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SP32 Functional Requirement of Industrial Buldings PDF
SP32 Functional Requirement of Industrial Buldings PDF
ON
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
( LIGHTING AND VENTILATION )
As in the Original Standard, this Page is Intentionally Left Blank
HANDBOOK
ON
FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
(LIGHTING AND VENTILATION)
PRICE : Rs 50-E
PRINTED IN INDIA
AT NEW INDIA PRINTING PRESS, KHURJA 20313 1
AND PUBLISHED BY
INDIAN STANDARDS INSTITUTION, NEW DELHI 110002
SPECIAL COiMMITTEE FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY PROJECTS ( SCIP )
Chairman
DR H. C. VISVESVARAYA
National Council for Cement and Building Materials
New Delhi
Members Representing
SHRI A. K. BANERJEE Metallurgical 8r Engineering Consultants ( India ) Ltd,
Ranchi
SHRI J. D. CHATURVEDI Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning, New Delhi
DIRECTOR Central Building Research Institute ( CSIR ), Roorkee
SHRI GURNAM SINGH Min$; ;fey;iod & Civil Supplies ( Finance Division ),
( v )
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FOREWORD
Users of various civil engineering codes have been feeling the need for
explanatory handbooks and other compilations based on Indian Standards. The
need has been further emphasized in view of the publication of the National
Building Code of India in 1970 and its implementation. The Expert Group set
up in 1972 by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India
carried out in-depth studies in various areas of civil engineering and construc-
tion practices. During the preparation of the Fifth Five Year Plan in 1975, the
Group was assigned the task of producing a Science and Technology plan for
research, development and extension work in the sector of housing and cons-
truction technology. One of the items of this plan was the production of design
handbooks, explanatory handbooks and design aids based on the National Build-
ing Code and various Indian Standards, and other activities in the promotion
of the National Building Code. The Expert Group gave high priority to this
item and on the recommendation of the Department of Science and Technology
the Planning Commission approved the following two projects which were
assigned to the Indian Standards Institution:
a) Development programme on Code implementation for building and
civil engineering construction, and
b) Typification for industrial buildings.
*Under print.
( vii )
One of the handbooks suggested is the Functional Requirements of Indus-
trial Buildings. This Handbook covers the requirements relating to lighting and
ventilation. The handbook is expected to provide explanation regarding various
provisions given in Indian Standard relating to lighting and ventilation for
industrial buildings. This also gives typical worked out examples, design aids
and charts to enable the designer to use them directly in the design according
to the existing code and recommendations.
( viii )
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 LIGHTING
PAGE
.. . 3
1. INTRODUCTION ... ...
2. ILLUMINATION
LEVELS ... *.. ... 3
4. DAYLIGHTING .. . ... .. . 11
SECTION 2 VENTILATION
.-
9. INTRODUCTION .. . ... ... 31
10. PHYSIOLOOICAL
CONSIDERATIONS . .. .. . ... 31
11. STANDARDS
OF TEMPERATURE ... ... .. . 32
( ix >
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SECTION 1
LIGHTING
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SP : 32 I 1986
SECTION 1 LIGHTING
3
L__... ,1_.
__~._~_~______^_~__
..^_ . ..___
_,_._
_
SP : 32 - 1986
6
SP : 32 - 1986
SP : 32 - 1986
illumination is not so critical in the daylighting of the object, provided the brightness and the
design as in the artificial lighting. brightness contrast remain the same. However,
there are psychological effects of colour in
3.1.3 Brightness Contrast - The brightness of lighting, namely, the feeling of coolness, depres-
an object depends upon the amount of light sion and distance for green and blue colours,
flux incident and proportion of that light and the feeling of warmth, stimulation and
reflected or transmitted in the direction of the nearness for red, orange any yellow colours.
eye. Proper brightness ratio or brightness con-
trast between adjacent surfaces is an important 3.1.5.2 The appearance of coloured surfaces
requirement of good lighting. Excessive bright- depends on their spectral reflection characteris-
ness ratios, even though not severe enough to tics and the spectral composition of the light
cause glare, may be seriously detrimental to illuminating them, and is therefore different
lighting quality. Generally the task should be for light sources of different spectral composi-
brighter than both the immediate background tion. This property of light sources is known as
and general surroundings; as an example, work- colour rendering. This quality is made use of
place should be brighter than the working for such specialised jobs where critical colour
table and floor area. Where the illumination judgements or comparisons are of importance,
levels are above 300 lux, the ratio of average such as cotton grading, colour matching of
brightness between the task, immediate back- paints and certain inspection tasks. For such
ground and general surroundings may be jobs, specially designed lighting systems are
10:3:1. Since the illumination for the task and preferred to natural lighting and the lamps are
the immediate background are usually much selected on the basis of their colour rendering
the same, desirable ratio could be achieved by properties rather than luminous efficiency. In
choosing a finish for the background having some applications, the advantage can also be
lower reflection factor. The following bright- taken of the colour distortion produced by a light
ness ratios are recommended for industrial source for enhancing the contrast between the
areas: different parts of the task. That is why mercury
Ratio, Location vapour lamps are generally used in coal picking
belts in collieries.
3 : 1 Between task and immediate
background.
3.1.6 Strosboscoflic E$ect and nicker from
10 : 1 Between task and more remote Discharge Lamps - When discharge lamps are
( general ) surroundings. operating on alternating current, their light
20 : 1 Between luminaire ( or sky* ) output varies with each cycle and this pro-
and surface adjacent to them. duces certain effects known as flicker. It can
cause annoyance. Flickering also occurs due to
40 : 1 Anywhere within the environ-
half-way rectification in fluorescent tubular
ment of the work.
lamps and causes strosboscopic effect whereby
3.1.4 Direction of Lighting and Dz@usion - The rotating machinery or other objects appear to
light gest diffused when it flows from various slow down in speed and this may lead to acci-
random directions. It is measured in terms of dents. The combination of light from lamps on
the absence of sharp shadows. The degree of two electrical circuits, one lagging and the
diffusion desirable for a task depends upon the other leading in phase, reduces the effects
type of work to be performed. For instance, arising out of cyclic variation of light output.
for preventing specular reflections, such as in Similarly, strosboscopic effect can be eliminated
viewing polished metal surface in a machine in fluorescent fittings by employing special
shop, a highly diffused light is essential. The circuits, and in the case of high pressure
appearance of a three-dimensional object on mercury vapour ( HPMV ) lamps, by installing
the other hand is affected by the directional lamps on three-phase power system so that the
component of light. By appropriate use of light emitted by the lamps overlaps. The flicker
directional lighting and control of the size and in fluorescent lamps is most noticeable at the
positioning of the light sources, solid shape of ends and these should be shielded from the
the component parts of some tasks and details direct view.
of surface texture or polish can be enhance,d or 3.1.7 Colour Dynamics
suppressed - a facility particularly of impor-
tance in the lighting of many inspection 3.1.7.1 As has already been pointed out,
processes. the eye sees an object by the light it reflects
and distinguishes its details chiefly by colour
3.1.5 Cotour and Colour Rendering contrasts. A good white paint reflects 80 per-
cent or more of the light; a good black paint
3.1.5.1 The efficiency of performance of
reflects only a small percentage of light; a dirty
visual tasks is independent of colour of light or
grim-faced wall in a factory may absorb 90
*Windows in exterior walls should be toned down percent or even more of the light it receives;
by painting or otherwise. dark dirty machinery may be nearly as bad. If
SP : 32 - 1966
the place is cleaned-up and the walls are paint- violet light. These lamps can be made to
ed or colour washed with pleasing light tone give off virtually any colour or mix of colours
having moderate reflecting qualities and the by blending different phosphors. But early
machine parts are painted to given a moderate developers of fluorescent light drew on scientific
contrast with walls and the work, the viewing findings that the human eye is most sensitive
of tasks can be greatly improved without to yellow-green light and designed their lamp
increasing the light intensity. Only when to most strongly to those colours the standard
clean-up and painting is done, can it be deter- ccool white fluorescent light in use today.
mined whether any further benefit could be
derived by increasing the illumination level. 3.1.8.3 One of the steps to minimize the
biological hazards of fluorescent lighting in
3.1.7.2 Since the white paintsare distracting factories and other places of work is to use
and do not afford much contrast, the walls broad-spectrum lamp instead of the narrow-
should not be painted white. The ceilings can spectrum cool white lamps in common use.
be white or nearly so when they are out of line Light stress could be reduced by mixing
of vision. The machine parts that constitute fluorescent and incandescent light in work-
the background for the task should also be of place, and wherever possible, by providing
soft hue without high reflection qualities. In skylight and windows to bring in sunlight
determining the choice, the colour of the
material being worked should be taken into 4. DAYLIGHTING
account. For key parts of machines, such as 4.1 As a rule, daylighting is preferable to
guards or control levers, a colour that stands artificial lighting as it is a potential natural
out should be chosen. Yellow orange or yellow source of light which meets all the require-
green has maximum visibility ranking even ments of good lighting. Therefore, when a
higher than the conventional red in this factory is to be built, the shape of the building
respect. The following surface reflectances may is usually planned on the basis of daylighting.
be used for selecting finishes for walls and It is only very rarely that factory space will be
other surfaces to achieve the desired brightness planned with a view to obtaining the most
and colour relationship for industrial areas: favourable artificial lighting. Except in factories
Surface Colour Finish Rejlectance, having multiple shifts, the buildings will be
Percentage used during more hours per day by natural
Ceiling White 72-80 lighting than by artificial illumination. One
may, therefore, safely base the layout of the
Upper walls Light green or 50-55
factory buildings on natural daylighting, be-
light buff
cause artificial lighting can be easily manipula-
Lower walls & Dark green or 25-35 ted to suit the different circumstances.
machinery* dark buff
4.2 The prime source of light for daylight-
Immediate back- Medium green or 35
ing is the sun. The availability of daylight
ground medium buff
outdoor in the plains in this country is quite
Floor Blend with above 25 high throughout the year. The light received
3.1.8 Artzjkial Light and Health
by the earth from the sun consists of two parts,
namely, direct solar illumination ( direct sun-
3.1.8.1 Recent studies have shown that light being excluded ) and sky radiation. The
long hours of the day and night under artificial latter is nearly constant through the major
light causes many biological and other health portion of the day, while the sunlight ( direct
problems. Excessive exposure to ultra-violet solar illumination ) can be as much as four
radiation can cause skin cancer. Unshielded times the skylight. The wide variation and the
fluorescent lights may be increasing by five chances that incidence of direct sunlight over
percent the weekly dose of ultra violet radia- moving machinery in factory floors during cer-
tion, many office and factory workers are tain hours of the day can cause undesirable
receiving. For sensitive persons, added dose visual fatigue and may become a source of dan-
could already be causing cancer. Even more ger, necessitates its exclusion in the planning of
disturbing factor is that the potent unnatural apertures for daylighting. Therefore, for the
wavelengths of fluorescent light can cause purpose of daylighting design direct solar illu-
genetic mutation, cancer and death in the mination is not considered and only sky radia-
cells of many living things, including man, at tion is taken as contributing to the illumination
a significantly high rate. of the factory interiors during the day.
3.1.8.2 As is already known, fluorescent 5. PRINCIPLES OF DAYLIGHTING
lamp gives off or fluorescences when a coat- DESIGN
ing of phosphors inside the tube is hit by ultra-
5.1 Clear Design Sky - In this country,
*Paint machinery and equipment in light colours except for some months of monsoon and certain
with matte finish. days of winter in Northern India, the sky is
11
SP : 32 - 1986
generally clear and sunshine plentiful for most actually so. The relative amount of sky radia-
part of the year. Even during monsoon months tion depends on the position of the sun defined
and the winter when the sky is cloudy, it is by its altitude which in turn varies with the
completely overcast only for some days or for latitude of the locality, the day of the year and
some hours of the day, and for much of the the time of the day as indicated in Table 2.
duration of the day, the sky remains sunny and The intensity of horizontal illumination due to
bright. As assumption is made for the purpose a clear sky ( excluding direct sunlight ) corre-
of daylighting design that the sky is nearly sponding to different altitudes of the sun may
bright in all parts of the day. This is never be ascertained from Fig. 1.
