1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 A composite wall consist of alternative layers of fir ( 5 cm thick ) , aluminum ( 1

cm thick ), lead ( 1 cm thick ), and corkboard ( 6 cm thick ). The temperature is 60
C of the outside of the fir and 10 C on the outside of the corkboard. Plot the
temperature gradient through the wall. Does the temperature profile suggest any
simplifying assumptions that might be made in subsequent analysis of the wall?

Solution:

Thermal Conductivities:

kfir = 0.12 W/m.K (Table A.2, Appendix A)

kalu = 237 W/m.K (Table A.1, Appendix A)
kld = 35 W/m.K (Table A.1, Appendix A)
kcb = 0.04 W/m.K (Table A.2, Appendix A).

Question No. 1: Plot the temperature gradient through the wall.

Answer:

Question No. 2: Does the temperature profile suggest any simplifying assumptions
that might be made in subsequent analysis of the wall?

Answer:

Yes, since the thermal conductivity of aluminum and lead are very high than fir and
corkboard, they are considered isothermal. Therefore consider only fir and corkboard.

fir + Tcb = 60 C 10 C = 50 K

T T
q k k
L fir L cb
Lfir = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Lcb = 6 cm = 0.06 m

Then,

1
 1. INTRODUCTION

0.12 W / m K T fir 0.04 W / m K Tcb

q
0.05 m 0.06 m
Tcb = 3.6Tfir

Then,

fir + 3.6fir = 50 K
fir = 10.87 K

T 10.87 K
q k 0.12 W / m.K = 26.09 W/m2
L fir 0.05 m

Considering all walls:

Tfir + Talu + Tld + Tcb = 60 C 10 C = 50 K

T T T T
q k k k k
L fir L alu L ld L cb

Lfir = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Lcb = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Lalu = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Lld = 1 cm = 0.01 m

k
L
fir
Talu Tfir
k
L
alu
k
L
fir
Tld T fir
k
L
ld
k
L
fir
Tcb Tfir
k
L
cb
Then


k 1 1 1
T fir 1 = 50 K
L fir k k

k

L ld L cb
L
alu

2
 1. INTRODUCTION

0.12
1 1 1
T fir 1 = 50
0. 05
237 35 0 . 04
0.01 0.01 0.06

Tfir = 10.87 K
T 10.87 K
q k 0.12 W / m.K = 26.09 W/m2
L fir 0.05 m
There it is equal to simplified solution.

1.2 Verify Equation (1.15).

Solution:

Equation (1.15)
dTbody
Tbody T
dt
For verification only

Equation (1.3)
dU dT
Q mc
dt dt

Equation (1.16)
Q Tbody T
Then
dT
mc Tbody T
dt
dT
Tbody T
dt

Then
dTbody
Tbody T where mc is constant.
dt

1.3 q = 5000 W/m2 in a 1 cm slab and T = 140 C on the cold side. Tabulate the
temperature drop through the slab if it is made of

Silver
Aluminum
Mild steel (0.5 % carbon)
Ice
Spruce
Insulation (85 % magnesia)

3
 1. INTRODUCTION

Silica aerogel

Indicate which situations would be unreasonable and why.

Solution:

L = 1 cm = 0.01 m

(a) Silver Slab

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L Si
Thermal conductivity of silver at 140 C, 99.99+ % Pure, Table A.1, Appendix A
ksi = 420 W/m.K
TSi
q 420 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0. 01 m
TSi = 0.12 K

(b) Alumium Slab

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L alu
Thermal conductivity of aluminum at 140 C, 99.99+ % Pure, Table A.1, App. A
Kalu = 237.6 W/m.K
Talu
q 237.6 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0.01 m
Talu = 0.21 K

(c) Mild Steel Slab

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L ms
Thermal conductivity of mild steel at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
Kms = 50.4 W/m.K
Tms
q 50.4 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0.01 m
Tms = 0.992 K

(d) Ice Slab

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L ice
Thermal conductivity of ice at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
ice at 0 C, kice = 2.215 W/m.K

4
 1. INTRODUCTION

Note: there is no ice at 140 C, but continue calculation at 0 C.

Tice
q 2.215 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0. 01 m
Tice = 22.57 K

(e) Spruce Slab

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L Si
Thermal conductivity of spruce at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
Ksp = 0.11 W/m.K @ 20 C (available)
TSp
q 0.11 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0.01 m
TSp = 454.55 K

(f) Insulation (85 % Magnesia)

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L Si
Thermal conductivity of insulation at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
Kin = 0.074 W/m.K @ 150 C (available)
Tin
q 0.074 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0.01 m
TSi = 675.8 K

(g) Silica Aerogel Slab

T
q k = 5000 W/m2
L Si
Thermal conductivity of silica aerogel at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
ksa = 0.022 W/m.K @ 120 C
Tsa
q 0.022 W / m K = 5000 W/m2
0 . 01 m
Tsa = 2,273 K

Tabulation:

Slab Temperature Drop, K

Silver 0.12
Aluminum 0.21
Mild Steel (0.5 % Carbon) 0.992
Ice 22.57

5
 1. INTRODUCTION

Spruce 454.55
Insulation (85 % Magnesia) 675.8
Silica Aerogel 2273

The situation which is unreasonable here is the use of ice as slab at 140 C, since ice
will melt at temperature of 0 C and above. Thats it.

1.4 Explain in words why the heat diffusion equation, eq. no. (1.13), shows that in
transient conduction the temperature depends on the thermal diffusitivity, , but
we can solve steady conduction problems using just k (as in Example 1.1).

