjugate roots; or two pairs of
complex conjugate roots.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Solve for z if z4 + 10z2 − 11 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Use appropriate substitution to reduce the quartic Let a = z2 , then a2 = z4
equation to a quadratic equation. z4 + 10z2 − 11 = 0
a2 + 10a − 11 = 0
2. Factorise the new expression. (a + 11) (a − 1) = 0
(2 )( 2 )
3. Substitute z2 for a. z + 11 z − 1 =0
( (√ )2 ) ( )
4. Express each factor as the difference of two squares z2 − 11i z2 − (1)2 = 0
by recalling i2 = −1. ( )(
√ √ )
5. Express P (z) as the product of four linear factors. z+ 11i z − 11i (z + 1) (z − 1) = 0
√ √
6. Apply the null factor theorem and state the roots. z = 1, −1, 11i, − 11i
In the previous worked examples, algebraic methods were used to determine unknown coefficients for
quadratic factors. Polynomial long division is an alternative method and is demonstrated in the following
worked example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
Given that P (4) = 0 where P (z) = z4 − 2z3 − 6z2 + 32z − 160, use polynomial long division to
calculate all the roots for P (z).
THINK WRITE
1. State the given real root. Let z1 = 4
2. Since one root is real determine another real P (−4) = (−4)4 − 2(−4)3 − 6(−4)2 + 32(−4) − 160
root by testing p(–4). =0
Thus z2 = −4 is another root.
3. Express P (z) as the product of two quadratic P (z) = (z − z1 ) (z − z2 ) (z − z3 ) (z − z4 )
factors. = (z − 4) (z + 4) (z − z3 ) (z − z4 )
( )( )
= z2 − 16 az2 + bz + c
4. Complete polynomial long division to z2 − 2z + 10
calculate the unknown quadratic factor. z2 − 16 z4 − 2z3 − 6z2 + 32z − 160
− .z4 ↓ − 16z2 ↓ ↓/
−2z3 + 10z2 + 32z − 160
− . −2z3 ↓ + 32z ↓/
10z2 − 160
−. 10z2 − 160/
( )( ) 0
5. Express P (z) as the product of two quadratic P (z) = z2 − 16 z2 − 2z + 10
factors by using the result from the long
division operation.
( )( )
6. Factorise the quadratic equation by P (z) = z2 − 16 z2 − 2z + 1 − 1 + 10
completing the square. ( )( )
= z2 − 16 (z − 1)2 + 9
( )( )
= z2 − 16 (z − 1)2 − (3i)2
7. Express P (z) = 0 as the product of four 0 = (z + 4) (z − 4) (z − 1 + 3i) (z − 1 − 3i)
linear factors.
8. Apply the null factor law to state the four The solutions occur as a pair of real roots and
solutions for P (z) = 0. a pair of complex conjugate roots.
z = −4, 4, 1 − 3i, 1 + 3i.