YZR
HOURS 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200
OF DAY
(SOLAR)
1700 1600 1 500 1400 1300 - 1700 1 600 1500 1400 1300 - 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 -
10 I 18 31 45 58 70 77 15 30 44 59 72 80 9 23 35 46 53 57
13 19 32 46 60 72 80 15 29 44 58 70 77 8 21 33 43 51 54
16 20 33 47 61 74 83 14 29 43 56 68 74 7 19 31 41 48 51
19 21 34 48 62 75 86 14 28 42 55 66 74 5 18 29 38 45 43
22 22 35 49 62 75 89 14 28 41 53 64 68 4 16 27 36 42 45
25 23 36 49 63 76 88 13 27 40 52 61 65 3 14 25 34 39 42
28 23 36 49 63 76 86 13 26 39 50 59 62 1 13 23 31 37 39
31 24 37 50 62 75 82 13 25 37 43 56 56 - 11 21 28 34 36
34 25 37 49 62 73 79 12 25 36 46 53 56 - 9 18 26 31 33
to be nearly constant all over the country. the sky component ( SC ), the external reflect-
However, the prevalent atmospheric haze ed component ( ERC ) and the internal reflected
which varies from place to place may necessi- component ( IRC ) of the daylight factor.
tate a 25 percent increase in the value of 8 000 Therefore, total daylight factor ( DF ) is
lux design illumination where haze conditions the sum of the sky component ( SC ),
prevail at design time. the external reflected component ( ERG ) and
the internal reflected component ( IRC), or
5.2 Daylight Factor - Since the bright-
ness of the sky is constantly changing, it follows DF = SC + ERC + IRC
that the light inside a building must change, As a conservative estimate, only the sky com-
and therefore, it is not practical to estimate the ponent is taken into consideration for the
.efhciency of a system of fenestration of a build- purpose of designing fenestrations of the factory
ing in absolute units such as lux. The visual buildings. However, other components are also
appreciation of the increase in the magnitude important from the point of view of reducing
of the light is damped by overall increase in glare and ensuring brightness contrasts between
adaptation level, and the ultimate criterion of the objects and the surroundings, and these
efficient illumination is its effect on the observer. should be taken into consideration for the
In a building the eye of the observer automati- quality of the lighting required in the interiors.
cally tends to make a comparison with the
brightness in his working environment and the 5.2.2 No standard of daylighting for facto-
brightness of the part of the sky visible through ries in terms of daylight factors is laid down in
the windows or skylights; in other words, he the Factories Act ( 1948 ). In Model Rule 29
judges good daylighting less by a sense of actual framed by the Central Government under the
intensity than by one of proportion. Therefore, Act, a minimum standard of 30 lux is laid
daylight at a point indoors is usually measured, down as a general level of illumination for the
as in fact appraised, as a ratio of the total illu- working areas of a factory. This standard is
mination which would be received at the same without prejudice to the provision of any addi-
moment out-of-doors from an unobstructed tional illumination required for the work itself.
view of the clear design sky ( excluding direct Cleariy this value refers only to illumination
sunlight ). This ratio is called daylight factor, from artificial sources and is not really applica-
and is expressed as a percentage. Thus, the ble to daylighting. The standard may be taken
daylight factor of 1 percent at a point inside a to correspond to a daylight factor of a little
building would signify the illumination of 1 over 0.5 percent for overcast sky during the
percent of that which would be obtained if the monsoon months when the outside intensities
whole of the hemisphere of the sky were contri- fall to about 5 000 lux. This can be obtained
buting light. Since exterior design illumination in practice by an area of roof glazing as small
for clear design sky is taken as 8 000 Iux, the as 2.5 percent of the floor area. In existing
daylight factor is, therefore, a percentage of factories, glass areas are seldom less than 10
8 000 lux. To get daylight factors from lux percent, and the daylight factors of 2.5 percent
values of illumination levels for various indust- and more are common. In normal circumst-
rial tasks and locations given in Table 1, divide ances factories should be designed to give at
these values by 80. As an example, if an illu- least 1.25 percent daylight factor, which may
mination level required at a point inside a exceed current requirements over part or whole
building is, say, 300 Iux, the daylight factor of the building. The lesser value would certai-
300 nly be considered inadequate.
required would be= = 3.75, that is, 3.75 per
5.2.3 The openings, glazings and such
cent of the illumination obtained outdoor from
similar sources of daylighting should be so
unobstructed sky, direct sunlight being
positioned as to give levels of illumination
excluded.
given in Table 1 expressed as daylight factors.
5.2.1 Daylight reaching an indoor reference The area of glazing or opening required for
point comprises the light from the following any particular level of illumination will depend
Sources: primarily upon the position of fenestration ado-
pted. The relative efficiency of different
a) The direct sky visible from the point methods may be compared by calculating the
( excluding direct sun ), ratio of the glazed area to floor area in each
b) External surfaces reflecting light direc- case. For analysis of daylight in factories,
tly to the point, and Central Building Research Institute has develo-
ped daylight protractors for estimation of direct
c) Internal surFaces reflecting and inter-
reflecting light to the point. component of daylight factor. These are for
determination of sky ( direct ) component for
Each of the three components, when clear design sky at any point on a horizontal
expressed as a ratio or a percentage of the plane, a vertical plane normal to window glaz-
simultaneous external design sky illumination ing and a vertical plane parallel to window
on the horizontal plane, are respectively called glazing. The protractors have the particular
SP : 32 - 1986
merit of providing the proper corrections for North ) may be ascertained from the table.
sloping glass. In the Handbook on Functional Indiscriminate use of north lights in places.
Requirements in Buildings other than Indus- located south of 23 latitude should be avoided.
trial Buildings,* some examples have been given In South India the use of northlighting is
to determine the sky components ( from clear highly questionable unless some special forms of
design sky ) inside the building by the use of diffusing glasses are also used to cut off direct
protractors. The same method of design will entry of sunlight. The second method of fene-
apply in case of factory buildings which are stration by skylight is when double-pitched
multistoreyed and have provision for daylight- ( gabled roof ) trusses are used so that glazing
ing through windows and louvers in the side may be distributed on one or both pitches. One
walls. more method which is not so common in India
is where the roof glazing is arranged in oppo-
5.2.4 A careful interpretation of daylight
site vertical strips in a system known as.
factors should be made before designing the
Monitor roofing.
fenestration. The possibility that the required
level of illumination may change due to change
in the layout caused by modification in produc- 5.3.1.2 Before further discussing the methods.
tion methods should be kept in view. Obstruc- of fenestration as given in 5.3.1.1 for the pur-
tions like structural members, overhead install- pose of providing daylight in factory buildings,
ations, vertical and horizontal machines and it must be remembered that the area of the
the like should be considered in relation to the glazing required for any particular level of
glazing. It is essential to foresee the proposed illumination will depend primarily upon the
layout of the machines, as ignorance of this position of the fenestration adopted. The rela-
aspect is likely to cut down the light reaching tive efficiency of different methods for a parti-
the workplace. There should be good distribu- cular type of building may be compared
tion of light over the whole interior. Unilateral by calculating the ratio of the glazed area to
systems should, therefore, be avoided when floor area in each case. Methods using hori-
possible. Light colours should predominate on zontal or low-pitched glazing will generally be
the surface of the interior, wherever practica- more efficient than those using vertical or
ble. steeply sloping glass. Allowance should be made
in designing area of glazing for anything that
5.3 Daylight Fenestration - For the pur- may obstruct the light, such as tall buildings,
pose of daylight fenestration, the factory build- overhead equipment and large machines. Allo-
ings may be grouped into three types; buildings wance should also be made for dust or dirt
with skylight, buildings with closed ceilings accumulated on glazing, which should of course
( as in multistoreyed buildings ), and high-bay be regularly cleaned and means of safe and
large span structures. easy access provided for the purpose. In the
distribution curves for different types of roof
5.3.1 Buildings with Skylight fenestrations discussed in 5.3.1.3 to 5.3.1.5, the
value of O-85 has been assumed for glass trans-
5.3.1.1 Where skylight is utilised, it is, as
mission and values of daylight factors include
already mentioned, done in a way to avoid the
sky and reflected components for the clear
effect of direct sunlight. Direct sunlight should
be screened as far as possible. The alternative design sky.
is to make use of diffusing materials of low 5.3.1.3 Saw-tooth ( north-light ) fenestrution
transmittance for glazing those areas where
the possibility of direct sunlight is high. The a) Two types of northlighting are illustr-
glazed areas are generally oriented away from ated in Fig. 2. Fig. 2A with inclined
the sunny side; thus in the northern hemisp- glazing and Fig. 2B with vertical
here they face north. In this way a natural glazing, each having glass area 20 per
lighting is obtained of a diffused quality and cent of floor area. The lighting curves
with less variation of colour than is inherent in show troughs and valleys, but in case
direct sunlight. Most factories employ north of inclined glazing, the curve is more
light as the principle source of daylighting. even, level of illumination varying
This is achieved by roofs of single-pitched truss between 10 and 7 percent daylight
of the saw-tooth type, where the glazing is factor whereas it varies between
oriented in north only. These keep off direct 9 and 6 percent daylight factor
mid-day sun in latitudes north of 23. It is in case of vertical glazing. The
useful to know the period of the day over which variation may not be objectionable if,
direct sunlight enters such fenestration; this is in practice, the work benches run in
shown in Table 3. The duration of the direct the same direction as the glazing, but
sunlight penetration in terms of times of the if they are set in the opposite direc-
day ( solar time ) for summer months for any tion, the variation would be more
given latitude in this country ( 9 North to 31 noticeable. Shadows caused at work-
ing plane by machines can be minimi-
*Under preparation. sed by providing openings on the side
14
SP t 92 - 1986
( &use 5.3. I .I )
To obtain local times or standard times, one may proceed according to the usual method on the basis of the
longitude of the locality.
2A Inclined Glazing
2B Vertical Glazing
FIG. 2 NORTH LIGHT ROOF LIGHTING ( GLAZING 20 PERCENT OF FLOOR AREA )
15
SPr32 -1986
300
t
x
2
200
100 _--
~~_~_~__~_~-=__--r-____-.-..-
t-
---------BAY
__---
F
-1 WIDTH-&m
iI 0 ----- BAY WIDTH = 7m
- BAY WIDTH - 10m
z 300
u SILL HEIGHT I 6.5 m
$ 200
______--
________----
2 100
Ill
5 0
:: 200
L
00 _
0 I , c 0 I I t
15 20 25 30 15 20 25 30
PERCENT FENESTRATION PERCENT FEYESTRATION
16
SP t 32 - 1986
17
SP : 32 - 1986
I II
1 I II II
FIG. 9 CONTINUOUS HORIZONTAL ROOF LIGHTS WITH DIFFUSED GLAZINCJ
( 17 PERCENT OF FLOOR AREA )
19
SP : 32 - 1986
10
5
1F
5.3.2 Buildings with Closed Ceilings 5.3.2.3 The distribution curve of daylight
factors for side-glazings on opposite walls in
5.3.2.1 For factory buildings with closed buildings with closed ceilings ( multi-storeyed
ceilings as in multi-storeyed buildings side glaz- buildings ) is a parabola. As shown in Fig. 13,
ing is the only answer for daylighting. This is the parabola has a variation in illumination
similar to vertical windows and hence the levels between 25 and 15 percent daylight
methods given in IS : 2440- 1975% are directly factor for glazing 50 percent of the floor area,
applicable. The daylighting at any point inside and as in Fig. 14, between 30 and 20 percent
the building is treated in the same manner as daylight factor for glazing of 74 percent of the
in a roof. In working areas with closed ceiling, floor area.
the width is apt to be so large that the win-
dows in the walls are proportionately too
low to provide sufficient natural lighting
in the centre of the room. At a depth of
twice the window height, the horizon-
tal illumination amounts to no more than 10
percent of that near the window and beyond a
depth of about 8 m only reflected component
of daylight can reach, and therefore, in many
situations artificial lighting has to be empioyed
FIG. 13 SIDE GLAZING IN A MULTI-STOREY
during day time as well to suppleqtnt day-
BUILDINGS( 50 PERCENTOF FLOOR AREA )
lighting.
20
SP : 32 - 1986
5.3.2.4 Generally with side lighting, while of fenestrating. In the case of shell concrete
taller openings give greater penetration, broa- construction, which is eminently suitable for
der openings give better distribution. Broader covering extensive areas, the thin skin of rein-
openings may also be equally or more efficient forced concrete is structural and may not be
provided their sills are raised by 30 to 60 cm pierced with impunity. In cases of dome-like
above the working plane. However, it is to be structures with single large spans, the tendency
noted that this raising of the sill level is likely should be to distribute the glazing in compara-
to reduce ventilation at work level. Therefore, tively small individual areas rather than in
while designing side openings for ventilation large single panels which would break the
also, a compromise may be made by providing structural continuity of the system. Alternati.
the sill height about 15 cm below the average vely, if the shell is formed in the vault, the
head level of workers, so that the incoming air glass may be arranged in more or less continu-
stream is passed over the workers. ous narrow strips which follow the roof curve. In
both cases the daylight distribution can be very
5.3.2.5 In this type of construction it is
even and intensities as high as 10 percent day-
less the daylighting than the tasks that are the
light factor. In case of structures with more than
determining factors. Situations may also arise
one span, the shell may be designed as a series
where total exclusion of daylight may offer the
ofbalanced cantilevers in either direction of each
only optimal solution to lighting design of
span, in which case a wide strip of glass run-
industrial areas. Considerations such as heat
ning continuously down the crown of the vault
loads due to sunlight, and of the areas or spe-
is provided. In this type of structure also, with
cial requirements of production processes and
series of such roofs the daylight distribution of
the cost of air-conditioning the area may be the
deciding factors, and the solution may lie in the order of 15 percent daylight factor in the
providing artificial illumination from the ceiling middle of each bay with sloping of the curve
,designed purely on the needs of the nature of to a value around 10 percent between the bays
work and layout. can be expected at the working plane.