Solution:
Equation (1.13)
dU d T Tref dT
Qnet cA x cA x
dt dt dt

Answer: The application of heat diffusion equation eq. no. (1.13) depends on the
T
thermal diffusivity as the value of is not equal to zero as it I s under unsteady
t
state conduction. While in steady conduction depends only on k because the value of
T 2T dT
= 0 for steady state conduction giving = 0 , so q k .
t x 2
dx

1.5 A 1-m rod of pure copper 1 cm2 in cross section connects a 200 C thermal
reservoir with a 0 C thermal reservoir. The system has already reached steady
state. What are the rates of change of entropy of (a) the first reservoir, (b) the
second reservoir, (c) the rod, and (d) the whole universe, as a result of the
process? Explain whether or not your answer satisfies the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.

Solution:

Equation (1.9)
T
qk
L
Thermal conductivity of copper at 100 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
k = 391 W/m.K
L=1m
T = 200 C 0 C = 200 K

6
 1. INTRODUCTION

200 K
q 391 W / m K = 78,200 W/m2.K
1m
Q = qA
A = 1 cm2 = 1 x 10-4 m2
Q = (78,200 W/m2.K)(1 x 10-4 m2) = 7.82 W

Qrev 7.82 W
(a) S1
T1 200 273 K = - 0.01654 W/K
Q 7.82 W
(b) S 2 rev
T2 0 273 K = + 0.02864 W/K
(c) S r = 0.0 W/K (see Eq. 1.5, steady state)

(d) S Un S1 S 2 = - 0.01654 W/K + 0.02864 W/K = + 0.0121 W/K

Since SUn 0 , therefore it satisfied Second Law of Thermodynamics.

1.6 Two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures of 27 C and 43 C, respectively,
are separated by a slab of material 10 cm thick and 930 cm 2 in cross-sectional
area. The slab has a thermal conductivity of 0.14 W/m.K. The system is operating
at steady-state conditions. What are the rates of change of entropy of (a) the
higher temperature reservoir, (b) the lower temperature reservoir, (c) the slab, and
(d) the whole universe as a result of this process? (e) Does your answer satisfy the
Second Law of Thermodynamics?

Solution:

Equation (1.9)
T
qk
L
Thermal conductivity , k = 0.14 W/m.K

A = 930 cm2 = 0.093 m2

L = 10 cm = 0.10 m
T = 27 C (- 43 C) = 70 K
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
T2 = -43 + 273 = 230 K

70 K
q 0.14 W / m.K = 98 W/m2
0.10 m
Q = qA = (98 W/m2)(0.093 m2) = 9.114 W

Qrev 9.114 W
(a) S1
T1 300 K = - 0.03038 W/K

7
 1. INTRODUCTION

Q 9.114 W
(b) S 2 rev
T2 230 K = + 0.03963 W/K
(c) S r = 0.0 W/K (see Eq. 1.5, steady state)

(d) S Un S1 S 2 = - 0.03038 W/K + 0.03963 W/K = + 0.00925 W/K

Since SUn 0 , therefore it satisfied Second Law of Thermodynamics.

1.7 (a) If the thermal energy reservoirs in Problem 1.6 are suddenly replaced with
adiabatic walls, determine the final equilibrium temperature of the slab. (b) What
is the entropy change for the slab for this process? (c) Does your answer satisfy
the Second Law of Thermodynamics in this instance? Explain. The density of the
slab is 26 lb/ft3 and the specific heat 0.65 Btu/lb-F.

Solution:

16.018 kg / m 3
26 lb / ft 3 3
= 416.468 kg/m3
1 lb / ft
4186.8 J / kg.K
c 0.65 Btu / lb.F = 2721.42 J/kg.K
1 Btu / lb.F
k = 0.14 W/m.K
T = 27 C (-43 C) = 70 C
T1 = 27 C + 273 = 300 K
T2 = - 43 C + 273 = 230 K
A = 0.093 m2
L = 0.10 m

Q T dQ
(a) T12
T T

Q T cVdT
T12
T T
cV T2 T1 T
cV ln 2
T T1
T2 T1 T
ln 2


T T1

T
T2
T1 230 300

T2 230 = 263.45 K
ln ln
T1 300

8
 1. INTRODUCTION

Q cV T2 T1 cAL T2 T1
(b) S
T T T
S
416.468 2721.42 0.093 0.10 230 300
= - 2801 J/K
263.45

(c) This will not satisfy the Second Law of Thermodynamic since this is not a rate of
entropy of production of the universe.

1.8 A copper sphere 2.5 cm in diameter has a uniform temperature of 40 C. The

sphere is suspended in a slow-moving air stream at 0 C. The air stream produces a
convection heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/m2.K. Radiation can be neglected.
Since copper is highly conductive, temperature gradients in the sphere will
smooth out rapidly, and its temperature can be taken as uniform throughout the
cooling process (i.e., Bi << 1). Write the instantaneous energy balance between
the sphere and the surrounding air. Solve this equation and plot the resulting
temperatures as a function of time between 40 C and 0 C.