Factorisation of polynomials Summary screen and practice questions

Exercise 5.7 Factorisation of polynomials
Technology free
1. WE21 Solve z2 − 14z + 74 = 0 over C using the completing the square method.
2. Solve 4z2 + 4z + 82 = 0 over C using the completing the square method.
3. Solve z (z + 4) = −29 for z using the quadratic formula.
4. WE22 Determine the equation of the quadratic P (z) with real coefficients given that P (−1 + 13i) = 0.
5. Determine the equation of the quadratic P (z) with real coefficients given that P (6 − 5i) = 0.
6. WE23 Determine the roots of z3 + 9z2 + 24z − 34 = 0.
7. Solve the equation z3 + 13z2 + 97z + 85 = 0 over C.
8. Determine the roots of z3 + 4z2 − 2z − 20 = 0.
9. WE24 If P (z) = z3 + bz2 + cz + 29 = 0 where b and c are real, and P (5 + 2i) = 0, determine the
values of b and c, and state all the roots of P (z) = 0.
10. If P (z) = z3 + bz2 + cz − 195 = 0 where b and c are real, and P (7 + 4i) = 0, determine the values of b
and c, and state all the roots of P (z) = 0.
11. If P (z) = z3 + bz2 + cz + 51 = 0 where b and c are real, and P (−1 − 4i) = 0, determine the values of
b and c, and state all the roots of P (z) = 0.
12. Develop an equation with integer coefficients that have the following roots.
a. z1 = −9, z2 = 7 − 8i, z3 = 7 + 8i b. z1 = 11, z2 = 𝛼, z3 = 4 − 7i, z4 = 𝛽
4 2
13. WE25 Solve for z if z + 5z − 36 = 0.
14. Solve for z if z4 − 24z2 − 1225 = 0.
15. Solve for z if z4 + 62z2 − 128 = 0.
16. WE26 Given that P (3) = 0 where P (z) = z4 + 10z3 + 25z2 − 90z − 306, use polynomial long division
to calculate all the roots for P (z).
17. If z = 4 is a zero of P (z) = z3 + 8z2 + 69z − 468, use polynomial long division to calculate all the roots
for P (z).
18. Given P (z) = z4 − 2z3 − 6z2 + 32z − 160 = (z − 1 − 3i) (z − z2 ) (z − z3 ) (z − z4 ), use polynomial long
division to calculate all the roots for P (z).
Technology active
19. Given P (z) = z4 + bz3 + 18z2 + 32z + 32 and P (4i) = 0, calculate the value of the real constant b and
determine all the roots. ( )( )
20. A quartic is given by the equation, P (z) = az2 + bz + c z2 − 10z + 41 + d, where d ∈ R. If
P (z) = z4 − 8z3 + 23z2 + 62z + 81 in expanded form, determine the real value d.

A summary of this chapter is available in the Resources section of your eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
Simple familiar
1. MC The values for a and b that satisfy the equation (12 − 5i) (a + bi) = 56 + 33i are:
A. a = −3, b = 4 B. a = 3, b = −4 C. a = 3, b = 5 D. a = 3, b = 4
2. MC The Cartesian equation for {z : |z − 5i| = |z + 5|} is best described by:
A. y = −x B. y = −4x C. y = 4x D. y = x
3. MC A cubic polynomial with real coefficients is given by P (z) = (z − 4) (z − 4 + 3i) (z − z3 ). The
expression for z3 is defined as:
A. 4 B. −4 C. 4 + 3i D. −4 + 3i
−1
4. Determine z given z = 4 − 8i.
( ( ))5 ( ( ))4
𝜋 𝜋
5. Use De Moivre’s theorem to simplify 4 cis − ÷ 2 cis .
3 4
6. Determine the Cartesian equation and sketch the graph of {z : |z + 1 − 2i| = 4}.
( )
−𝜋
7. Express 2 cis × (5 − 5i) in the form z = a + bi.
4
( )
3 −𝜋
8. Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve z = 125 cis for z.
4
z−1
9. If z = a + bi, determine the solutions to the equation = z + 3.
√ z+1
10. a. If z4 = 3 + i, determine the complex number z using a polar method.
11. a. Determine all solutions to the equation, z6 = 1, over C. Express the solutions in polar form.
12. Solve the equation z4 + 55z2 − 576 = 0 over C.
Complex familiar
13. Prove the following identities using polar arithmetic.
a. zz = |z|2 b. |zn | = |z|n
√
1 3
14. Use De Moivre’s theorem to determine z9 , given z = − + i. Verify the solution by evaluating
2 2
( √ ) 9
1 3
− + i using a graphics calculator.
2 2
15. If P (z) = z3 + bz2 + cz + 29 = 0 where b and c are real, and P (5 + 2i) = 0, determine the values of b
and c, and state all the roots of P (z) = 0
16. Given P (z) = z4 + 8z3 + 30z2 + 56z + 65 = (z + 3 + 2i) (z − z2 ) (z − z3 ) (z − z4 ), use polynomial long
division to calculate all the roots for P (z).
Complex unfamiliar
17. Determine a polynomial of degree 5 with integer coefficients, that has the following roots. A graphics
calculator can be used to expand factors.
z1 = 6i, z2 = 2 − 4i, z3 = 3
18. Prove the triangle inequality given by |z + v| ≤ |z| + |v|.