5.3.3 High-bay Large San Structures 5.4 Quality of Daylighting - Apart from
provision of sufficient light which is uniformly
5.3.3.1 So far, the fenestrating of only distributed over the whole working area, an
the more common forms of factory buildings important aspect of daylighting of factory
has been considered. Some attention should be buildings is whether eyes of the workers can
directed to the daylighting of the kind of facto- take good advantage of the light which is avail-
ries where provision of a large and unobstruc- able in the building. In particular, as pointed
ted floor space is essential and smoother produ- out earlier, if the brightness ratios or contrast
ction flow and greater flexibility, in which the in the visual field are unsatisfactory, the retina
process is likely to be changed at some future of the eye will lose sensitivity, and vision will
date, is needed. The floor-to-roof height of be both less satisfactory and less comfortable.
such structures is high enough to provide clear- The chief factor to be reckoned with, particu-
ance for the big jobs like assembly of aircraft, larly when considering the design of the
or accommodate overhead cranes, or to allow environment as a whole, is that the eye cannot
the fumes and steam from the processes to be
comfortably adapt itself to strong contrast of
carried off. In such factories it is usually possi-
brightness and glare. As has already been
ble to provide sufficient daylighting which mentioned, glare is caused when sky is viewed
would enter through the windows in the rela-
through some glazed opening when the area of
tively high walls. Glass strips in the roof, when
wall or roof around the opening is dark. The
artificial lighting is required, would usually be
cure for this trouble is to surround the openings
installed as high as possible in the roof struct-
with surfaces which are light-coloured and well-
ure so as to allow unobstructed manipulation
illuminated. Certain forms of fenestration of
with cranes and assembly jobs. Due to high
factory buildings are much easier to treat this
mounting of light sources the horizontal illumi-
way than others. Both the north-light and the
nation is much more than the vertical illumin-
monitor roofs are, by the arrangement of their
ation. When in particular cases, a high level of
roof planes, less glaring than any of the orher
illumination in the vertical plane is required, a
types because the undersides of the roofs
portion of the light sources are also mounted
surrounding the glass can either be illuminated
half-way between floor and roof against the
directly from the sky or can receive light by
walls or the wall columns. These are to be
reflection from adjacent external roofs if these
,carefully screened to secure unobstructed view
are light-coloured. It is a common observation
of the working space.
that in a north-light factory the view facing the
5.3.3.2 Where the spans are very large, glazing is usually very uncomfortable compared
the requirements of daylighting may impose with a view in the opposite direction when it
limitations of a free choice of possible struct- is the underside of the roofs which are risible
ures, or, conversely, the structural arrange- and not the sky. This is what would be expec-
ment which is to be used may limit the method ted, for where the bright sky is replaced by a
21
SP : 32 - 1986
less bright ceiling the condition is bound to 6.1.2 Quality - Artificial lighting may.
present less contrast than the other with just as also be required to be provided as local
much light on the work. In certain factories lighting when visual task may demand higher
the risk of glare to workers operating machines levels of illumination than are possible by
or on the work benches may thus be reduced general lighting. It must be designed to satisfy
by different arrangement of the work benches both quantity and quality for the industrial
and machines. The other method of reduc- tasks in view. As already pointed out, quality
ing contrast will be to allow the roof glazing relates to colour diffusion, direction ( where
to run to the end walls; thereby surfaces important ), direct and reflected glare and
around the glazing which might otherwise other factors that affect the degree of com-
be in shadow are avoided. It should also be fort for the worker. Quality is also influenc-
noted that merely by increasing the amount ed considerably by visual environment or
of light entering a room the general contrast surrounding area within the field of view.
between indoor and outdoor illumination
6.1.3 Layout - While planning artificial
may be reduced and the risk of window
lighting, the layout of the light fittings has to
glare may thereby be lessened. In many
be related to the layout of the working area so
cases this means that if an adequate quantity
as to obtain the most favourable lighting effect.
of light is reached the worst conditions of
for comfortable working.
contrast will be automatically avoided.
6.2 Other Requirements - Although
6. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING colour of light emitted by a light source of an
ob.ject does not affect the performance of a
6.1 While discussing task illumination levels, visual task, from psychological point of view,
it was pointed out that artificial lighting for tropical country like in India, cool colours
may be provided to obtain the recommen- such as green and buff are desirable for walls
ded illumination levels or general levels of and machines with cool white light ( fluores-
lighting at the working plane when daylight- cent, mercury vapour, etc ) from the light
ing is not available or is inadequate, in the sources. Diffusion is important for general
latter case to supplement daylighting. lighting except for certain specific applications,
such as inspection work where directional con-
6.1.1 Permanent Supplementary Lighting - trol aids in seeing flaws quickly and easily.
In work areas in which daylighting alone Large-area light sources and an upward com-
will not be adequate as, for instance, in deep ponent of light directed towards the ceiling
multi-storeyed buildings, a permanent sup- aids diffusion, Direct glare is controlled by
plementary artificial lighting installation shielding with louvers, shields or other means.
( PSALI ) is provided. This system used in Reflected glare is diminished by large-area
conjuncticn with daylighting ensures lighting light sources of low brightness or by diffus-
which is more or less uniform throughout ing media, such as glass or plastics.
the day and is conducive to better efficiency
6.3 Types of Light Sources - There are
and output. Specially where depths greater
mainly three types of light sources for industry:
than say 12 m in buildings with ceiling
heights of 3 m are encountered, such a a>Incandescent
lamps;
( tungsten filament )
system of artificial lighting becomes a neces-
sity. The requirement of supplementary b) High pressure mercury vapour
artificial lighting increases with the increase ( HPMV ) lamps, sometimes blended.
in availability of daylight. The design req- with correction to improve colour;
uires a careful analysis of the spacing of and
artificial light sources and no general solu- Fluorescent tubular lamps.
tions are, therefore, available. This system
4
can also be integrated with artificial lighting 6.3.1 Their range, lumen efficiency, rated.
for the night only by suitable compromise in life, advantages/disadvantages are given
the illlumination levels desired. on next page.
22
SP : 32 - 1986
6.3.2 By far the most suitable lamp for tures should be used. Flame-proof fittings are
factory installations is the tubular fluorescent required for explosive atmospheres. In high-
lamp because of its shape and many other bay areas, ventilated type luminaries are gener-
.advantages, although its luminous efficiency is ally preferred rather than non-ventilated type,
no higher than between 50 and 65 lm/w. But because the dust collected on luminaires is
its highly-diffused radiation makes it economi- cleaned automatically by fast rising air currents.
cally unsuitable for high-bay factories. For In high narrow areas, luminaires having a
factory building with large ceiling heights, concentrating or medium-spread distribution
such as foundries, steel mills, aircraft plants, produce illumination on the horizontal plane
where high lumen output is more important most economically. In high wide areas, wide-
than colour, high pressure mercury vapour spread distribution provides good illumination.
( HPMV ) lamps are economically suitable. Luminaires near the walls may have narrower
Sodium vapour lamps have limited applications distribution to minimise light losses through
for lighting of interiors due to their colour and windows and walls. In low-bay areas either a
are sometimes used for street lighting and grid arrangement ( continuous rows at right
yards in cold climates as they have an advant- angles ) or continuous rows of fluorescent lumi-
.age of penetration in foggy weather. Tungsten naires are installed. These may be of the direct
filament lamps have limited use in factory or semi-indirect type shielded by louvers,
working areas because of their low efficiency, baffles or other devices.
short life and eventual frequent replacement.
These are mainly adopted for godowns because 6.5 Interior Lighting Design - For general
of their infrequent use and other places where lighting purposes in industrial areas, the reco-
the nature of work does not ,demand high illu- mmended practice is to design for a level of
mination levels. Their application is also limit- illumination on the working plane on the basis
ed either to local lighting or where used in of the recommended levels for different visual
combination with fluorescent lamps for power tasks given in Table 1. A method called lumi-
factor improvement. nous flux method or simply, lumen method, is
emplyed to provide for a uniform distribution
6.4 Types of Luminaires - Filament, of light over the entire work area. This method
mercury or fluorescent lamps may have lumi.. of designing the interior lighting systems for
naires of different types depending upon the various types of luminaires and conditions of
industrial requirements. Luminaires may be the rooms and their surroundings is described
enclosed, ventilated open or non-ventilated in 6.5.1 to 6.5.6.
open type. In smoky and dusty areas such as
steel mills, foundries, flour mills, and coal yards, 6.5.1 The initial luminous flux output of a
enclosed luminaries are used. These are usually few common incandescent and fluorescent lamps
of heavy duty type with a gasketted glass cover is known and is given in Table 7. Luminaires
.to protect the reflector and the light source are classified into five categories as given in
from collection of dust and dirt. In humid Table 8 in accordance with the flux output
atmospheres, such as steam processing, plating above and below the horizontal. The luminous
and washrooms also enclosed luminaries are flux reaching the workplace both directly from
used. Where heavy oils are used or processed the luminaire and by reflection and inter-refiec-
and oil mists are generated, vapour-tight fix- tion from walls and ceilings is determined by
23
SP:32 -1986
the type of luminaire, room index and the 6.5.3 Lumens reaching the working plane
reflectances of room surfaces. The ratio of this due to a number of lamps or luminaires, say
flux reaching the working plane and the flux .N, each having luminous flux output, say F,
generated by the lamps is known as coefficient will be N x F x C x M, where C is the coeffici-,
of utilization. Room index classifications are ent of utilization and 1V.fthe maintenance factor
based on room ratios which are calculated in for the luminaire in given room surroundings..
terms of room dimensions and mounting height. This must be equal to total luminous flux requi-
For direct, semi-direct and diffuse luminaires, red for a given ( average ) illumination inten-
sity level EAV for a room of area A, that is,
Width x length
Room index = EAv x A.
Mounting height above
working plane Therefore, number of lamps or luminaires,
x ( Width + length ) EAV x A
Jv
=FxCx M
TABLE 7 INITIAL LUMEN OUTPUT OF or, lumens per lamp or luminaire,
LAMPS AFTER 100 BURNING HOURS
E AV x A
F
SL TYPE OF LAIUP WATTS INITIAL = NxCxM
LUMENS
6.5.4 Having made a choice of the light
:;* (2) (3) (4)
sources and luminaire fittings from these for-
i) Vaccum type single coil 25 220
mulae, either the number of lamps of given
incandescent iamp 40 425
lumen output or the lamp size ( in terms of
ii) Gas-filled type coiled - 60 720 lumen output ) for a known number of lamps
coil incandescent lamp 100 1 380 in a given area can be worked out. Where
200 2 920 work areas are close to walls, the first row of
500 8 300 luminaires should be located close to the walls.
1000 18 600
6.5.5 Two worked out examples of interior
iii) White light fluorescent 40 2 770
tube lighting design of factories, one for saw-tooth
roof spinning shed and another for a small
iv) Cool day light fluorescent 40 2 440
tube workshop are given below:
24
SP : 32 - 1986
25
TABLE 9 COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION FOR TYPICAL LUMINAIRES WITH SUGGESTED MAXIMUM SPACING
RATIOS AND MAINTENANCE FACTORS
( Claus 6.5.2 )
- T-
ROOM
i RATIO COEFBICIENT OB UTILIZATION
1[NIJEX
-
(1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17)
06 034 0.30 0 25 033 030 026 033 029 025 029 0.25 023
08 042 038 034 042 O-37 0.34 0.42 037 034 037 034 031 Vent, Non-
10 0.50 044 0.40 049 0.44 0.40 048 041 040 043 040 036 vent
125 056 051 048 056 0.51 047 0.55 0.50 047 050 0.47 042
, 1.5 061 0.56 053 0.61 05G 0.52 060 055 052 055 052 047 Good 080 075
[ 20 0.69 063 060 068 063 060 067 063 0.59 062 0.59 054
2 ..5 072 068 064 0.72 0 68 064 0.70 067 0.64 O-66 063 059 Med. 075 065
1. Iorcelain-enamelled
Standard dome-incan. ;:; 079
0.73 071
0.75 068
073 075
O-79 0.71
0.75 068
0.73 073
077 070
074 0.67
072 073
069 0.71
0.67 0.68
063 Poor 0.65 056
Z 5.0 0.80 078 077 080 078 076 0.79 077 075 075 074 070
descent
-- - -
8:; 036 0.32 029 0.35 032 0.29 035 031 029 031 0.29 028
0.43 039 036 043 039 037 043 039 037 039 037 035
10 O-50 0.46 043 049 0.45 042 049 045 042 045 042 041 400 1 000
125 055 051 047 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.54 0.50 0.47 050 047 046 w w
15 059 055 053 059 055 052 058 054 052 054 051 050
20 064 061 058 064 0.60: 058 0.63 060 057 059 057 055 Good O-65 060
2. Improved-colouc mer [ 067 064 062 067 0.64 0.61 066 063 061 062 0.60 058
;:; 070 067 0.64 069 0.66 0.64 0.68 066 063 0.65 063 061 Med. 0.60
cury porcelain enamel 0.55
led wide distribution 074 070 068 073 070 068 0.71 069 0.67 068 067 064
high bay (ventilated j:; 075 0.72 071 0.74 0.72 070 0.73 0.71 u69 0.70 068 066
) Poor 0 55 050
--
06 037 032 029 037 032 029 037 032 029 032 026 028
08 047 042 0.38 046 042 038 0.46 041 0.38 041 038 0.37 400 1 000
10 0.54 0.48 045 054 0.48 045 053 048 045 048 045 043 w w
3. Improved-colour
cury
mer-
semi-reflector
085%
1.25
;:;
;:;
060
066
0.72
0.76
0.79
056
061
067
0.75
071
052
057
064
0.72
068
060
0.65
071
078
0.75
055
060
0.67
075
071
052
057
0.64
068
071
060
064
0.70
077
073
055
060
066
0.73
071
052
057
063
071
068
054
059
066
072
0.70
052
056
063
0.67
071
050
055
0.62
065
069
Good 065
Med. 060
060
055
lamp in porcelain 082 079 0.77 081 0.79 076 080 077 075 076 075 0.73 Poor 055 0.50
enamelled ventilatec ;:; 084 082 079 083 081 0.78 082 079 0.77 078 077 075
reflector
- - ____--.. --- _--_
06 0.31 025 023 031 025 023 0.29 025 021 025 021 020
0.8 0.40 034 030 .039 034 030 0.38 033 0:30 033 030 0.28
10 0.47 0.41 0.37 0.47 0.40 0.37 0.45 0.40 036 039 036 034
Good 0.75
1.25 0.54 0.48 0.44 052 0.48 0.43 052 046 0.43 0.45 042 0.40
ISI l-5
20
060
067
0.54
0.61
049
0.57
058
065
053
0.60
049
056
0.56
0.62
051
058
048
054
050
056
0.47
054
045
0.50
Med. 0.70
25 0.71 065 0.61 069 064 0.60 0.66 062 059 060 058 054 Poor 065
4. 30 0.74 069 0.65 072 067 0.65 0.69 066 062 062 061 057
Porcelain-enamelled
40 0.78 0.74 0.70 075 0.73 069 073 069 0.67 067 064 061
industrial with 13
5.0 0.81 077 075 079 076 0.74 0.76 072 0.70 070 067 0.64
crosswise shielding
-
06 0.32 027 0.24 031 0.26 0.23 030 0.25 0.22 0.25 0.22 021
20%. 0.8 0.41 036 032 040 035 0.31 0.38 034 030 033 030 0.27
1.0 0.49 043 039 047 042 038 045 040 037 038 036 0.32
Q- 1.25 056 0.50 045 054 0.48 044 051 0.46 043 044 041 0.36 Good 075
76% 061 0.55 0.50 0.59 053 049 055 051 047 048 045 040
*iI! 15
20 0.68 062 0.58 065 0.60 056 061 057 0.53 054 051 0.44
Med. 070
25 072 067 063 069 065 0.61 065 061 058 057 O-55 0.47 Poor 065
5. Porcelain-enamelled 3.0 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.72 063 065 0.67 064 061 0.60 058 0.49
industrial with 30 40 079 075 0.72 07G 073 0.70 071 0.68 066 063 062 0.54
Y crosswise shielding 5.0 0.82 079 0.76 078 07G 0.73 0 73 071 069 0.66 064 0.53
- _ __.._...~~~__ -_
06 0.31 0.26 0.23 0.30 025 022 0.20 024 0.22 0.24 0.22 0.20
20% 08 0.39 03.1 0 31 0% 0.33 0.28 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.31 027 0.~5
1.0 0.45 040 037 0.44 0.39 0.36 0.41 030 035 0.36 0.34 0.31
6
125 0.52 046 042 049 045 041 046 043 0.40 041 0.38 0.35 Good 0.75
o-9 15 055 050 046 054 049 046 050 047 04k 041 0.41 0.39
Ml Med. 070
60% 20 0.61 056 0.52 059 055 051 0.55 052 049 049 0.47 0.43
25 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.62 059 0.56 0.53 055 0.53 052 050 0.45 Poor 0.60
6. Porcelain-enamelled 30 0.68 064 0.60 0.65 0.62 059 0.61 058 056 0.54 0.52 0.47
industrial with 30 4.0 0.71 0.68 065 068 065 0.63 063 061 0.57 057 0.55 0.49
crosswise and length- 50 0.73 070 0.68 0.70 068 066 065 0.63 062 059 0.57 0.51
wise shielding
SP : 32 - 1986
( czuuse 7.1 )
28
SECTION 2
l VENTILATION
As in the Original Standard, this Page is Intentionally Left Blank
SP I 32 - 1986
SECTION 2 VENTILATION
31
SP : 32 - 1986
32
SP : 32 - 1986
50
11.5 An index which is applicable to work- 11.6 Studies on Indian workers well acclima-
situations in factories where sweating occurs tized, wearing light clothing and doing work of
and temperatures are fairly high is the predeter- moderate severity ( about 350 watts work rate )
mined four-hour sweat rate ( P4SR ) which is have shown that the limits of heat tolerance for
found empirically from a nomogram based on dry heat are 46C dry-bulb and 32% wet-bulb
thermal environmental factors, amount of phy- and for wet heat, 35.6% dry-bulb and 33.3%
sical activity and clothing worn by workers. A wet-bulb, but since the studies were conducted
sweat rate of 4.5 litres in four hours is the upper on workers of good physique, these limits have
limit of tolerence for work in hot environment. been lowered, somewhat arbitrarily, and upper
On grounds of efficiency and health, a sweat safe limits in terms of maximum permissible
rate of 2.5 litres in four hours is considered wet-bulb temperature corresponding to a given
optimal for workers of European stock. For dry-bulb temperature have been suggested, as
metal workers doing light work ( about 230 in Table I 1.