Solution:

Energy Balance:
dU
Q
dt
Q h A T T
dU
dt

d
dt

cV T Tref d cV T T
dt

Then:
d
h A T T cV T T
dt
d T T hA
T T
dt cV
t
ln T T C
cV

hA
at T(t = 0) T, i
C ln T T

t
ln T T ln Ti T
cV

hA

9
 1. INTRODUCTION

T T t t
ln
Ti T cV Tx

h A
cV
Tx
h A
t
T T
e Tx
Ti T
T = 0 C + 273 = 273 K
Ti = 40 C + 273 = 313 K
cV
Tx
hA
4
V r 3
3
r = (1/2)(2.5 cm) = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m
A 4r 2
4
c r 3
Tx
cV

3 cr
hA h 4r
2
3h
2
h = 15 W/m .K

Properties of copper, Table A.1, App. A

= 8954 kg/m3
cp = 384 J/kg.K
= 11.57 x 10-5 m2/s2
Tx
8954 kg / m3 384 J / kg.K 0.0125 m
= 955 sec
315 W / m.K

Then:
t

T T Ti T e Tx

t

T Ti T e Tx
T
t

T 313 273 e

955
273 K
t

T 40e 955
273 K
t

T 40e 955 C
where t in seconds

Tabulation:

10
 1. INTRODUCTION

Time, t, seconds Temperature, T, C

0 40
10 39.6
20 39.2
40 38.4
60 37.6
80 36.9
100 36.2
200 32.7
300 29.6
400 26.8
600 22
800 18
1000 14.7
5000 0.3
10000 0.0
100000 0.0
1000000 0.0
0.0

Plot:

11
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.9 Determine the total heat transfer in Problem 1.8 as the sphere cools from 40 C to
0 C. Plot the net entropy increase resulting from the cooling process above, S vs
T(K).

Solution:

T = 0 C + 273 = 273 K
4 3
A 4r 2 , V r
3
r = 0.0125 m
= 8954 kg/m3
cp = 384 J/kg.K
= 11.57 x 10-5 m2/s2
T = 40 C 0 C = 40 K

Total Heat Transfer:

Q = cVT = (8954 kg/m3)(384 J/kg.K)(4/3)()(0.0125 m)3(40 K)
Q = 1125 J - - - - Answer.

Plotting the net-entropy increase:

Equation (1.24)

12
 1. INTRODUCTION

Tb
1 1
S cV
T T dTb
Tb 0 b

Tb
4 1 1
S 8954 384 0.0125
T T
3

3 dTb
Tb 0 b
T T
S 28.13 b ln Tb b 0 ln Tb 0
T T
T Tb 0 T
S 28.13 b ln b
T Tb 0
Tb0 = 40 C = 313 K

T 313 T
S 28.13 b ln b
273 313

Tb, C Tb, K S
40 313 0
35 308 0.0622
30 303 0.117
25 298 0.1642
20 293 0.2034
15 288 0.2344
10 283 0.2569
5 278 0.2707
0 273 0.2754

Plot:

13
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.10 A truncated cone 30 cm high is constructed of Portland cement. The diameter at

the top is 15 cm and at the bottom is 7.5 cm. The lower surface is maintained at 6
C and the top at 40 C. The outer surface is insulated. Assume one dimensional
heat transfer and calculate the rate of heat transfer in watts from top to bottom. To
do this, note that the heat transfer, Q, must be the same at every cross section.
Write Fouriers law locally, and integrate between this unknown Q and the known
end temperatures.

Solution:

T1 = 40 C

14
 1. INTRODUCTION

T2 = 6 C

dT
Q kA
dx
D1 D2 D1 D

L x
D1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
D2 = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m
L = 30 cm = 0.30 m
0.15 m 0.075 m 0.15 m D

0.30 m x
D = 0.15 m 0.25x

2
A D
4
dT
Q k D 2
4 dx
2 dT
Q k 0.15 m 0.25 x
4 dx

Q 0.15 0.25 x dx k dT
2

0.3 m

Q 0.15 0.25 x 2
dx k dT
0
4

Thermal Conductivity of Portland Cement, Table A.2, Appendix A.

k = 0.70 W/m.K

1
Q 1
0.25

0.15 0.25x
1
0.3
0

0.70 40 6
4

Q 4 0.15 0.25 0.3 0.15 0.70 34
1 1

4
1 1
Q 4 0.70 34
0.075 0.15 4
Q = -0.70 W Ans.

1.11. A hot water heater contains 100 kg of water at 75 C in a 20 C room. Its surface
area is 1.3 m2. Select an insulating material, and specify its thickness, to keep the
water from cooling more than 3 C / h . (Notice that this problem will be greatly
simplified if the temperature drop in the steel casing and the temperature drop in
the convective boundary layers are negligible. Can you make such assumptions?
Explain.)

15
 1. INTRODUCTION

Solution:

Specific heat of water at 75 C, Table A.1 , cp = 4194 J/kg.K

Q = (100 kg)(4194 J/kg.K)(3 K/hr)(1 hr / 3600 s)
Q = 349.5 W

A = 1.3 m2

Then:
T
Q kA
L
k
Q 349.5 1.3 75 20
L
k
= 4.89 W/m2.K
L

Select Magnesia, 85 % (insulation), Table A.2

k = 0.071 W/m.K
L = (0.071 W/m.K) / (4.89 W/m2.K) = 0.01452 m = 1.5 cm

Yes, we can make an assumption of neglecting temperature drops as above as the thermal
conductivity of steel is much higher than insulation, also negligible temperature drops for
thin film boundary.

1.12. What is the temperature at the left-hand wall shown in Fig. 1.17. Both walls are
thin, very large in extent, highly conducting, and thermally black.

Fig. 1.17

Solution:
Left: q hL TL TL = 50 (100 TL)
Right: q hr Tr Tr = 20 (Tr 20)

16
 1. INTRODUCTION

Equating:
q = 50 (100 TL) = 20 (Tr 20)
5 (100 TL) = 2 (Tr 20)
100 TL = 0.4Tr 8
TL = 108 - 0.4Tr o C

Then; by radiation.

q TL Tr
4 4

= 5.67040 x 10-8 W/m2.K4

q 5.67040108 108 0.4Tr 273 Tr 273 20 Tr 20
4 4

q 5.67040 10 8 381 0.4T
r
4

Tr 273 20 Tr 20
4

By trial and error:

Tr = 42 C (right hand wall)
Then
TL = 108 0.4(42) = 91.2 C (left hand wall)

1.13. Develop S.I. to English conversion factors for:

The thermal diffusivity,
The heat flux, q
The density,
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
The view factor, F1-2
The molar entropy
The specific heat per unit mass, c

In each case, begin with basic dimension J, m, kg, s, C, and check your answer against
Appendix B if possible.