( )
( ) 1+z 𝜃
19. If z = cis 𝜃 , prove that = i cot .
1−z 2
20. Show that the complex equation |z − c| = 3|z − c| represents a circle and determine its centre and radius.
Units 3 & 4 Sit exam

Answers Exercise 5.3 Complex numbers in polar form
√
1. a. 10 b. 13 c. 3
5 Complex numbers 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
2. a. b. c.
Exercise 5.2 Complex numbers in 4 ( ) 3 6
Cartesian form 𝜋 15 ( √ )
3. a. z = 4 cis b. −1 + 3i
1. a. 5i b. 12i 6 2
( )
2 √ 2 −5𝜋 √
c. i d. 23i c. z = cis d. 2 2 (1 − i)
5 3 6
2. a. −1 − i b. 2 − 3i √ √
3−4 3 3 3+4
c. 3 − 2i d. −1 + i 4. + i
3. a. 8 b. 2 2( ) 2 ( ) ( )
c. −1 d. −2 −𝜋 10𝜋 3𝜋
5. a. cis b. cis c. cis −
4. a. Im(z) 4 11 5
iu v ( ) ( )
2 11𝜋 7𝜋
iv u 6. a. 12 cis b. 3 cis
12 12
1 ( ) ( ) ( )
iw
3𝜋 𝜋 √ −𝜋
7. a. 12 cis b. 3 cis c. 4 5 cis
–2 –1–10 1 2 Re(z) 4 2 6
( ) ( ) ( )
–2 w 5𝜋 9𝜋 7𝜋
d. 3 cis e. 7 cis f. 2 cis
8 20 12
b. As shown in Q4a ( )
c. Multiplying a complex number z by i rotates z 90°
𝜋
8. a. 8 cis b. 8.7671 cis (−2.8481)
anticlockwise about the origin. 2
( )
5. a. Im(z) 𝜋
v c. 2 cis −
2 –w 6
u
1 9–18. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
in the online resources.
–2 –1 1 2 Re(z) 1 (√ ) 1 (√ )
–1 19. a. i. 3+1 + 3−1 i
–u 4√ 4
–v –2 w ( )
2 𝜋
b. As shown in Q5a ii. cis
c. Multiplying a complex number z by −1 rotates z by 180° 2 12
( )
about the origin. 𝜋 1 (√ √ )
iii. sin = 6− 2
6. a. Im(z) v 12 4
2 iv. Sample responses can be found in the worked
u solutions in the online resources.
1 (√
–iw √ ) (√ √ )
b. i. 6− 2 + 6+ 2 i
–2 –1–10 1 2 Re(z) ( )
5𝜋
w –iu –iv ii. 4 cis
–2 12
( )
5𝜋 1 (√ √ )
b. As shown in Q6a iii. sin = 6+ 2
c. Multiplying a complex number z by −i rotates z 90° 12 4
clockwise about the origin. iv. Sample responses can be found in the worked
7. a. 15 − 7i b. −12 + 24i c. 8 + 6i solutions in the online resources.
8. a. 11 − 7i b. −6 + 12i c. 24 − 11i
d. −80 + 269i Exercise 5.4 De Moivre’s theorem
√
9. a. e = 14 − 9i b. f = −2 − 7i 1. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
√
c. g = 9 + 2 7i d. h = −1 + i the online(resources.
) ( )
10. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in 3𝜋 𝜋
2. a. 32 cis − b. 729 cis −
the online resources. 4 2
( )
1 1 1 3 1 −2𝜋
11. a. − i b. + i c. cis d. 1
2 2 20 20 81 3
3 2 1 1 ( ) ( )
c. − − i d. − + i
𝜋 3𝜋
3. a. 23 328 cis b. 128 cis
13 13 8 8 2 4
1 17 ( ) ( )
12. − i 𝜋 14𝜋
29 29 4. a. 81 cis b. 1 048 576 cis −
13. a. A b. B
3 15
5. a. −64
14–16. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
1
in the online resources. b.
17. a. x = 7, y = −8 b. x = −4, y = 3 512
6. a = 64, b = −64
( )
7 26 √
7. a = 1025, b = 0
8. a. (2, 5), − ,− b. ±5 13
3 (2k + 1) 5 5
8. n = 𝜋
5 9. A ray from (2, 0) making an angle of or 30° with the real
9. a. i. 4096 6
ii. 0 axis
b. i. −46 656 Im(z)
ii. 𝜋 3
10, 11. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions 2 π
–
in the online resources. 1 6
Exercise 5.5 The complex plane (the Argand –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)