watts work rate), this sweat rate corresponds to
12. CONTROL OF HEAT
a limiting effective temperature of about 30C.
For sedentary work ( about 115 watts work 12.1 Application of ventilation in factory build-
rate ), the limit may be exceeded to about ings should be preceded by and considered
33.5%. alongwith the measures to control heat which
33
SP:32-1988
may otherwise give rise to excessively high 12.1.1 Solar I-hat-In tropics, new build-
temperatures. Besides the solar heat, the ings should be oriented for minimum solar
main sources of heat in factories are the hot load during summer, so that less heat is trans-
processes, such as work near furnaces, kilns, mitted through walls and ceiling. Consistant
molten metal, forgings, etc, and the processes with .the requirements of ventilation there
which are both hot and humid, such as should be minimum number of windows on the
calendering work in textile mills, vats, etc. It south and west walls, and the roofs should be
is neither economical nor feasible to stop inclined away from the sun rays. For this
escape of all the process heat or to offset it reason, the factory buildings in northern parts
completely by the usual methods of ventilation. of India are mostly north-light roofed build-
The measures to control such heat will not ings. To avoid heat due to solar radiation on
only facilitate better design of ventilation but roofs from being reradiated and transmitted
also reduce their cost. The various methods into the factory buildings, roof should either
of control of and protection against heat ex- be made of insulating materials or a false ceil-
posures are discussed in 12.1.1 to 12.1.7. ing or double roof with a well-ventilated air
50
LO
10
34
SP : 32 l 1986 .
space between the roof and the ceiling should the corner of the building by. the outside wall
be provided. Marked reduction in heat flow to facilitate heat being carried away.
through the roof and in ceiling temperature is
obtained by roof insulation. It is recommen- TABLE 12 REFLECTIVITIES OF SOME
ded that an insulation lining of 2.5 to 5 cm TYPICAL SURFACES AND CORRES-
PONDING EMISSIVITY
thickness ofsuitable material equvalent to not
more than 2.30 W/( ma C ) heat transmission
REFLECTIVITY TO EUISSIVITY
coefficient for the composite roof be provided C-_-h-_-_~ TO TEER~VXAL
on the roof of corrugated iron or corrugated Solar Thermal RADIATION
asbestos or other thin sheets. Some reduction Radiation Radiation
can also be achieved by painting the roof with (1) (2) (3) (4)
white paint or white wash or with other heat percent percent percent
reflecting paints. Roof could also be of alumi- Silver, polished 93 98 2
nium sheets which have high reflectivity to solar Aluminium sheets 85 92 8
radiation even after they get old. Table 12 polished
gives the reflectivities of some typical surfaces Aluminium sheets, 60 65 35
old
to solar radiation, to thermal ( ground ) radia-
Lime whitewash 70-80 * *
tion and corresponding emissivity to thermal
( CaC03
radiation. 1
White lead paint 75 5 95
TABLE 11 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE WET-BULB White cardboard 60-70 5 95
TEMPERATURES FOR GIVEN DRY BULB or paper
TEMPERATURES Light green paint 50 5 95
( Clause 11.6 ) Aluminium paint 45 45 45
Brick, various 23-48 5 95
DRY-BULB MAXIMU~UWET-BULB colours
TEMPERATURE, TEXPERATURE,
C Grey paint 25 5 95
OC
Black matte 3 5 95
30 29.0
35 28.5 *Data not available.
280
:tz 27.5
50 27.0 1261.3 Insulation - The insulation of fur-
NOTE 1 -The limits indicated in the table are naces and other heat-producing equipment
based on the upper safe limits recommended in the
including pipes, vessels and vats will not only
report Thermal Stress on Textile Industry ( Report
No. 17 ) issued by the Chief Adviser Factories, reduce the amount of heat exposure but also
Government of India, Ministry of Labour and result in the consequent saving in fuel
Employment, New Delhi; these are limits beyond consumption of the equipment. But the mere
which the industry should not allow the thermal insulation will be of no value unless the heat
conditions to go for more than one hour conti-
nuously. The limits are based on a series of studies produce and dissipated into the building
conducted on Indian subjects in a psychrometric escapes through ventilation. This may be by
chamber and on other data on heat casualties in gravity through roof or by exhaust ventilation
earlier studies conducted in Kolar Gold Fields and over the hot processes.
elsewhere.
NOTE 2 - Figures given in the table are not inten- 12.1.4 Substitution - Sometimes, it is possi-
ded to convey that human efficiency at 50C will ble to substitute a hot process by a method
remain the same as at 30C provided appropriate
wet-bulb temperatures are maintained. Efficiency that involves application of localised or more
decreases with rise in the dry-bulb temperature for efficiently controlled method of heating. Exam-
a given wet-bulb temperature attained and efforts ples include induction furnaces instead of
should be made to bring down the dry-bulb conventional heating furnaces, cold-rivetting
temperature as well as much as possible. Long
exposure to temperature of 50C dry-bulb/27C or spot welding instead of hot-rivetting, etc.
wet-bulb may prove dangerous.
12.1.5 Radiation Shielding - Hot processes
NOTE 3 - Refrigeration or other method of cool-
ing is recommended in all cases where conditions
like furnaces and hot surfaces such as layers of
would be worse than those shown in this table. molten metal ( emanating radiant heat ) can
best be controlled by placing a shield having a
12.1.2 Isolation - As regards the heat gene- highly reflecting surface between the source of
rated by hot processes within the factory heat and the workers so that a major portion
building, the first obvious step is to eliminate of the heat falling on the shield is reflected
the heat sources wherever possible or to isolate back to the surface and only a small percentage
or segregate them. Thus, some of the hot reradiated and transmitted ( emitted ) into the
equipment could be placed out of doors with working atmosphere. Since the heat emitted
only a protective roof. The location of furnaces by the shielding material depends on its
in separate wings of the factory rather than temperature ( absolute ), it should not be in
in a large single building will simplify the direct contact with the hot surface SO that it
problem of ventilation of the rest of the build- becomes a secondary sources of radiant heat.
ing. Some such equipment may be located in An intervening space should be provided and
35
SP : 32 - 1966
provision made for free flow upwards of the 13. AMOUNT OF VENTILATION
air heated in the space between the hot surface REQUIRED
and the shield ( see Fig. 17 ).
13.1 Meteorological data show that both in
Sheets of tin and aluminium are employed
hot arid regions and in coastal areas in
as shield which are either placed permanently
summer, the air temperatures are generally
in closed proximity with the hot surface or
lower than the safe upper limits, and therefore,
moved from place to place to intervene the hot
an adequate supply of outside air by ventilation
processes from the workers.
will help in relieving the thermal stress caused
12.1.6 Local Relief - In certain situations from indoor conditions which are worsened
when a general reduction of heat exposures by heat generated from machinery and hot
throughout the building interior is not feasible processes. Ventilation has, therefore, three
and all the above methods of control main functions to perform- bringing down the
may not help in bringing down the thermal temperature inside the building closer to that
environments to a tolerable degree, relief outside, distributing the air satisfactorily
may be provided locally, that is, at the throughout the building interiors and main-
workplaces by surrounding the exposed workers taining an adequate air movement at places
with an acceptable environment either by of work. Although every case has to be studied
providing a complete enclosure fully air condi- according to the conditions prevailing, the
tioned or separately ventilated, or by surround- amount of ventilation ( the quantity of air
ing the workers with a relatively cool atmos- in cubic metres per minute ) is governed chiefly
phere through a direct supply of cool air at the by the size of the building space and itsiusage,
working level or by directing high velocity duration and type of occupancy and the nature
man-coolers. The Iast method is used to pro- of the activities, total amount of sensible heat
vide spot cooling in large space where scatt- gained from sun through walls, roof, windows,
ered work spots and localised sources of heat and other openings, and that generated from
make it highly impracticable to maintain a equipment, processes, lights and occupants,
tolerable environment throughout the space. and temperature conditions desired to be
maintained inside the building space at the
12.1.7 Personal Protection - Where operations working level in relation to those of outside
do not permit high velocity air stream or air, and is given by the formula:
(spot cooling and where hot work is carried
on in confined spaces, protective clothing or The quantity of air in ms/min
shielding of heat reflecting type or air-cooled
suits are the only effective means found for 0.049 6 x sensible heat gained in watts
=
protecting the workers from highly abnormal Temperature rise in C in relation
heat exposures. to outdoor temperature
36
SP : 32 - 1986
13.1.1 Temperature rise refers mainly to the and other openings and heat given off by
difference between the air temperature at the machinery, occupants and other sources inside
outlet ( roof exit ) and at the inlet openings for the building. For more information on internal
outdoor air. As very little data exist on allow- sources of heat and solar heat, reference may
able temperature rise values for supply of out- be made to Appendix A. This appendix also
side air in summer months, the values given in covers Table 22 which gives values of thermal
Table 13 related to industrial buildings may be transmittance ( U-values ) far typical building
used for general guidance. constructions for walls, roofs and shading devi-
ces. These U-values will help in giving additio-
TABLE 13 ALLOWABLE TEMPERATURE- nal heat gain to or loss from buildings when
RISE VALUES
there is difference of air temperature between
inside or outside of walls or roof.
HEIQHT OF OUTLET TEMPERATURE RISE
OPENINQS, m C 13.6 General ventilation in a building can be
6 3 to 45 provided either by natural means or by artifi-
9 4.5 to 65 cial ( mechanical ) means. Efforts should be
12 6.5 to 11 made to design industrial buildings from the
NOTE 1 - The conditions are limited to light point of view of natural ventilation keeping in
or meduim heavy manufacturing process, freedom view the industrial processes carried on therein,
from radiant heat and inlet openings not more than particularly the location of the heat producing
3 to 45 m above floor level. equipment and processes. Only when natural
NOTE 2 -At the working zone between floor ventilation fails to provide adequate thermal and
level and 15 m above floor level, the recommended
maximum allowable temperature rise for air is 2 to environments that mechanical means of venti-
3C above the air temperature at the inlet openings. lation may be employed. Sometimes, certain
operations require removal of heat and other
13.2 If the latent heat gained from the manu- contaminatents before general ventilation is
facturing processes and occupants is also known provided for the whole building ( see 12 and 19 ) .
to be sufficiently high as in case of steam calen- This may be kept in view in designing build-
dering processes, this should also be worked ings for either natural ventilation or mechanical
out, and assuming a suaitable value for the ventilation or both.
allowable rise in vapour pressure, the quantity
14. NATURAL VENTILATION
of air is given by:
68.79 x latent heat 14.1 Forces which operate to induce natural
Quantity of air gained in watts ventilation in a building are due to:
in ms/min pressure exerted by the wind outside,
= Allowable vanour nres-
1 1
37.