Solution:

(1.) The thermal diffusivity,

Unit of is m2/s.
The conversion factor for English units is:
1 ft 2 3600 s
1
0.3048 m 2
h
ft 2 / hr
1 38,750 , checked with Table B.2, o.k.
m2 / s
(2.) The heat flux, q

Unit of q is @/m2 or J/s.m2

17
 1. INTRODUCTION

The conversion factor for English units is:

0.0009478 Btu 3600 s 0.3048 m
2

1
J h ft 2
Btu / h ft 2 Btu / h ft 2
1 0.317 0.317 , checked with Table B.2, o.k.
J / s m2 W / m2
(3.) The density

Unit of density is kg/m3

The conversion factor for English units is:
1
1 lb

0.3048 m 3

0.45359 kg ft 3
lb / ft 3
1 0.06243 , checked with Table B.2, o.k.
kg / m 3

(4.) The Stefan-Boltzmann constant,

= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.K4 = 5.6704 x 10-8 J/m2.s.K4

The conversion factor for English units is:
0.0009478 Btu 0.3048 m 3600s
2
K4
1
J ft 2 h 1.8 F 4
Btu / hr. ft 2 .K 4
1 0.0302
W / m 2 .K 4

(5.) The view factor F1-2

The view factor is dimensionless, so there is no need for conversion factor.

(6.) The molar entropy

Unit of molar entropy, S = J/K

The conversion factor for English units is.
0.0009478 Btu K
1
J 1.8 F
Btu / F
1 0.0005266
J /K

(7.) The specific heat per unit mass, c

Unit of c is J/kg.K
The conversion factor for English units is:
0.0009478 Btu 0.45359 kg K
1
J lb 1.8 F

18
 1. INTRODUCTION

Btu / lb F
1 0.00023884
J / kg K

1.14. Three infinite, parallel, black, opaque plates, transfer heat by radiation,as shown
in Fig. 1.18. Find T2.

Fig. 1.18

Solution:

q T1 T2 T2 T3
4 4
4 4

T1 = 100 C + 273 = 373 K
T3 = 0 C + 273 = 273 K

T2
4 1
2

373 4 273 4
T2 = 334.1 K = 61.1 C

1.15. Four infinite, parallel black, opaque plates transfer heat by radiation, as shown in
Fig. 1.19. Find T2 and T3.

Fig. 1.19

19
 1. INTRODUCTION

Solution:

q T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 T4
4 4
4 4
4 4

T1 = 100 C + 273 = 373 K
T4 = 0 C + 273 = 273 K

Then:
2T2 T1 T3
4 4 4

2T3 T2 T4
4 4 4

T2 2T3 T4
4 4 4

and

2 2T3 T4 T1 T3
4 4
4 4

4T3 2T4 T1 T3
4 4 4 4

3T3 T1 2T4
4 4 4

3T3 (373)4 + 2 (273)4

4

T3 317.45 K = 44.45 C

T2 2T3 T4 = 2 (317.45)4 (273)4

4 4 4

T2 348.53 K = 75.53 C

1.16. Two large, black, horizontal plates are spaced a distance L from one another. The
top is warm at a controllable temperature, Th, and the bottom one is cool at a

20
 1. INTRODUCTION

specified temperature, Tc. A gas separates them. The gas is stationary because it is
warm on top and cold on the bottom. Write the equation qrad/qcond = fn (N,
Th

Tc ), where N is dimensionless group containing , k , L, and Tc. Plot as a
function of for qrad/qcond = 1, 0.8, and 1.2 (and for other values if you wish).

Now suppose that you have a system in which L = 10 cm, Tc = 100 K, and the gas
is hydrogen with an average k of 0.1 W/m.K. Further suppose that you wish to
operate in such a way that the conduction and radiation heat fluxes are identical.
Identify the operating point on your curve and report the value of Th that you must
maintain.

Solution:

qrad Th Tc
4 4

k Th Tc
qcond
L
qrad L Th Tc

4 4

L
Th Tc Th Tc
2 2

qcond k Th Tc k

T
2
qrad L 3 Th
Tc 1 h 1
qcond k Tc Tc
qrad L 3
Tc 1 2 1 N 1 2 1
qcond k
where
LTc
3

N
k
Th

Tc

N as a function of ;

qrad qcond
N
1 2 1
qrad
(1) 1
qcond
1
N
1 2 1

21
 1. INTRODUCTION

qrad
(2) 0.8
qcond
0.8
N
1 2 1
qrad
(3) 1.2
qcond
1.2
N
1 2 1
plot of N as a function of :

For the system:

L = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Tc = 100 K
k = 0.1 W/m.K

For qrad / qcond = 1.0

Then
1 N 1 2 1

Solving for N:
LTc
3

N
k

22
 1. INTRODUCTION

= 5.67040 x 10-8 W/m2.K4

N
5.6704 10 8 0.10100 3 = 0.056704
0.10

Then
1 0.056704 1 2 1
1 2 1 17.64
By trial and error:
= 2.145

Then: Th = Tc = (2.145)(100 K) = 214.5 K

1.17. A blackened copper sphere 2 cm in diameter and uniformly at 200 C is introduced

into an evacuated black chamber that us maintained at 20 C.
Write a differential equation that expresses T(t) for the sphere, assuming lumped
thermal capacity.
Identify a dimensionless group, analogous to the Biot number, that can be used to
tell whether or not the lumped-capacity solution is valid.
Show that the lumped-capacity solution is valid.
Integrate your differential equation and plot the temperature response for the
sphere.