–1
plane) –2
–3
2 2
1. Circle (x − 3) + (y + 2) = 16, with centre (3, −2) and
radius 4 𝜋
10. A ray from (0, −3) making an angle of − or 90° with the
Im(z) 2
real axis
2 Im(z)
1
4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re(z) 3
–1
–2 2
–3 1
–4
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z)
–1
–6 –2
–3
2. a = 3, b = −3, r = 3 π
––
–4 2
3. The line 4x + 3y = 12
2 2
Im(z) 11. a. x + y = 9; circle with centre (0, 0), radius 3
Im(z)
3 3
2 2
1 1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z) –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
4. a = −4, b = 2 2 2
b. x + y = 4; circle with centre (0, 0), radius 2
5. Line y = −x; the set of points equidistant from (0, −3) Im(z)
and (3, 0)
3
Im(z)
2
3 1
2
1 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
(3, 0) –1
–2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) –3
–1
–2 2 2
–3 (0, –3) c. (x + 2) + (y − 3) = 4; circle with centre (−2, 3),
radius 2
6. Line y = −1; the set of points equidistant from (0, 1) Im(z)
and (0, −3)
5
Im(z)
4
3 3
2 2
1 (0,1) 1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 Re(z)
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 (0,–3)
( )
72 21
7. a. (0, 3), ,
25 25
√
b. ±8 5