SP : 32 - 1986
may not be sufficient for providing reasonable to conjecture that it is in the region of 30 m
comfort to the occupants. beyond which sufficient reliance can not be
placed on prevailing winds. Approximately
14.1.2 Since thermal head caused by chim-
half the ventilating area of openings should be
ney effect can be set up only when heat produ-
between floor level and a height of 2.25 m from
cing equipment or processes are present inside the floor, and so arranged that there will be
a factory building, the factory buildings which passage of air across all parts of the building.
do not have such hot processes, that is, build- The rest of the ventilating openings may be
ings with assembly, fabrication or machinin.g
provided under the eaves to assist in window-
jobs, special attention should be given to then
to-ceiling cross ventilation. Direct short circuit
design to provide wind action. Although the
between openings on two sides at high level
meteorological data for various cities and towns may clear the air at the level without produc-
would show that wind forces are not consistent
ing appreciable ventilation at the lower level of
and vary both in intensity and direction, for
occupancy. A common mistake is to block the
design purposes, the wind may be assumed to
openings by placing a range of offices, latrine
come from one prominent direction either at blocks or stairs along the greater part of the
right angle to one face of a building or obii- outside walls, thereby defeating the very pur-
quely. The side from which the wind blows is pose of the openings in the walls. When wind
called windward side, causing a positive pre-
direction is not dependable the openings should
ssure to be built up, and the opposite side from be so arranged that as far as possible there is
which wind leaves is called leeward side, build- approximately an equal area on all sides of the
ing a negative pressure, and this difference in building and all the openings are located at the
pressure creates the necessary draught of air
same level near the occupants. Thus, no matter
through the building. If the wind is incident what the wind direction is, there are always
obliquely, say at an angie of 45 to one face of some openings directly exposed to wind pre-
a building and therefore to the other adjoining ssure and the others on leeward side to air suc-
face as well, the positive pressure will be built tion and effective movement of air through the
up on the two adjoining faces on the windward building is assured.
side and negative pressure on other leeward
faces to cause necessary ventilation through the
building. 14.3 Roofed Ventilation - Cross ventilation
by provision of windows and wall ventilators is
14.2 Cross Ventilation - Cross veutilation suitable only for narraw factory buildings in
through one side of the building to the other which openings are provided at least on two
can usually be obtained in narrow buildings of opposite sides open to outside. When the build-
the width common in the multistoreyed type by ings are wide as is the case in most of the single-
the provision of large and suitably placed win- storyed factory buildings, good results can
dows or combination of windows and wall ven- often be achieved by provision of roofed venti-
tilators for the inflow and outflow of air. Air lation. Roofed ventilation can be designed
movement will have to be sufficiently high dur- either from the point of view of stack action for
ing summer months to bring down the tempera- removal from floor level to roof, of smoke,
ture of the inside air as nearly the same as that fumes and other contaminants liberated during
of the outside air. Although it is difficult to heat producing processes or for wind action to
evolve a standard to determine the area of provide roof-to-floor ventilation when the
ventilating openings required for providing manufacturing processes do not contribute
natural ventilation by cross ventilation through appreciably to the heat of the environment. In
a building owing to large variation in clima- the latter case, the principle involved is the
tic conditions, heat loads within a building and same as in the case of cross ventilation, to
other physical factors, experience indicates that make use of the high pressure on the windward
the size of the room may be taken as the basis. side of the building and the reduced pressure
For narrow buildings having width not more on the leeward side to effect sufficient floor of
than 25 m and where heat gain from manufac- air through the building.
turing process or from radiating equipment is
not much, the area of openings available for
14.3.1 Three types of buildings with roofs
natural ( cross ) ventilation may, as a working
commonlv used in factories will be considered
rule, be 10 percent of the total floor area. For
from the boint of view of natural ventilation:
wider buildings, the area of openings will have
to be increased so as to provide good amount a) Double-pitched roofed building with
of ventilation and air movement to reach the a continuous ridge in the middle of
centre of the building. The data available do each bay,
not permit precise determination of the maxi-
b) Saw-tooth ( north-light ) roofed build-
mum width up to which buildings of height
ing, and
usually found in factories may be extended
while still being effectively ventilated by natu- c) Monitor roofed building with louvers
ral means by wind action, but it is reasonable or other openinings in each monitor.
38
SP : 32 - 1986
39
SP : 32 - 1986
PRESSURE SUCTION-
I I
FIG. 19 GENERAL PATTERN OF THE AIRFLOW OVER AND TBROUCH A BUILDING WITH CONTINUOUS
OPEN RIDGE PITCHED-ROOF WITH RIDGE FITTED WITH LONGITUDINAL BAFFLES
does not permit to utilise the winds for ventila- them and no draught would be iduced [ see
tion, and this deficiency can be compensated Fig. 23B 1. Hence there should be an arrange-
at least in part by increasing the ventilation ment for closing and opening of the monitor
openings in the southern walls ( see Fig. 22 ). ventilators. For buildings with repetitive
The penetration of direct rays of the sun from monitors in the roof, same pressure zones and
the south can be prevented conveniently by suction zones would be created if one side of
over-hanges or adjustable louvers or openings each monitor is closed and the other kept open
incorporating opaque materials or heat absorb- [ see Fig. 24 1. Such an arrangement is of parti-
ing glass. When the wind blows from the east cular advantage when there is considerable
or the west, the provision or omission of the release of heat or smoke directly under each
openings in the north-light roofs does not monitor. However, it is difficult in actual
appear to be important, In such cases it is practice to control adjustable openings to suit
desirable to provide large areas of ventilation the direction of prevailing winds, and if there
openings in the east and west walls of the buil- are no sources of heat and smoke, as is usual
dings in localities where winds blows frequently in factories with this type of roofs, the openings
from these directions. may be provided only at the wind-
ward end and leeward end of the building
14.3i1.3 Monitor-roofed building - In a if advantage is to be taken of the
narrow building with single monitor, if the winds blowing across the monitor roofed
openings on the monitor on windward side are building to produce air movement at the work-
kept closed and those on leeward side opened, ing level. In intermediate bays, it may be
an upward draught of air from within the build- preferable to use small adjustable openings
ing would be induced [ see Fig. 23A 1. If, how- which may allow stagnant hot air accumulating
ever, openings on both sides of the monitor are near the roof, particularly during the periods
opened, short-circuiting will take place through of clam, to escape.
40
SP : 32 - 1986
WIND CAUSING
OUTFLOW
WIND
ou
. . /
---
* B
FIG. 21 MODIFICATIONS
IN THE SHAPE OF SAW TOOTH TO
PREVENT DOWN DRAUGHTS
41
SP : 32 - 1986
WIND -
14.4 Amount of Air 14.4.2.1 The largest flaw per unit area of
openings is obtained when inlets and outlets
14.4.1 By Wind Action - Rate of air flow are equal, and both the above equations are
by wind action when openings are provided based on this condition. Increasing outlet area
both on the windward and leeward sides of over inlet area or vice versa.will increase the air
the building is given by the expression: flow but not in proportion, to added area.
Q= 16.7 KAY When the areas of inlet and outlet openings
where are unequal A given in the above two equa-
Q is the rate of air ilow, in ms/min, tions will be the smaller area and the rate of
air-flow will be increased according to the
X is the coefficient of effectiveness,
percentage shown below:
A is free area of inlet openings ( wind-
ward or leeward side ) in m*, and Ratio of two areas 1.5 2 3 4 6
V is the wind velocity in km/h. Increase in percentage 18 26.5 34 37 38
The coefficient of effectiveness X depend 14.4.3 Combined Efect - When both the
upon the direction of wind relative to the forces due to wind outside and temperature
openings. It varies from 0.5 to 0.6 for wind difference are acting together, the resulting
blowing perpendicular to the openings and airflow is not equal to the sum of the two
from 0.25 to O-35 for wind blowing obliquely quantities estimated from the above two equa-
at 45 to the openings. tions. The flow through an opening is propor-
14.4.1.1 For wind data, local meterologi- tional to the square root of the sum of the two
cal office should be consulted. However, data heads acting on that opening. When the air
on wind direction and wind speed at impor- ilow due towind action and that due to tem-
tant Indian cities given in the publication perature difference are equal and ventilating
Building Physics by Dr V. Narsimhan, are openings are operated so as to coordinate
reproduced in Tables 15 and 16. them, the total air-flow through the building
is about 30 percent greater than that produced
14.4.2 By Thermal Head - Rate of air- by either head acting independently under
flow due to convection effects arising from conditions ideal to it. This percentage decrea-
temperature difference between the inside and ses rapidly as one head increases over the
outside of a building is given by the other. The effect of the larger head will al-
expression: ways predominate. The following simplified
Q = 7.0 .4 1/ H ( tl - t, ) method is employed. Calculate the flow produ-
ced by each force seperately under conditions
where of openings best suited for coordination of for-
Q is the rate of air flow in ms/min, ces. Determine the ratio of the flow produced
A is the free area of inlet openings in ma by temperature difference to the sum of the
H is the vertical distance between the two flows and find out the actual flow due to
inlets and outlets in m, and combined forces from the following table:
ti and t,, are temperatures of indoor air Flow due to temperature 100 75 50 40 30 20
( at height H ) and outside air in C difference ( convection
respectively. effects ) as percentage
This equation is based on 65 percent of the total
effectiveness of openings. This percentage Actual flow as a multi- 1 l-1 1.3 1.7 2.4 4
should be reduced to 50 percent if conditions ple of the floor due to
are not favourable. temperature difference
.43
%i
TABLE 15 WIND DIRECTIONS AT IMPORTANT INDIAN CITIES ..
w
(Cfuuse 14.4.1 ) I
Jan Feb Mar *pr May June July Aug Sep Ott Nov Dee
Ahmadabad NE/NW NE/W NW/W NW/W SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW NW/SW NW/NE NE/NE NE/NE
Bombay NW/NE NW/NE NW/N NW/N NW/N W/SW w/w W/W NW/W NW/E NW/E NW/NE
Bangalore E/E E/E E/SE E/SW W/NW W/W w/w W/W W/W W/E E/E E/E
Bikaner NE/W W/E W/NW NW/W SW/W SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/W SW/SW NW/S NE/NW
Bhopal NE/W W/NW W/NW W/NW W/W W/W w/w W/W W/W NE/W NE/E NE/E
Calcutta N/NW NW/N SW/SW SW/SW SIS S/S .S/SW S/SW SW/S N/SW N/NW N/N
Delhi NW/W NW/W NW/N NW/W NW/W SE/E SE/W W/SE W/NW W/NW NW/W W/NW
f:
Goa E/W NW/W NW/W W/NW NW/W W/SW W/W W/W NW/W W/SW W/E E/W
Hyderabad E/SE E/SE SE/E SE/E W/NW W/W W/W W/W W/NW NE/E NE/E E/NE
Jodhpur NE/NE NE/NE NE/W SW/W SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW NE/NE NE/NE
Madras NE/NW E/SE SE/SW SE/S SE/S SW/W SW/W SW/NW SE/SW E/NW NE/NW NE/NE
Patna W/SW NW/SW W/W E/W E/NE E/NE E/E E/E E/E E/SW W/W W/W
Pune WISE W/NW W/NW W/NW W/W W/W W/W W/W W/W W/E E/E E/SE
Srinagar NW/W NW/W NW/W W/SE SE/S SE/NE SE/S W/SE SE/W NW/SE SE/N N/NW
Trivandrum SW/NE W/NE W/N W/N W/NW NW/W NW/NW NW/NW NW/NW W/NW W/SW W/SW
Vishakhapatnam E/W S/SE SW/S SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW SW/SW NE/E NE/E E/NE
.
SP : 32 - 1986
14.4.3.1 The following example will make This gives 20 air changes per hour which
the method clear. should be more than sufficient when there is
no heat to be removed.
Example 5 - Assume a drop forge shop 60 m
long x 30 m wide x 10 m roof height at the Solution for Combined Heads
monitor above the inlet openings. The cubic Since the windward side of the monitor
contents of the shop space is 18 000 ms. The is closed when the wind is blowing, the flow
desired summer temperature rise for this height due to the temperature difference must be cal-
of the building may be assumed as 5C and culated for this condition using the table as
prevailing winds assumed to be 12 km/h per- given in 14.4.2.1. This table shows that when
pendicular to the longer sides of the building, the inlets are twice the size of the outlets, in
that is, across the monitor. If the internal this case 140 ms in the side walls and 70 ms in
sensible heat and the solar heat gain into the the monitor, the flow will be increased by 26.5
building in the afternoon is assumed to 697 percent over that produced by equal openings.
800 W. Find: Using the smaller area of the openings and the
a) The area of openings at the inlets flow per m* of the inlet openings obtained
( windows/louvers ) and outlets ( at earlier, the calculated amount of air flow due
the monitor ). to temperature difference for this condition
b) The rate of air flow through the would be
building. = 1.265 x 70 x 50 = 4 430 ms/min
Solution Adding the two computed values
From the formula given in 13.1, the in- Air flow due to temperature difference
flow required to remove the heat:
= 4 430 ms/min, 42.5 percent
= O-049 6 x sensible heat gained in W
Air flow due CI 6 000 ms/min, 57.5 percent
temperature rise in C towind --- ---
0.049 6 x 697 800 Total 10 430 100
= 5 - 6 925 ms/min
--- ---
This works out to 6925 x 60
From the table given in 14.4.3 it is deter-
18 000
mined that when the flow due to temperature
- 23 air changes per hour.
difference is 42.5 percent of the total, the
Solution for Temjerature Dzyerence Only actual ilow due to the combined forces will be
Rate of air flow due to convection effects about 1.6 times that calculated for the tempera-
arising from temperature difference is given by ture difference along, or
the formula given in 14.4.2 (c). From this, = 1.6 x 14 430 = 7 088 ms/min
the area of the inlet ( or outlet ) should be:
This works out to about 23.6 air changes
A= Q per hour.