Solution:

(1) Assuming lumped thermal capacity

dU
Q
dt

A T 4 T
4
dr
d
cV T T
ref

T T t
d T T A 4
dt

cV
T T
4

A 4 r 2
4
V r3
3
d T T 4 r 2 4
dt

4
4
T T
cr

3 4
T T
4

c r 3
3
Differential Equation, T t
T
d T T 3
dt

cr

T 4 T
4

(2) Dimensionless group analogous to the Biot number

23
 1. INTRODUCTION

hL
Bi
kb
Equivalent h ,
h
T4 T
4

T T

Biot number equivalent =

h V h r r T 4 T

4

kb A 3kb 3kb T T

(3) Showing that lumped-capacity solution is valid.

Dimensionless group must be << 1 =

r T 4 T 4

3kb T T
Ti = 200 C + 273 = 473 K
T = 20 C + 273 = 293 K
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
r = (1/2)(2 cm) = 1 cm = 0.01 m

For copper:
= 8,954 kg/m3
cp= 384 J/kg.K
kb = 389 W/m/K @ 200 C, Table A-1, App. A.

r T 4 T
=
4

5.6704 10 8 0.01 4734 2934
= 0.00012 << 1 , therefore valid.
3kb T T 3 389 473 293

(4) Integrating and plotting differential equation.

d T T 3
dt

cr
T 4 T
4

3
dT
dt

cr
T 4 T 4
dT 3 dt

T T cr
4 4

T
dT 3 t

T
T T
4 4
cr
i

Note:

dx
x4 a4
:

24
 1. INTRODUCTION

1

1

x2 a2 x2 a2
x 4 a 4 x 2 a 2 x 2 a 2 2a 2 x 2 a 2 x 2 a 2
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
x a
4 4
2 a x a 2a x a 2
2

1 1 x a x a 1
2 2 2
x a
4 4
2a 2 a x a ( x a ) 2 a x a 2
1 1 1 1 1
2 2a x a 2 a x a 2 a 2 x 2 a 2
x a
4 4
2a
1 1 1 1 1
3 x a x a 2a 2 x 2 a 2
x a
4 4
4a
1 1 1 1 1
3 x a x a
x a
4 4
4a x 2
2a 4 1
a

1
1 1 1 1 a
3
x a
4 4
4a x a x a x
2

2a 3 1
a
Then,

dx 1 xa 1 x
= ln 3 Arc tan C
x4 a4 4a x a 2a
3
a

Applying:

T
dT 1 T T T T 1 T T
3
ln ln i 3
Arc tan Arc tan i
T T 4T T T Ti T 2T
4
T T
4
Ti

Substitute values:

T
dT 1 T 293 473 293 2 T 473
ln T 293 ln 473 293 4 293 3 Arc tan 293 Arc tan 293
T T 4 293
4 3

4
Ti

T
dT 1 T 293 T 3 t
4 3 ln 2 Arc tan 3.48062
T
T T 4
4 293 T 293 293 cr
i

1 T 293 T 3 5.6704 10 8 t
ln
T 293 2 Arc tan 3.48062 8954 384 0.01
4 293
3
293
1 T 293 T
3
ln 2 Arc tan 3.48062 0.0004978t
4 293 T 293 293

Tabulation:

25
 1. INTRODUCTION

T, C T, K T, s
200 473 0
182 455 93.5
164 437 206.8
146 419 346.1
128 401 520.9
110 383 745.8
92 365 1046
74 347 1468.5
56 329 2119.8
38 311 3340.6

Plot :

26
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.18. As part of space experiment, a small instrumentation packaged is released from a

space vehicle. It can be approximated as a solid aluminum sphere, 4 cm in
diameter. The sphere is initially at 30 C and it contains a pressurized hydrogen
component that will condense and malfunction at 30 K. If we take the surrounding
space to be at 0 K, how long may we expect the implementation package to
function properly? Is it legitimate to use the lumped-capacity method in solving
the problem? (Hint: See the directions for Problem 1.17).

Solution:

Properties of aluminum, Table A.1

= 2707 kg/m3
cp = 905 J/kg.K
kb = 237.2 W/m.K @ 30 C

From Prob. 1.17, using

Ti = 30 C + 273 = 303 K
T =0K

T = 30 K
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.K
r = (1/2)(4 cm) = 2 cm = 0.02 m

Check for the legitimacy of lumped-capacity method.

r T 4 T
=
4

5.6704 10 8 0.02 3034 04
= 0.000044 << 1 , therefore valid.
3kb T T 3 237.2 303 0
Then, T =0K

T
dT 3 t

T
T T
44
cr
i

3 5.6704 10 8 t

T
dT

Ti
T 4
2707 905 0.02
3 5.6704 10 8 t
T
1

3T 3
T 2707 905 0.02
i

1 1 3 5.6704 10 8 t

3Ti 3T 3 2707 905 0.02
3

1 1 3 5.6704 10 8 t

3 303
3
3 30
3
2707 905 0.02
1 min
1 hr 1 day 1 week
t = 3,552,427 seconds 60 sec s 60 min s 24 hrs 7 days = 5.88 weeks

27
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.19. Consider heat calculation through the wall as shown in Fig. 1.20. Calculate q and
the temperature of the right-hand side of the wall.

Fig. 1.20

Solution:
k T1 T2
q h T2 T
L
T1 = 200 C
T =0C
k = 2 W/m2.K
L = 0.5 m
h = 3 W/m2.K

2 200 T2
q 3 T2 0
0.50
800 4T2 3T2
T2 = 114.286 C

q = (3)(114.286 0) = 343 W/m2.