2 2
d. (x − 3) + (y + 1) = 9; circle with centre (3, −1), Im(z)
radius 3
3
Im(z)
2
2 1
1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
–1
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re(z) –2
–1 –3
–2
–3
c. y = −2x − 3
–4
Im(z)
–5
3
12. a. y = 2; line
2
Im(z)
1
3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
2 –1
1 –2
–3
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
–1 2x
–2 d. y =
–3 3
Im(z)
b. x + 2y = 4; line
Im(z) 3
2
3 1
2
1 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
–1
–2
–3 –2–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Re(z) –3
–1
–2
–3 2x
14. a. y = − +2
3
c. 3x + 2y = 6 ( )2 ( )
3 13 3
Im(z) b. x− + (y − 1)2 = ; circle with centre ,1 ,
2 4 2
3 √
2 13
radius
1 2
15. a. (x + 1)2 + (y + 4)2 = 8; circle with centre (−1, −4),
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) √
–1
–2 radius 2 2
–3 b. (x − 1)2 + (y + 8)2 = 20; circle with centre (1, −8),
√
d. y = 2x − 6 radius 2 5
√
Im(z) c. a = −2, b = 4, r = 2 5
√
3 d. a = 1, b = 4, r = 2 2
2 16. a. 3x − 4y = 25; line
1 b. (x − 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25; circle with centre (3, −4),
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Re(z)
radius 5
–1 c. 7 − i, −1 − 7i
–2
Im(z)
–3
–4 1
–5
–6 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re(z)
–1
–7 –2
–3
13. a. x = 3; line
–4 S=R
Im(z)
–5
2 –6
1 –7
–8
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Re(z) T = U –9
–1
–2
b. y = −x
( )
9 12 Im(z)
17. a. , b. 2
5 5
( ) S
14 48 2
c. (−2, 0), − , d. ±30
25 25 1
x
18. a. y = √ for x > 0; a ray from (0, 0) making an angle of –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z)
3 –1 π
30° with the real axis
–2 – –
–3
4 2(
3 2, – 3 2
2 )
Im(z) T
c. i. S is the circle with centre (−3, −1) and radius 5:
3
(x + 3)2 + (y + 1)2 = 25.
2
ii. T is y = x + 3 for x < −3, the ray from (−3, 0)
1 π
–
6 making an angle of −135° with the real axis.
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) iii. u = −7 − 4i
–1 a
–2 20. a. y = x + b; line
–3 b
( ) ( )
a 2 b 2 a2 + b2
b. y = x − 1 for x > 0; a ray from (0, −1) making an angle b. x − + y− = ; circle with centre
of 45° with the real axis 2 2 4
( ) √
Im(z) a b a2 + b2
, , radius
3 2 2 2
2 2 2
10
1 π
– c. (x + 2) + y = ; circle with centre (−2, 0), radius
4 √ 3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) 30
–1
–2 3
–3 ( )
b 2 b2 − ac
d. i. x+ + y2 = ; circle with centre
c. y = 2 − x for x < 2; a ray from (2, 0) making an angle of a a2
135° with the real axis ( ) √
b b2 − ac
Im(z) − , 0 , radius
a a
3 c
2 ii. If a = 0 and b ≠ 0, the equation is x = − , a line.
3π
2b
1 – 2 2
4 e. (x + 3) + (y − 2) = 9; circle with centre (−3, 2),
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) radius 3
–1 ( ) ( )
–2 𝛼 2 𝛽 2 bb − ac
–3 f. x + + y+ = ; circle with centre
a a√ a2
d. x = −2 for y < 1; a ray from (−2, 1) going down ( )
𝛼 𝛽 bb − ac
parallel to the imaginary axis. − ,− , radius
Im(z) a a a
a
3 21. a. y = − x + a, ab ≠ 0; line
b
2 ( ) ( )
1
b 2 a 2 a2 + b2
b. x − + y− = ; circle with centre
2 2 4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) ( ) √
–1 b a a2 + b2
–2 , , radius
–3 2 2 2
(√ √ )
Exercise 5.6 Roots of complex numbers
19. a. 2, 2 ( ) ( )
√ 𝜋 √ 11𝜋
Im(z) 1. z = 5 cis , 5 cis −
T 12 12
3 ( ) ( ) ( )
2𝜋 8𝜋 4𝜋
2 2. z = 3 cis , 3 cis , 3 cis −
) 2 , 2)
1 π S
– 9 9 9
4 3. z= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Re(z) 3𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 11𝜋
–1 2 cis − , 2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis −
–2
16 16 16 16
–3 ( ) ( ) ( )
√ 2𝜋 √ 4𝜋 √ 8𝜋
( √ √ )
3 3 3
4. a. z = 2 cis − , 2 cis , 2 cis −
3 2 3 2 9 9 9
b. ,−
2 2

b. Im(z) 9. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
2 the online resources.
z3 ( ) ( )
𝜋 3𝜋
1 10. a. z = 1, cis , cis (𝜋), cis
2 2
A b.
0 Im(z) π
–2 z2 –1 1 2 Re(z) 2
z1 2π 2 π
–1 3 3
The three roots are equally spaced around a circle of