. 7.9 4 H ( t1 - to ) . The original flow due to temperature diffe-
6 925 . rence alone was 6 924 ms/min, with all openings
~ = 140ms in use. The effect of wind is to increase this to
= 7X2/10x5
7 088 ms/min even though half the outlets area
With 140 ma of inlet openings distributed is closed.
around the side walls, there will be about 50 -
ms in each long wall and 20 ms in each end 14.5 Judgement is required for proper location
wall. The outlet area will be equally distribut- of openings in a building, especially in the roof,
ed on the two sides of the monitor, or 70 ma where heat, smoke and fumes are to be remo-
on each side. ved. Usually windward openings in the roof
This is about 7.77 percent of the floor should be closed; but if the wind is so slight
.area as also the wall area. Also, flow per ms of that the temperature head can overcome it, all
openings may be kept opened.
Met or outlet area = -L92-5 = 50 ms with all
140 15. MECHANICAL VENTILATION
inlets open.
15.1 Ventilation by natural means is not always
Solution for Wind Only practicable nor adequate enough to provide
With the wind perpendicular to the long thermal environments in factory buildings which
side, there will be 50 ms of openings in its path could prevent bodily discomfort of workers or
for inflow and 70 ms in the leeward side of the which could be tolerated without injury to their
monitor for the outflow with windward side health. Sometimes, work piaces cannot be pro-
closed. The inflow as calculated by the formula vided with ventilating openings due to their
given in 14.4.1 will be - situation with respect to adjoining buildings,
Q= 16.7ECA ID 16.7 x 0.6 x 50 x 12 or due to processes carried on in them. In case
= 6 000 ms/min. of large buildings, because of their configura-
SP : 32 - 1986
tion, natural means may fail to provide ade- aggravated, and the existing system may often
quate ventilation. In such situations, mechani- become ineffective. It has also been found that
cal means of ventilation should be resorted to. when the exhaust is insufficient, the workers
. .
I n providmg mechanical ventilation, proper complain of discomfort and open the windows
consideration should be given to the size and on the side on which the fans are located.
configuration of the building, the arrangement This causes what is known as short-circuiting
of inlet openings in relation to outlet openings, of air as the air instead of being exhausted
location and disposition of fans, air grilles and from the building is taken from the openings,
ductwork, if any, with due regard to manufac- thus defeating the very purpose for which ex-
turing processes carried on. haust fans are provided. This is a very common
15.2 Mechanical ventilation may be either (a) fault with this type of ventilation. The solution
by exhaust whereby air is removed from a lies in keeping the openings on the side of the
building by means of a fan while fresh air is fans completely closed while the fans are working
introduced from windows and other openings, and augmenting the exhaust capacity so as to
or (b) by positive ventilation whereby air is provide sufficient amount of air movement
supplied by means of a fan or blower from out- throughout the span of the building.
side, or (c) by combination of both exhaust and 15.2.1.3 In a large building, exhaust ven-
positive ventilaton. In case of positive ventila- tilation can be provided by having a fan of
tion, it is possible, where necessary, to cool the adequate size connected to a ductwork along-
air before being brought into the building side a wall with windows closed so that air is
either by way of evaporative cooling or by air- drawn across the building interior through the
conditioning. exhaust openings in the duct. The fan can be
15.2.1 Exhaust Ventilation centrally located on an attic or other unused
space and arranged to draw proportionately
15.2.1.1 Ventilation by this method can from several work areas of the building ( see
be eflected in the case of narrow buildings. Fig. 25 ). To overcome resistance of the duct-
Exhaust fans are provided in walls on one side work, the fan may be of centrifugal type.
of the building or in the attic and the roofs to Exhaust ventilation with ductwork may [also be
draw large volumes of air through the building applied to draw air from exhaust appliances to
from the opposite side. These fans are usually remove harmful dusts, fumes, etc, given off in
of propeller type since they are required to ope- manufacturing processes ( see 19.1 ).
rate against little or no resistance. Care should
be taken to see that adequate inlet openings 15.2.2 Positive Ventilation
for air are provided so as to minimise draughts 15.2.2.1 Compared with exhaust system,
caused by high inlet velocities, and to avoid positive ventilation affords better control of
drop in the efficiency of the fans. The total inlet atmospheric conditions inside the factory build-
area should be at least three times the total ing. Positive ventilation is useful where exhaust
disc area of the fans. ventilation cannot be readily applied as in very
15.2.1.2 Location of the exhaust fans in large departments. In this system of ventilation,
relation to the inlet openings is important. If air is forced into the building by means of
the building is later extended, the problem is centrally located supply fans and is distributed
46
SP t 32 - 1986
through suitably located ducts. The fans are the angle between the sides and axis of the
usually of centrifugal type or sometimes axial duct should never exceed 30 and should pre-
type with large capacity. Unit ventilators way ferably be not more than 15.
be provided for individual roofs and may be 15.2.3 Combined Systems - The combined
placed against outside wall near the central line systems having positive ventilation with supply
of the room. As mentioned earlier, the supply of air through ducts and exhaust of air into
air can be cooled or conditioned, if desired, return ducts have the advantage of providing
before it is passed into the plenum chamber and better control of thermal environments and
ducts ( see 16 and 17 ) and the installation better distribution of air over the entire area
equipped with systems of control that permits of occupancy in particularly wider buildings.
ventilating and air-conditioning effect to be By supplying proper quantities of air in pro-
varied, while the fans are operating continu- portion to the heat load generated in respec-
ously, to suit the requirements. The slight posi- tive areas at suitable velocities in the required
tive pressure set up within the building pre- areas through ductwork and by extracting the
vents inward leakage of cold or warm outside air in the return ducts in proportion to the
air. The volume of air admitted can be regula- supply air quantities and recirculating this air
ted and distributed in the desired manner after properly mixing it with conditioned air
through the ductwork. The air that can be set ( evaporatively cooled or air-conditioned ),
in motion by supply outlets is many times more completely satisfactory environment is obtained.
than what is possible by exhaust. In certain departments where hot processes are
15.2.2.2 Fresh air is drawn through SUC- carried on, advantage is taken of the natural
tion ducts or suction towers and is distributed upward movement of the air and floor-to-roof
into the building either by under-floor or over- ventilation is obtained by a combination of
head delivery ducts with outlets situated at forced under floor ventilation and roof extrac-
intervals. Under-floor ductwork is generally of tors which are provided preferably over the
masonry construction and the outlets are provi- heat-producing machines or processes. In a
ded in the floor at an interval of 4 to 6 m. In combined system it is preferable to provide
providing overhead ventilation, the air is slight excess of exhaust if there are adjoining
brought from main ductwork to branch pipes occupied spaces and a slight excess of supply if
or risers. Considerable advantage may be there are no such spaces. Unit exhausters can
achieved by incorporating the ducts and risers also be used in combination with unit ventila-
into the building structure and by having inte- tors and located along outside walls.
rior surfaces off the ducts carefully finished to 15.3 Mechanical Roof Ventilators - Cowl
render them smooth and airtight and treated type roof ventilators described earlier under
to prevent the possibility of duct being scoured Natural Ventilation can be equipped with
from the walls of the ductwork by the passing fan barrel and motor thus permitting gravity
air. In particularly hot areas, overhead ventila- operation or motorised high capacity, at will.
tion may be provided by means of sheet metal Two types of roof ventilators are available:
ductwork either to improve the general com-
fort in the work place or to give local relief. a) the vertical discharge or foundry-type,
and
15.2.2.3 Ducts should be so designed and b) the low-hood type.
laid as to convey the air at suitable velocities
with due regard to economy of materials and 15.3.1 In case of saw-toothed ( north-light)
power. Ducts should be smooth and as straight roofs, when these motor-driven roof ventilators
as possible. Sharp bends and sudden enlarge- are running to exhaust, the openings in the
ments and contractions should be avoided. For north-light within their area of influence should
changing the direction or dimensions of a duct
SPr32-1986
by short-circulating . In case of flatroofed or air, after getting mixed with the inside air, will
minitor-roofed buildings, combined positive be lowered to such an extend as to give ade-
and exhaust ventilation can be provided by quate body cooling of workers and also remove
roof ventilators, with alternate air inlet and possible difficulty caused by the rusting of
exhaust adjacent to one another without the equipment.
effect of short-circuiting . Exhaust fan will
exert very little influence beyond a velocity 16.2 To deal with problems on evaporative
contour of about 15 m/min, which is just a cooling process or, for that matter, other air-
short distance from the fan. The supply air, conditioning processes, an elementary know-
owing partly to forced ventilation and partly to ledge of psychiometry ( hygrometry ) is requi-
negative pressure caused by ex!laust, will red. Either relevant psychrometric tables on
stream into the space below in a straight line physical properties of moist air or psychrome-
until its momentum is spent or it runs into an tric chart given in Fig. 26 may be referred to.
obstruction. Although the supply and exhaust The latter is more convenient to use as it shows
ventilators are adjacent, there will be no short- graphically for a given barometric pressure the
circuiting of air between them if the throw of air properties, such as, dry bulb temperature,
the supply air is sufhcient to reach the working wet bulb temperature, specific humidity (mois-
level, but there will be, if the throw is much ture content) dew point, percent relative
less than that. humidity, specific volume and total heat (speci-
fic enthalpy), and is particularly useful for
16. EVAPORATIVE COOLING representing processes in which air is cooled,
heated, humidified, dehumidified or mixed
16.1 While discussing functions of ventilation, with air from other sources.
it was pointed out that to remove heat gained
in a factory building and thus to bring down 16.3 The evaporative cooling process involving
the temperature of air inside the building clo- adiabatic saturation of air ( at almost constant
ser to that outside, large volumes ( quantities ) enthalpy ) is represented by the outdoor wet-
of outside air are required ( see 13.1 ). If the bulb temperature line on the chart. Since in an
temperature of outside air is lowered before the evaporative cooling plant, leaving air dry-bulb
air is discharged into the building, much less air temperature does not quite reach the entering,
will be needed and the cooled air could even be air wet-bulb temperature, that is, leaving air is
mixed with part of the inside air ( recirculated somewhat short of saturation ( the degree of
air ) before discharge. Air-cooling by mecha- saturation depending on the number of water
nical refrigeration gives complete control of the nozzles, their arrangement and their direction
environment ( see 17 ) and offers the greatest with respect to the direction of the air passing
relief of course, but such a system is very through the plant ), the saturation efficiency,
expensive and may be difficult to justify, except or merely the efficiency, of the plant is defined
in areas requiring controlled ambient condi- in terms of the extent the leaving air dry-bulb
tions for product uniformity precision work or temperature approaches the wet-bulb tempera-
where the increased efficiency of the workers is ture, and is expressed as the ratio of the diffe-
reflected in a reasonable return on the invest- rence of the entering ( outdoor ) air dry-bulb
ment of the system. In many situations, parti- temperature and the leaving air dry-bulb tem-
cularly in hot arid regions of the country where rature to the difference of the entering air dry-
summers are hot and the humidity ( and there- bulb temperature at the wet-bulb temperature
fore the wet-bulb temperature ) of air is low, of the entering ( or leaving ) air.
evaporative cooling, using positive ventilation,
has been found to be both economical and Or, saturation efficiency
useful. Evaporative cooling may be employed
outdoor DB -- leaving DB
effectively to lower the temperature of the
supply air to near the wet-bulb temperature, = outdoor DB - outdoor WB
which could take care of the indoor sensible
heat loads and thus help in maintaining indoor 16.3.1 This condition of air represents the air
conditions within the upper safe limits given in as it leaves the evaporative cooling plant. This
Table 11 or the temperature rise values at air gets mixed with the air within the depart-
working level to within those indicated in ment and the final condition of the air after
Table 13. Through evaporative cooling, using mixing will be represented by the quantity and
only reasonable air quantities, the temperature quality of the air added to a given quantity of
inside the factory building may be lowered 5 to the air from the plant, that is, the proportion
10C below the prevailing outside temperature of the two by weight. If the sensible heat and
depending on the outdoor wet-bulb tempera- latent heat loads of the department are known,
ture, the heat load and the number of air the final condition will be determined by the
changes per hour, although humidity will line drawn from the point representing the air
be increased. But owing to large internal heat leaving the plant parallel to the line represent-
gain, the relative humidity of the discharged ing the sensible heat factor which is the ratio
48
SP : 32 - 1986
of the sensible heat to total heat (sensible heat For area cooling ducts should be designed to
plus latent heat ) load ( see Fig. 26 ). In case distribute the air in the lower 3 m of the space
no latent heat is added in the department or to assure supplying air where the workers are
the amount is insignificant, which happens working. Since cooling {requirements vary from
when no process heat in the form of steam or season to season and in fact from day to day,
other vapours is generated and the number of it is well to provide discharge grilles with some
workers in the department is small and the sort of adjustability. When the incoming
workers are engaged in work of moderate temperature drops to a pomt as to create
intensity, the sensible heat factor is unity and draughts, the workers can adjust the horizontal
the line is horizontal, that is, along the cons- blades in the grilles so that the air is discharged
tant specific humidity line. above their heads and not directly on them.
Area cooling lends itself well to applications
16.4 Evaporative cooling, properly applied, is where the workers move about within the space
the most practical means available to improve ( see 15.2.2.2 ). Spot cooling by overhead
thermal environment in hot industries such ducts yields a more efficient use of equipment
as rolling mills, foundries, power houses. when workers are relatively stationary and
Central plant consisting of a water spray tend a group of machines. In these instances,
chamber and a fan to supply outside air into cooled air can be brought in at levels even
the building through a distribution ductwork lower than 3 m. The selection of height would
is far preferable to spray-head system within depend on the location of other equipment in
the building, which only humidifies the air but the space. For best result the throw should be
does not remove the heated air from the build- kept to the mimmum. Spot cooling is specially
ing. The system may be designed to accomplish applicable in hot areas where man-cooling is
cooling on the area basis or for spot cooling. needed.