1.20. Throughout Chapter 1 we have assumed that the steady temperature distribution
in a plane uniform wall is linear. To prove this, simplify the heat diffusion
equation to the form appropriate for steady flow. Then integrate it twice and
eliminate the two constant using the known outside temperatures Tleft and Tright at x
= 0 and x = wall thickness, L.

28
 1. INTRODUCTION

Solution:

Eq. 1.14, one dimensional heat diffusion equation,

2T cT 1 T

x 2 kt t

2T
Use = 0 for steady flow.
x 2
dT
C1
dx
T C1 x C2
at T = Tleft, x = 0
Tleft = 0 + C2
C2 = Tleft

At T = Tright, x = L
Tright = C1L + Tleft

Tright Tleft
C1
L
Then,
T
T right
Tleft
x Tleft
L
T Tleft Tright Tleft
, therefore linear.
x L

1.21 The thermal conductivity in a particular plane wall depends as follows on the wall
temperature: k = A + BT, where A and B are constants. The temperatures are T1
and T2 on either side of the wall, and its thickness is L. Develop an expression for
q.

Solution:

dT
q k
dx
dT
q A BT
dx
qdx A BT dT

29
 1. INTRODUCTION

L T2

q dx A BT dT
0 T1

T2
1
qL AT BT 2
2 T 1

1 2
qL A T2 T1 B T2 T1
2
2


1 2
A T2 T1 B T2 T1
2

q
2
L

1.22 Find k for the wall shown in Fig. 1.21. Of what might it be made?

Figure 1.21.

Solution:
L = 0.08 m
T Tright hT T
q k left left
L
k
20 0 200100 20
0.08
k = 64 W/m.K

30
 1. INTRODUCTION

From Table A.1, @ 10 C, k = 64 W/m.K

This might be Steel, AISI 1010, k = 64.6 W/m.K

1.23 What are Ti, Tj, and Tr in the wall shown in Fig. 1.22?

Fig. 1.22.

Solution:
L1 = 2 cm = 0.02 m
k1 = 2 W/m.C
L2 = 6 cm = 0.06 m
k2 = 1 W/m.C
L3 = 4 cm = 0.04 m
k3 = 5 W/m.C
L4 = 4 cm = 0.04 m
k4 = 4 W/m.C

k1 100 Ti k 2 Ti 25 k3 25 T j k 4 T j Tr
q
L1 L2 L3 L4
k1 100 Ti k 2 Ti 25

L1 L2
2100 Ti 1 Ti 25
0.02 0.06
600 6Ti Ti 25
Ti =89.29 C
k1 100 Ti k3 25 T j

L1 L3
2100 89.29 5 25 T j
0.02 0.04
T j = 16.43 C

31
 1. INTRODUCTION

k1 100 Ti k 4 T j Tr

L1 L4
2100 89.29 416.43 Tr
0.02 0.04
2100 89.29 416.43 Tr
0.02 0.04
Tr = 5.72 C

1.24 An aluminum can of beer or soda pop is removed from the refrigerator and set on
the table. If h is 13.5 W/m2.K, estimate when the beverage will be at 15 C.
Ignore thermal radiation. State all of your other assumptions.

Solution:

Properties of aluminum, Table A.1, App. A

= 2707 kg/m3
cp = 905 J/kg.K
k = 237 W/m.K
= 9.61 x 10-5 m2/s

Assume size of can is 50 mm diameter x 100 mm height

Ti = 0 C, and room at T = 20 C

Time constant,
D 2
c L
cV 4
T
hA D 2
h DL
2
cDL
T
2h D 2 L
D = 0.05 m
L = 0.10 m
h = 13.5 W/m2.K

T
2707 905 0.05 0.10
648.1 ns
213.5 0.5 2 0.10
Eq. 1.22.
T T t
e T
Ti T
at T = 15 C

32
 1. INTRODUCTION

15 20 t
e 648.1
0 20
t = 898.5 s = 15 minutes

1.25. One large, black wall at 27 C faces another whose surface is 127 C. The gap
between the two walls is evacuated. If the second wall is 0.1 m thick and has a
thermal conductivity of 17.5 W.m.K, what is its temperature on the back side?
(Assume steady state).

Solution:

T3 = temperature on the back side.

k T3 T2

q T2 T1
4 4
L
L = 0.1 m
T1 = 27 C + 273 = 300 K
T2 = 127 C + 273 = 400 K
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.K
k = 17.5 W/m.K
q 5.6704 108 4004 300 4
17.5 T
3
400
0.10
T3 = 405.67 K = 132.67 C.

1.26. A 1-cm diameter, 1 % carbon steel sphere, initially at 200 C, is cooled by natural
convection, with air at 20 C. In this case, h is not independent of temperature.

33
 1. INTRODUCTION

Instead, h =3.51(t C)1/4 W/m2.K. Plot Tsphere as a function of t. Verify the lumped-
capacity assumption.