√
3 2𝜋 5π
z2 π
radius 2. The angle between each solution is . 6 1 6
√ √ ( )√ ( ) 3
4 3𝜋 4 √ 5𝜋
5. a. z = 5 2 cis − , 5 2 cis ,
16 16
√ √ ( )√ ( )
4 13𝜋 4 √ 11𝜋
5 2 cis , 5 2 cis − π z3 z1 0
16 16
–2 –1 0 1 2 Re(z)
b. Im(z)
2
z2
z3 1
7π –1
A z4 11π
6
0 6
–2 –1 1 2 Re(z)
–1 z1
z4 4π 5π
–2 3 –2 3
3π
The three roots are equally spaced around a circle of 2
√ √ 11. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
4
radius 5 2 ≈ 1.631. The angle between each solution the online resources.
𝜋 12. a. z =
is ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 √ 𝜋 2𝜋 −4𝜋 −2𝜋
( )√ ( ) 1, cis , cis , cis , cis
6 √ 𝜋 6 √ 13𝜋 5 5 5 5
6. a. z = 2 3 cis , 2 3 cis b.
36 36
√ √ ( )√ ( )
6 25𝜋 6 √ 35𝜋 3π Im(z) 2π
, 2 3 cis , 2 3 cis − , 5 5
36 36
√ √ ( )√ ( )
6 23𝜋 6 √ 11𝜋
2 3 cis − , 2 3 cis − 4π π
36 36 5 5
z2
b. Im(z)
z3 z2 z3
1
z1 z1
z4 0 Re(z)
–1 0 1 Re(z)
–1
z5 z6 z4
z5
The three roots are equally spaced around a circle of 6π 9π
√ √ 5 5
6
radius 2 3 ≈ 1.230. The angle between each solution (0, 0)
𝜋 7π 8π
is 5
3 ( ) 5
( ) ( )
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
7. a. z = cis , cis , cis − 13. The solutions would be equally spaced by radians and
6 6 2 5
( ) ( )
√ 𝜋 √ 5𝜋
1
b. z = 2 2 cis , 2 2 cis , lie on a circle of radius 10 5 . The modulus of each solution

1
8 8
( ) ( ) would change from |z| = 1 to |z| = 10 5 .
√ 7𝜋 √ 3𝜋
2 2 cis − , 2 2 cis −
8 8
√ √
8. 3 + i, − 3 − i
√ √
14. a. z = −1 − 3i, z = −1 + 3i, z = 2 −1
1 i
4. z = +
b. z = 4i, z = −4i, z = −4, z = 4 (20 10
)
15. See Figure in Below * −2𝜋
5. 64 cis
3
Exercise 5.7 Factorisation of polynomials 6. c, (−1, 2), r = 2.
( )2
1. z = 7 + 5i, 7 − 5i (x + 1)2 + y − 2 = 4
1 9 1 9
2. z = − + i, − − i
2 2 2 2 Im(z)
3. z = −2 + 5i, −2 − 5i 4
4. P (z) = z2 + 2z + 170
5. P (z) = z2 − 12z + 61 3
6. z = 1, −5 − 3i, −5 + 3i
2
7. z = −1, −6 − 7i, −6 + 7i
8. z = −1, −3 − i, −3 + i
1
9. b = −9, c = 19z = −1, 5 + 2i, 5 − 2i
10. b = −17, c = 107z = 3, 7 + 4i, 7 − 4i
11. b = 5, c = 23z = −3, −1 + 4i, −1 − 4i –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 Re(z)
3 2
12. a. P (z) = z − 5z − 13z + 1017
4 3 2 –1
b. P z = z − 8z − 56z + 968z + 7865
( )
13. z = 2, −2, 3i, −3i √
7. −10 2i
14. z = 7, −7, 5i, −5i ) ( ( ) ( )
√ √ −𝜋 7𝜋 −9𝜋
15. z = 8, −8, 2i, − 2i 8. z = 5 cis , 5 cis , 5 cis
12 12 12
16. z = −3, 3, −5 − 3i, −5 + 3i √ √
17. z = 4, −6 − 9i, −6 + 9i 3 7 3 7
9. z = − − i, − + i
18. z = 4, −4, 1 + 3i, 1 − 3i 2 2( )2 2 ( ) ( )
19. b = 2, z = ±4i, z = −1 ± i √3 𝜋 √ 3 13𝜋 √ 3 11𝜋
10. a. z = 2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis −
20. d = −1 18 18 18