BASED ON A BAROM
PRESSURE OF 1013,
&boo0
-10 -5 10 15 20 25 30 35 LO L5 50 55
\
DRYdLB TELPERATURE C
. \ \ \ \ L5 50 55 60 65
\ \ \ \ 1~ 20 25 30 35 10
-10 -5 0 5 10 15
SPECIFIC ENTHALPY kJ/kg
FIG. 26 PSYCHROMETRIC
CHART
49
SP : 32 - 1986
16.5 For certain industrial processes, evapora- (b) Total sensible heat gain at this tem-
tive air cooling may be used for maintaining perature.
sufficiently high humidity. For example, in
textile mills, large quantities of cool and humi- Cc)Quantity of supply air required.
dified air are supplied by means of central
plants to keep the textile fibres pliable and Solution
strong. In rubber industry, high humidity air
is supplied in the department using volatile and
(a) The wet-bulb temperature of air wa-
flammable solvents, to prevent static electricity.
sher being the same as that of the outside air,
Other examples are tobacco processing and
that is 25C, the dry-bulb temperature of the
cigar plants which impose high humidity
supply air leaving the air washer is calculated
requirements in various departments depend-
as follows:
ing on the type of tobacco being used in the
process.
Leaving DB = Outdoor DB- Washer effi-
ciency ( outdoor DB - outdoor WB )
16.6 Evaporative cooling system of ventilation = 35-O-9 ( 35-25 ) = 26C.
can also be used in factory sheds wherein large
amount of concentrated heat is generated from
furnaces or smelters. The long sides of the This is represented on the psychrometric
building are provided with louvers up to a chart given in Fig. 26 by line AB along 25C
height of about 3 m and a thick curtain of WB line up to about 92 percent relative humi-
water spray is provided again.st the sides. Due dity line giving absolute humidity of 0.019 7 kg
to concentrated heat and resultant pressure per kg of dry air.
difference between openings at lower level and
the roof ventilators, air currents are caused Since no moisture is added within the build-
which pass through the water curtain and ing except of the people due to perspiration
after getting cooled enter the building. These which can be neglected, the air temperature
air currents after passing through the area of rises in the department due to sensible heat
occupancy. get exhausted through the roof gain along this constant humidity line until 55
ventilators. percent relative humidity is reached. ( The air
quantity required to be passed through the
washer will be determined by this condition. )
EVAPORATIVE COOLING DESIGN
This is represented on the psychrometric chart
Example 6 - A spinning department of a cot- ( see Fig. 26 ) by horizontal line BC with C on
ton textile mill in coastal Maharashtra about 55 percent relative humidity line. As seen from
20N latitude in a building 36 m long x 15 m the chart, this condition will be nearly 35%
wide x 6 m average height with north-light roof DB, 27C WB, that is inside DB temperature
in 3 bays each 5 m wide, long side east/west will be almost same as that outside. This
and the south adjoining a building is required condition is within the safe upper limits of
to be humidified with desired relative humidity temperature for Indian workers as given in
of 55 percent using air washers of 90 percent Table 11.
efficiency.
Walls - brick work 24 cm thick dark- (b) Total sensible heat gain consists of
coloured exterior. outside heat transmission through walls and
roof, internal heat gain from people, electric
Effective window glass in each lighting and power from motors and other
wall-10 percent of wall area. appliances and some amount of supply air duct
heat gain. Inside DB temperature being almost
Roof - corrugated asbestos, each bay with same as outside DB, the outside heat transmis-
a vertical 30 m X 1 m single glaz- sion would be mainly solar heat gain ( see
ing, shaded. Appendix A ) and none by thermal transmitt-
ance through walls and roof. These various
People - 30; Lights - 10 watts per m2 of
heat gains may be estimated as follows:
floor area.
50
SP : 32 - 1986
Remaining Jvorth and East walls : out of sun, Major solar heat is from roof. This could be
( 90 + 216 ) ms area less 10 percent glass reduced considerably if corrugated asbestos
area, sheet is lined with boards. The solar transmi-
ssion factor S will be reduced from 0.22 to 0.08
H = 0.08 x 270 x 0.16 =I 3.5 kW
and the reduction in the total heat load would
Roof of corrugated asbe- be, H = ( 0.22 - 0.08) x 540 x 1.03= 78 kW.
stos, 540 ms area, taken as
Thus, the reduced air supply would be
flat,
( 276 - i8 )/1*2 x 9 = 18 ms/s.
H = 0.22 x 540 x 1.03 = 123.0 kW
This is equivalent to 20 air changes per
Glass area ( west wall ), hour instead of 28.4 as before.
9 m2 single glazing,
H = 0.85 x 9 x 0.73 = 5.5 kW
17.AIR-CONDITIONING
Glass area ( remaining
walls), 30.6 ms single glazing, 17.1 When the manufacturing process requires
H= 0.85 x 30.6 x 0.16 - 4.15 kW a controlled temperature and humidity and
Glass area ( north-light ver- these cannot be obtained by ventilation or
tical ), out of sun, 90 me evaporative cooling, air-conditioning may be
single glazing, resorted to. When refrigeration is employed to
obtain desired temperature and humidity, it
H= 0.85 x 90 x 0.16 = 12.25 kW
----- may be necessary to recirculate a part of the
inside air after getting it mixed with fresh air
Solar heat sub-total 153.1 kW
to save on refrigeration. The fresh air should
Say, 153 kW be drawn from areas where the air is not likely
-_---
to be polluted or vitiated by any harmful dusts,
Thermal transmission heat gain = zero fumes, gases, etc, given off into the working
Injltration and outside air heat gain = zero atmosphere from nearby exhaust ducts or
chimney; and to make it free from any organic
Internal heat gain
matter, the air should be efficiently filtered
People ( engaged in work of before it is supplied.
moderate intensity ) -30,
H = 30 x 0.3 = 9kW 17~2 As far as possible, central air-conditioning
HP - 150, average input system with ductwork may be employed, but
0.86 kW per 1, HP, where the requirements of air-conditioning are
H= 150 x 0.8 x 1.05 x 0.86 not high and are for a part of the building or
processes, that part of the building may be
- 108 kW
partitioned and air-conditioned by means of
Lights, 10 watts/ma, Area 540 m*,
window type or packaged type air-conditioning
H = lo/ 1 000 x 540 = 5.4 kW. system with or without ductwork.
In full sunlight, say, 1 kW
Other appliances = zero 17.3Air Discharge Outlets and Velocities
Storage zero 17.3.1 The size and number of air discharge
---
outlets can be worked out from the quantity of
Internal heat load sub-total = 118 kW air required to be forced into the building and
--_-
the outlet velocities. This would depend on
sup&v air duct heatgain, around, say 5kW whether the air is to be delivered for general
----
ventilation at a working level to replace the
Total sensible heat gain warm air rising from hot equipment, lights,
= 153 + 118 + 5 = 276 kW occupants, etc, or whether the air is required
----
for local area cooling or spot cooling with only
c) Supply air quantity required (the supply a few small work areas or relatively few work
air temperature leaving washer being 26C ) stations. When the objective is to provide gene-
276.0 ral ventilation at working level, supply air is
= 25.5 ms/s delivered at about 3 m level at such discharge
= 1.2 x (35 -26)
velocities as to cause secondary air movement
This works out to 255 3 6oo = 28.4 air and eddy currents and provide diffused air over
3 240 the work stations. When the air is required for
changes per hour. area cooling or spot cooling, the outlets should
SP : 32 - 1986
be kept close to the worker and, therefore, Assuming the type of discharge outlets to be
should be brought down to about 2 m level. rectangular free openings with large aspect
Under-floor ventilation with outlets provided in ratio and discharge velocity at the outlet to be
the floor can be used in many cases provided 3 m/s, Kin the equation in 17.3.3 will be 4.9.
air being discharged does not disturb the pro- The air after discharge at a level of, say, 4 m
duct or upset the performance of local exhaust above the floor level, may be assumed to move
hoods. For this purpose, the outlets have a forward 6 m before it reaches a safe velocity of,
pattern whereby the air is circulated in diffe- say, 1 m/s, at the working level.
rent directions at floor level. Sometimes, floor By substituting these values in the equation:
ventilators ( circulators ) of a particular shape
4.9 2/A
are provided so as to give upward whirling 1=3x
movement and also to prevent direct blast into 6
the work place, This type of ventilation is = 0.168 ma
particularly useful when a few workers are em- Therefore, the discharge openings may be
ployed who have to tend more than one of the size, 0.75 m length x 0.225 m width;
machine or process and have to keep on moving and the quantity of air discharged per outlet
from one place to another. will be V,, x A = 3 x O-168 = 0.5 ms/s; and
17.3.2 The level of air motion at the worker the number of discharge outlets will be
is important. For general ventilation, that is, Total quantity of air discharged 18
=p
when workers are engaged at fixed work sta- Air discharged per outlet -- U.5
tions in light activity, air movement should be = 36
kept low and should not exceed 60 m/min, but
Therefore, 36 such horizontal-discharge out-
with high work levels and intermittent heat
lets are required. It is proposed to have a cen-
exposures, velocities as high as 5 to 10 m/s may
tral air duct parallel to the long side of the
be used. Care must be exercised in using very
building from which 18 outlets on each side at
high air velocities to avoid the undesirable
a spacing of 2 m may be provided, and the end
effects of air at high temperatures on body heat
ones 1 m from the walls.
balance ( see 10.1.3 ). Further, the air should
be delivered to the front and torso of the body.
TABLE 17 VALUES OF K
Impingement on the back of the head, neck
( Clause 17.3.3.1 )
and shoulders should be minimised.
TYPE OF OUTLET VAIXJE OF K FOR OGTLET
17.3.3 The discharge velocity should be such VELOCITIES, VX
r----_*___--T
as to obtain the desired velocity at the work
25 to 5 m/s 10 to 50 m/s
station. If I,, is the velocity of air at the out- Free Openings
let having effective area A, the velocity Vx at Round or square 57 7.0
distance X from the outlet is given by the Rectangular, large aspect 49 6.0
eouation:
I
ratio
-
52
SP : 32 - 1986
18.2 When ventilation is by exhaust of air, working area of the contaminants below their
the velocity of airflow at the fan outlets or at Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The Thres-
the air inlets on the opposite side can be mea- hold Limit Values refer to airborne concentra-
sured by means of vane-anemometer, and the tlons of contaminants and represent conditions
quantity of air passing is rapidly estimated. of the environment under which it is believed
While taking measurements care should be that nearly all the workers may be repeatedly
taken to keep windows and other openings exposed, day after day (of an average 8 hours
near the fans closed to eliminate the effects duration), without adverse effect. The current
of cross currents or what is known as short- practice in this country regarding TLVs for
circuiting. Similarly with the positive venti- contaminants is to refer to the values published
lation system, the air is impelled into the by the American Conference of Governmental
room so as to set up a slight positive pressure Industrial Hygienists which are revised every
and the openings in the walls, etc, are there- year on the basis of research data or experience
fore likely to serve as outlets only, unless they of its members.
are large and numerous, when they can also
19.1.1.1 When two or more contami-
serve as inlets of eddy or cross currents.
nants are present in the air, their combined
In this case also, ventilation rate can
effect rather than that of either individually
probably be measured by the amount of air
should be considered. In the absence of infor-
supplied by fans. When both positive ventila-
mation to the contrary, the effect of the different
tion or exhaust of air are functioning as in
contaminants should be considered as additive,
a combined system, the rate of ventilation
that is, if sum of the following fraction,
should be reckoned as a higher of the two.