Solution:

Properties of 1% carbon steel, Table A.1

= 7801 kg/m3
cp = 473 J/kg.K
k = 42 W/m.K
= 1.17 x 10-5 m2/s

Verify the lumped-capacity assumption:

hL
Bi
k
t = 200 C 20 C = 180 C
h =3.51(180)1/4 W/m2.K = 12.86 W/m2.K
4 3
r
V 3 r
L
A 4 r 2
3
r = (1/2)(1 cm) = 0.005 m
L = 0.005 m / 3 = 0.001667 m
Bi
12.86 0.001667
= 0.00051 << 1, therefore valid.
42

Use Lumped-Capacity Method

T = 20 C

Ti = 200 C

dU
Q
dt
d cV T Tref
hA T T
dt
or
d T T hA T T

dt cV
h 3.51 T W / m 2 .K 3.51 T T
1/ 4 1/ 4
W / m 2 .K
d T T 3.51A T T
5/ 4

dt cV
d T T 3.51Adt

T T 5/ 4
cV
3.51Adt
T T 5 / 4
d T T

cV

34
 1. INTRODUCTION

4 T T 4 3.51At
1 T

T cV
i

1 1
T
3.51At
5 T T
5
4
4 1 T cV
i

1 1 0.8775 At

T T 1/ 4
Ti T 1/ 4
cV

A 3

V r
Then,
1 1 0.8775 3 2.6325t
t
T T 1/ 4
Ti T 1/ 4
c r cr
Substitute value,
1 1 2.6325t

T 20 1/ 4
200 20 1/ 4
7801 473 0.005
1
0.000143t 0.273012
T 20 1/ 4
1
T 20 1/ 4

0.000143t 0.273012
6993
T 20 1/ 4

t 1909
4
6993
T 20 C
t 1909

Tabulation:
t,s T, C
0 200
100 166.8
200 140.9
300 120.4
400 104.7
500 91
600 80.4
800 64.4
1000 53.4
1200 45.6
1400 40
1600 35.8
1800 32.6
2000 30.2

Plot:

35
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.27. A 3-cm diameter, black spherical heater is kept at 1100 C. It radiates through an
evacuated space to a surrounding spherical shell of Nichrome V. The shell has a 9
cm inside diameter and is 0.3 cm thick. It is black on the inside and is held at 25 C
on the outside. Find (a) the temperature of the inner wall of the shell and (b) the
heat transfer, Q. (Treat the shell as a plane wall.)

Solution:

Properties of Nichrome V, Table A.1, Appendix A.

= 8,410 kg/m3
cp = 466 J/kg.K
k = 10 W/m.K
= 0.26 x 10-5 m2/s

Radiation

Qrad A1 T1 T2
4 4

T1 = 1100 C = 1373 K
T3 = 25 C + 273 = 298 K
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.C

Conduction
kA2 T3 T2
Qcond
L
A1 4 r1 , r1 = (1/2)(3 cm) = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
2

A1 4 0.015 m2
2

36
 1. INTRODUCTION

A2 4 r2 , r2 = (1/2)(9 cm) = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m

2

A1 4 0.045 m2
2

L = 0.3 cm = 0.003 m

Then
Qrad Qcond
kA2 T2 T3

A1 T1 T2
4 4
L
5.6704 10 4 0.015 1373 10 4 0.045 T 298
2

T2
8 2 4 4 2

0.003
1373 4
T2 5.290632 1011 T2 298
4

By trial and error method.

(a) Inner Wall Temperature = T2 = 304.7 K = 31.7 C

(b) Heat Transfer, Q

4 4

Q A1 T1 T2 5.6704 108 4 0.015 1373 304.7 568.4 W
2
4 4

1.28. The sun radiates 650 W/m2 on the surface of a particular lake. At what rate (in
mm/hr) would the lake evaporate if all of this energy went to evaporating water?
Discuss as many other ways you can think of that this energy can be distributed
(hfg for water is 2,257,000 J/kg). Do you suppose much of the 650 W/m 2 goes to
evaporation?

Solution:

q = 650 W/m2 = 2,340,000 J/hr.m2

2,340,000 J / hr.m 2
Evaporation rate = 2,257,000 J / kg = 1.036774 kg/hr.m2
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
1.036774 kg / hr.m 2 1000 mm
Evaporation rate = =1.036774 mm/hr
1000 kg / m 3 1m

There are other ways that this energy can be distributed such as cloud barrier,
heating up of the lake up to evaporation, haze or atmosphere.
Yes, much of the 650 W/m2 goes to evaporation especially on a clear day.

1.29. It is proposed to make picnic cups, 0.005 m thick, of a new plastic for which k =
ko(1 + aT2), where T is expressed in C, ko = 15 W/m.K, and a = 10-4 C-2. We are

37
 1. INTRODUCTION

concerned with thermal behavior in the extreme case in which T = 100 C in the
cup and 0 C outside. Plot T against position in the cup wall and find the heat loss,
q.

Solution:

dT
q k
dx
qdx k o 1 aT 2 dT

T2

qx k o 1 aT 2
dT

qx ko T 13 aT 3 T
T1

T2

qx ko T2 13 aT2 T1 13 aT1
3 3

q x
ko

T2 13 aT2 T1 13 aT1
3 3


T2 13 aT2 T1 13 aT1
3 3 qx
ko

Solving for q if,
T1 = 100 C
T2 = 0 C
x = 0.005 m
qx
ko

T1 13 aT1 T2 13 aT2
3 3

q 0.005
0.15

100 13 10 4 100 0 13 10 4 0
3 3

q = 4000 W

Plotting:
Use T1 = 100 C, a = 10-4 C-2, q = 4000 W, ko = 0.15 W/m.K
T 2 13 aT2
3
T 1
1
3 aT1
3
qx
ko

k T 1 aT T2 13 aT2
x o 1 3 1
3
3

q

x
0.15 100 10 100 1
3
4 3
T 2
1
3 aT2
3

4000
x
20 0.15 T2 13 104 T2 3

4000

38
 1. INTRODUCTION

Tabulation:
T2, C x, m
100 0
80 0.00136
60 0.00248
40 0.00342
20 0.00424
0 0.00500

Heat loss , q = 4000 W

1.30. A disc-shaped wafer of diamond 1 lb is the target of a very high intensity laser.
The disc is 5 mm in diameter and 1 mm deep. The flat side is pulsed intermittently
with 1010 W/m2 of energy for one microsecond. It is then cooled by natural
convection from that same side until the next pulse. If h = 10 W/m2.K and T

=30 C, plot Tdisc as a function of time for pulses that are 50 s apart and 100 s apart.
(Note that you must determine the temperature the disc reaches before it is pulsed
each time.)