1. D
2. A
3. C
*15. Im(z)
1.5 π
2
2π π
3 3
5π π
6 6
0.5
π 0
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 Re(z)
0.5
7π 11π
6 6
4π 5π
3 3
3π
1.5 2

( ) ( )
b. Im(z) 𝜋 2𝜋
11. a. z = cis (0), cis , cis ,
3 3
1.5 ( ) ( )
2𝜋 𝜋
cis(𝜋), cis − , cis −
z2 3 3
1
b. *See figure below
0.5
12. z = 8i, −8i, 3, −3
z1
13. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 Re(z) the online resources.
9
14. z = 1
–0.5
15. z = 5 + 2i, 5 − 2i, −1
16. z = −3 + 2i, −3 − 2i, −1 + 2i, −1 − 2i
–1 5 4 3 2
17. P (z) = z − 7z + 68z − 312z + 1152z − 2160
z3
18, 19. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions
–1.5
in the online resources.
( )
9b2 5b 2
2𝜋 20. Circle; = (x − a)2 + y + .
16 4
The three roots are evenly spaced by radians. The ( )
3 5b 3b
1 Centre = a, − ,r =
modulus of each root is 2 3 4 4
*11. b. 7π
Im(z) π 5π
12 2 12
2π π
3 3
3π π
4 4
5π π
6 6
11π z3 1 z2
π
12 12
π z1 0
z4 Re(z)
13π
12 23π
z5 z6 12
7π 11π
6 6
5π 7π
4 4
4π
3 5π
17π 19π 3
12 3π
2 12

Advanced Math CHAPTER 5 ComplexNumbers

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Advanced Math CHAPTER 5 ComplexNumbers

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5 Complex numbers

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 261

The imaginary number

5.2.2 Review of basic operations on complex numbers in

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

2. On a Calculator page, 2. On a Run-Matrix

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 263

b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On a Run-Matrix

2. Press the ENTER 2. Press the EXE button.

Equality of complex numbers

The complex number iz is a rotation of z by 90° anticlockwise.

5.2.3 The Complex conjugate of a complex number

The complex conjugate

5.2.4 Inverses and division of complex numbers

The multiplicative inverse of a complex number

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 265

Determine z−1 given z = −8 + 2i.

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

2. Press the ENTER 2. Press the EXE button.

Units 3 & 4 Area 3 Sequence 1 Concept 1

Exercise 5.2 Complex numbers in Cartesian form

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 267

5.3 Complex numbers in polar form

The modulus of a complex number

The argument of a complex number

Principal value of the argument

Polar form of a complex number

where ‘cis’ is shorthand for ‘cos + i sin’.

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 269

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

2. Set the calculator to the 2. To convert the

3. On a Calculator page, 3. Press the EXE button.

5. Press the ENTER

b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On a Run-Matrix screen,

2. To convert a complex 2. To convert the complex

3. Press ENTER. 3. Press the EXE button.

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 271

The complex conjugate in polar form

5.3.3 Basic operations on complex numbers in polar form

Using the following trigonometric identities,

Using [1], [2] and [3]

Multiplication and division in polar form

A simple way to remember these formulas is to follow

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 273

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

2. Press the ENTER 2. Press the EXE

3. To convert the answer 3. To convert the

4. Press the ENTER 4. Press the EXE

This is an example of using a Cartesian approach to prove the identity zz = |z|2 .

a. Prove the identity z z = |z|2 using polar arithmetic.( )

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 275

Units 3 & 4 Area 3 Sequence 1 Concept 2

Exercise 5.3 Complex numbers in polar form

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 277

5.4 De Moivre’s theorem

This can be generalized in a form known as De Moivre’s theorem.

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 279

2. Press the ENTER 2. Press the EXE button.

3. Convert the answer to 3. To convert the answer

4. Press the EXE button.

Units 3&4 Area 3 Sequence 1 Concept 3

Exercise 5.4 De Moivre’s theorem

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 281

CHAPTER 5 Complex numbers 283

and equate coefficients to find b and c. bz2 = (4 − 3)