18.3 With natural ventilation also, direct mea- Cl
-T=- -t-C, + 2 + ...... + -5 exceeds
surement of ventilation rate is possible. The 11 13 13 1,
velocity of airflow through each individual venti- unity, the threshold limit of the mixture
lation opening can be measured by vane-anemo- should be considered as being exceeded. Here,
meter, and the effective (free) area of each open- c1, ($9 c3, . . . . . . Gl indicate the observed
ing measured. Thus, the rate of airflow through concentration in air of each contaminants, and
each ,opening can be found out. It is usually l-1, rr,, T3 . . . . . . In the corresponding TLVs
found that the estimates of the total airflow of the contaminants.
through inlet openings and through outlet 19.1.2 When an exhaust appliance is such
openings correspond remarkably well. For that the point at which the contaminants are
measuring ventilation rate in small rooms and released or generated is completely or partially
offices, a tracer gas technique of measurement enclosed, such as barrel filling, spray-painting
is employed where by the change in the booth, the volume of air required is calculated
concentration of some inert gas or vapour from the area of the openings and the capture
added into the atmosphere is measured and velocity at the face of the openings to prevent
the rate of airflow worked out by a formula. outward escapement. In other cases, such as
19. VENTILATION FOR CONTAMI- open tanks for degreasing, pickling and plating,
NANTS CONTROL and operations like welding, grinding, abrasive
19.1 Local Exhaust Ventilation blasting, the volume of air required and the
pattern of airflow in front of the exhaust appli-
19.1.1 When by reason of manufacturing
ance should be such that the capture velocities
processes carried on, contaminants, such as
at the point of release or generation of the
dusts, fumes, gases and vapours are present in
contaminants are sufficient to overcome air
air within the work environment of a factory
currents and capture the contaminants and
building to such an extent as are likely to be
convey them into the exhaust appliance.
injurious or offensive to the workers, all mea-
Recommended capture velocities for some of
sures must be taken to remove them. The best
the manufacturing processes which are likely
method is to provide an efficient local exhaust
to give rise to the contaminants depending
ventilation at the point at which the contami-
upon their condition of dispersion, are given in
nants are released. Such point shall, as far as
Table 18. These values are given as a guide
possible, be enclosed, but if it is necessary to
and the actual velocities would depend on
have an access to the point to allow the pro-
velocity of air flow and the distance through
cesses to be carried on, the exhaust appliance
which the velocity acts. It would also depend
should confine the contaminants as much as
on the air currents and draught at or near the
possible, and the openings should be located,
possible, away from the natural exhaust.
wherever
path of the contaminants travel so that the 19.1.3 The sizes of the ducts will be deter-
contaminants are carried away into the hood mined by the volume of air required and duct
without their getting dispersed into the space velocities necessary to convey the contaminants
where workers are working. with minimum possible static resistance consis-
The aim of providing the local exhaust tent with the economy of power and operation-
ventilation is to reduce the concentration in the al efficiency. The fan or other type of air
53
SP : 32 - 1986
TABLE 18 CAPTURE VELOCITIiS
( Clause 19.1.2 )
SL CONDITICX OF DISPERSION EXAMPLES CAPTURE
NO. OF CONTAMINANT VELOUITY
(1) (2) (3) (4)
m/s
i) Release with practically no velocity Evaporation from tanks degreasing 025-05
into quiet air etc
ii) Released at low velocity into mode- Spray booths; intermitent contai- 05-10
rately still air ner filling, low speed conveyor
transfers; welding, plating;
pickling
iii) Active generation into zone of rapid Spray painting in shallow booths; 10-25
air motion barrel filling; conveyor loading;
crushers
iv) Release at high initial velocity into Grinding; abrasive blasting, tumbl- 2.5-10
zone of very rapid air motion ing
mover should be of suitable type and should be or, Air required in mslkgipint of evaporation
adequate in size to move the required 403 x sp gr of liquid x 10s x K
volume of air through the duct work and over-
- 31 x Molecular weight of liquid x TLV
come the resistance of the entire local exhaust
ventilation system including the air cleaning In these formulae X is a coefficient varying from
devices. 3 to 10 depending on the solvent in question,
uniformity of air distribution, dilution of
19.1.4 Design manuals give recommended
vapours in air, location of exhaust plant and
air volume for hood openings or capture velo-
its proximity to evolve vapours, and TLV is the
city for specific engineering operations along-
threshold limit value of the solvent.
with duct velocity to convey the contaminants
into the ducts. Design of hoods and ducts is, 19.3 Make-Up Air
however, beyond the scope of this Handbook.
19.3.1 When the volume of air exhausted
19.2 Dilution Ventilation either by local exhaust ventilation or by dilution
19.2.1 When the contaminents are of low ventilation is significant it will be necessary to
toxicity with a threshold limit value ( TLV ) bring in the work area sufficient make-up air at
above 100 ppm ( parts per million in air by suitable points in relation to the exhaust points.
volume ) such as vapours given off by organic This should be left either to natural infiltration
solvents like carbon tetrachloride, and the of air through well-distributed windows or other
quantity of contaminants generated is not high, suitable openings or brought about by positive
or the contaminants are dispersed over a wide ventilation, and, where necessary, the air
area, it is more economical to employ dilution should be filtered or treated. In no case make-
ventilation to reduce the concentration of the up air should be brought in from outside areas
contaminants in the working area below TLVs. which are contaminated by the exhaust venti-
It must be stated that this form of ventilation lation, or dilution ventilation system.
is not as satisfactory for control of air contami- 19.3.2 While considering ventilation, due
nants as local exhaust ventilation. What is consideration should be given to the quality of
achieved is that instead of appling exhaust at or outside air. The air brought in should not be
near the source, ventilation is provided across dusty or contaminated by harmful contami-
the entire area of the contaminants generation. nants, and if necessary, air should be filtered
By this method the exhaust outlets and air and other air treatment devices should be em-
supply inlets are so located that the air brought ployed before the air is supplied by positive
in from outside passes through the zone of con- ventilation into the building.
tamination generation with the points at which
the contaminants are released between the 20. INSTALLATION AND OPERATION
workers, and the exhaust outlets. The workers 20.1 All ventilating or air-conditioning equip-
also should be advised not to stand too close ment, such as the main plant, fans, filters, duct-
to the zone where contaminants are released. work and grilles may be located in convenient.
19.2.2 Since the aim here also is to reduce positions so as to facilitate periodical inspection
the concentration of contaminants in working cleaning and maintenance. Ductwork should
area below TLV, the rate of ventilation should conform to IS : 655-1963*. The system should
be such as to dilute the air in the working area be designed for fairly quiet operation and, to,
to achieve this value. If the rate of vapour prevent generation of excessive noise in the
generation or of liquid evaporation is known, system, the installation of fans, ducts andother
the air requirement is calculated from the equipment should be properly damped and
formula: equipped with noise absorbing means. The
Air required in ms/kg of evaporation main plant room should he adequately lighted
24 ; l@ x ET- and ventilated.
= -
Molecular weight of liquid x TLV *Specification for metal air ducts ( revised ).
54
SP : 32 - 1986
APPENDIX A
( Czause 13.5 )
A-l. INTERNAL SOURCES OF HEAT electrical input, including the motor losses.
Typical values are as follows:
A-l.1 Heat from People - The metabolic output Eficiency Input
heat given off by the occupants is one of the kW percent kW
sources of internal heat gain. Average values of
0.18 64 0.28
sensible heat part of this heat gain sufficient for
the present purpose may be taken as follows: 0.37 68 0.55
0.75 72 1.05
Passive and seated O-1 1 kW per person 1.5 77 1.95
4 83 4.8
Some movement, for 0.15 kW per person
1.5 88 17
example, shops
75 93 80
Bench work 0,25 kW per person
A-l.5 Heat from Fuel - The combustion of
General in d us t r i al 0.35 kW per person fuel occurs in some part of the manufacturing
activity process in most industrial plants. In many case
it is a major factor, and general ventilation is
Heavy industrial labour 0.45 kW per person necessary for the relief of heat stress, quite
apart from local ventilation and other measures
which are taken at the sources of heat.
A-l.2 Heat from Lighting - Heat from
lighting apparatus is simply the aggregate rat- The potential heat load is easily obtained
ing of the tubes and bulbs installed, discounting from the calorific value of the fuel and the rate
those that will not be in use when solar heat at which it is used:
gain is a major factor. Sometimes part of the
kW = kJ/kg x kg/s
ventilation air is extracted through special
recessed lighting fittings. The convected heat However, a large part of this heat will not
from the lights will then be extracted with the contribute to the environmental load. The
air, and will not form part of the room heat deductions can be classified under three head-
load. ings:
a) Incomplete combustion - unburnt or parti-
The radiant heat load remaining will be ally burnt fuel passing up the flue.
about 80 percent of the rating for tungsten b) Flue heat loss - the heat - carried up the
lamps, 60 percent for fluorescent. flue by hot gases comprising the products
of combustion and the excess air,
A-l.3 Heat from Electric Power - With c) Heat to stock - occurring when the mate-
very few exceptions the whole of the energy rial worked on (solid, liquid or gaseous)
supplied to electrical apparatus will be dissipated is heated and then passes, still hot, to
as heat within the building. The maximum will other parts of the building.
be the full load rating of the appliance in kW,
although allowance can be made for the disper- In important cases estimates for each of
sion factor when known. This factor is the these items should be available as part of the
ratio of the kilowatt-hours consumed in one manufacturing records or plans. More usually,
hour to the kilowatt rating and takes account perhaps, the margins of error in the direct cal-
of both part-time and part-load working. Some culation of the residual heat loss remaining
times this factor can be obtained indirectly, for within the building are too great. In such cases
example, a machine shop may have statistics of measurement of the actual air conditions on
the number of kWh of electricity consumed per site will be more helpful.
shift or, better, the maximum half-hour kW
demand. A-2. SOLAR HEAT
scattered into space. The proportion lost will be earths surface after scattering by atmospheric
determined by the length of the part through dust and vertical walls receive reflected radia-
the atmosphere and by the presence of clouds, tion from the ground.
dust, water vapour and ozone. Figure 27 gives
This simple statement gives complete infor-
representative values for a clear sky and vari-
mation for calculating the solar heat reaching
ous heights above sea level.
any exposed surface on a sunny day. However,
The direct intensity, Id, varies with the alti- the work involved in allowing for the suns
tude angle of the sun above the horizon. The movements during the day, and over the year,
effective intensity on any surface is further is time consuming. Such allowances are neces-
reduced by the inclination of the surface to the sary in estimating the refrigerating plant
sun. In addition, diffuse radiation, If, reaches capacity and energy consumption for a full
3o 60 90
Id = Intensity of direct solar heat radiation falling on a surface directly facing the sun.
If = Intensity of diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface.
lb = Id sin OL+ If = Total intensity of solar heat falling on a horizontal surface.
Iv = Id cos a cos p + 05 If + 01 Ih = Total intensity of solar heat falling on vertical surface facing in a direction
p away ftom the sun.
56
.
SP : 32 - 1986
air-conditioning system, and extensive charts d) Take the intensity applied to the actual
and tables to assist in the task will be found in area of skylights, north lights, etc, from
works of reference. Table 20 according to their inclination
to the horizontal towards or away from
A-2.2 Maximum Solar Heat Intensity - the sun when it faces wall (a).
However, our present aim is merely to estimate
the ventilation rate required to limit the inter- It should be noted that if the terrain is very
nal temperature in hot weather. For this pur- bare and the air very dry, increased ground
pose we need consider only that time of day reflection and atmospheric clarity may increase
and month of the year which will give the tropical solar intensities by 20 percent. Con-
maximum solar heat :oad. This has been done versely, industrial atmospheres may reduce
in drawing up Tables 19 and 20 which can be intensities by 20 percent to 40 percent even on
used to estimate the maximum solar intensity the sunniest days. Altitude corrections can be
on walls and roofs. derived from Fig. 19, but for moderate heights
an addition of 1 percent per 1CO m above sea
TABLE 19 MAXIMUM SOLAR INTENSITY ON level will suffice. The figures in the tables are
VERTICAL WALLS for the time of year and day giving the highest
N. LATITUDE I, kW/ml AT SEA LEVEL intensity for each entry. The 24-hour average
~--~-_-~*-_-__ __~ midsummer intensity averaged over walls
0 100 20 30-60 equally exposed to all points of the compass is
Wall facing S 051 062 0.69 073 remarkably constant at about 0.08 kW/mz, with
SSE or SSW C.61 0.67 0.71 0.73 about 0.35 kW/ms on roofs. The tables may be
SE or SLY 070 0.72 0.72 073 used for the southern hemisphere by interchan-
E or W 073 0.73 073 0 63
ging N and S.
Wall out of sun 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.14
A-2.3 Calculation of Solar Heat Gain -
Having found the intensities of solar radiation
falling on the faces of a building, the next step
TABLE 20 MAXIMUM SOLAR INTENSITY ON
ROOFS is to determine the total solar heat gain enter-
ing through windows, walls and roofs. This is,
N. LATITUDE I, kW/m* , ATSEA LEVEL of course, proportional to the area of each sur-
r ------- h----__-7
00-30 40 50 60
face, but reduced by a factor taking account of
Flat roof 103 0.99 091 080
the heat excluded by reflection and external
convection. Valves of this factor S for typical
Sloping roof-
building features are given in Table 21.
Facing sun 10 1.0 095 085
15 away from sun 10 09 0.8 07 If A is the gross area of the window, wall
30 away from sun 09 07 06 0.4 or roof section under consideration in square
45 away from sun 0.7 05 04 o-2 metres, and S the appropriate transmission
60 away from sun 05 0.3 02 01 factor, the corresponding rate at which the suns
heat enters the building will be for any surface:
Generally speaking the maximum intensities H= SAIkW
on various parts of the building structure occur
at different times of day, and the correspond- where lis the effective maximum solar intensity
ing heat loads cannot be simply added together. obtained from Tables 19 and 20 in accordance
The following procedure is suggested as a basis with the procedure specified in A-2.2 (a), (b),
for calculating the heat load to be removed by (c) and (d).
ventilation:
Account must, of course, be taken of those
a) Select the wall which may be expected times when the windows are wholly shaded by
to provide the greatest solar heat load, neighbouring buildings and trees, or partly
and estimate the maximum intensity on shaded by architectural features such as deep
it from Table 19 for the direction in eaves or millions. External sun blinds are very
which it faces and the latitude. effective provided they are used, but internal
b) Assume that the out of sun intensity of blinds or curtains much less so. They themselves
Table 19 applies to the remaining walls become heated, and re-radiate heat to the
at right angles and on the other side of room.
the building.
cl Assume that the flat roof intensity of A-3. VALUES OF THERMAL TRANSMIT-
Table 20 applies to the whole plan area TANCE ( U-VALUES )
of the building as if the roof were flat,
even if it is actually pitched. Exclude A-3.1 The values of thermal transmittance for
glazed areas and any sections shaded typical building constructions are given in
during the heat of the day. Table 22.
57
SP : 32 - 1986
58
SPt32-1986
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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6) Heating and Ventilation in Factories. H.M. Factory Department, Ministry of Labour and
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7) Houourx~ ( FC ) and YAGLOU ( CP ). Determining Lines of Equal Comfort. American Society
of Heating and Ventilating Engineers Transaction, Vol 29 p. 123; 1923.
11) IS : 2440-1975 Guide for daylighting of buildings ( second revision ). Indian Standards Institu-
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12) IS : 3103-1975 Code of practice for industrial ventilation (&t revision ). Indian Standards
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13) IS : 3646 ( Part 1 ) - 1966 Code of practice for interior illumination: Part 1 Principles of
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16) IS : 6665-1972 Code of practice for Industrial lighting. Indian Standards Institution.
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59