Solution:

Properties of Diamond, Table A.2

= 3250 kg/m3
cp = 510 J/kg.K
kb = 1350 W/m.K
= 8.1 x 10-4 m2/s

L = 1 mm = 0.001 m

39
 1. INTRODUCTION

hL
Bi
kb
h= 10 W/m2.K
T =30 C

Bi
10 0.001
= 0.0000074 << 1
1350
Therefore lumped capacity solution is valid.
T T
t

e T

Ti T

For 50 s apart,
On the first pulse, q = 1010 W/m2
Q q A(time)
A r 2 , r = (1/2)(5 mm) = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m
time = 1 s = 1 x 10-6 s

Q = (1010 W/m2)()(0.0025)2(1 x 10-6) = 1.9635 W

Q cV Ti 30 C
V r2L
Q 3250 510 0.0025 0.001 Ti 30 C
2

Ti = 90.33 this is the initial temperature on the first pulse.

T = 90.33 C 30 C = 60.33 C

Then:
T T
t

e T

Ti T
Time constant,
cV cL 3250 510 0.001
T = = = 165.75 s
hA h 10
T =30 C

For 50 s pulse apart

First 50 s, Ti = 90.33 C
t = 25 s
T 30
25

e 165.75
90.33 30

T = 81.88 C

t = 50 s

40
 1. INTRODUCTION

T 30
50

e 165.75

90.33 30

T = 74.62 C

Second 50 s, Ti = 60.33 C + 74.62 C = 134.95 C

t = 25 s
T 30
25

e 165.75
134.95 30

T = 120.26 C

t = 50 s
T 30
50

e 165.75
134.95 30

T = 107.62 C

Third 50 s, Ti = 60.33 C + 107.62 C = 167.95 C

t = 25 s
T 30
25

e 165.75
167.95 30

T = 148.64 C

t = 50 s
T 30
50

e 165.75
167.95 30

T = 132.03 C
And so on.
Tabulation:
t, s Tdisc, C
1st 50 s 0 90.33
25 81.88
50 74.62
2nd 50 s 50 134.95
75 120.26
100 107.62
3rd 50 s 100 167.95
125 148.64
150 132.03

41
 1. INTRODUCTION

Plot:

For 100 s pulse apart

First 100 s, Ti = 90.33 C

t = 50 s
T 30
50

e 165.75
90.33 30

T = 74.62 C

t = 100 s
T 30
100

e 165.75
90.33 30

42
 1. INTRODUCTION

T = 63.00 C

Second 100 s, Ti = 60.33 C + 63.00 C = 123.33 C

t = 50 s
T 30
50

e 165.75
123.33 30

T = 99.03 C

t = 100 s
T 30
100

e 165.75
123.33 30

T = 81.05 C

Third 100 s, Ti = 60.33 C + 81.05 C = 141.38 C

t = 50 s
T 30
50

e 165.75

141.38 30

T = 148.64 C

t = 100 s
T 30
100

e 165.75

141.38 30

T = 112.38 C

And so on.
Tabulation:
t, s Tdisc, C
st
1 100 s 0 90.3.3
50 74.62
100 63.00
2nd 100 s 100 123.33
150 99.03
200 81.05
3rd 100 s 200 141.38
250 112.38
300 90.93

43
 1. INTRODUCTION

Plot:

1.31 A 150 W light bulb is roughly a 0.006 m diameter sphere. Its steady surface
temperature in room air is 90 C, and h on the outside is 7 W/m2.K. What fraction
of the heat transfer from the bulb is by radiation directly from the filament
through the glass? (Stae any additional assumptions.)

Solution:

Assume black body radiation.

Q h A Tb Ta A Tb Ta
4 4

Q
A

h Tb Ta Tb Ta
4 4

Tb = 90 + 273 = 363 K
h = 7 W/m2.K.

44
 1. INTRODUCTION

= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.K4.

Q = 150 W but change to 0.150 W as light bulb is very small. It may be a typographical
error.
A D 2 4 r 2
D = 0.006 m
Then:
0.150
0.006
2
7 363 Ta 5.6704 108 3634 Ta
4

1326 7 363 Ta 5.6704 108 3634 Ta 4

By Trial and Error Method:
Ta = 270.5 K = -2.5 C

Q

Tb Ta 4 4

Fraction =
A h Tb Ta Tb Ta
4 4
=
5.6704 10 363 270.5
8 4 4

7 363 270.5 5.6704 10 363 270.5

8 4 4

Fraction = 0.5126

1.32 How much entropy does the light bulb in Problem 1.31 produce?

Solution:
1 1 1 1
S Un Q 0.15 = 0.0001413 W/K
Ta Tb 270.5 363

1.33 Air at 20 C flows over one side of a thin metal sheet ( h = 10.6 W/m2.K).
Methanol at 87 C flows over the other side ( h = 141 W/m2.K). The metal
functions as an electrical resistance heater, releasing 1000 W/m 2. Calculate (a) the
heater temperature, (b) the heat transfer from the methanol to the heater, and (c)
the heat transfer from the heat of the air.

Solution:

(a) q = 1000 W/m2

q h1 Th 20 C h2 Th 87 C
10.6 Th
20 141 Th 87 = 1000
Th = 88.9 C

(b) qm h2 Th 87 141 88.9 87

45
 1. INTRODUCTION

qm = 267.9 W

(c) qa h1 Th 20 10.6 88.9 20

qa = 730.3 W

1.34 A planar black heater is simultaneously cooled by 20 C air ( h =14.6 W/m2.K) and
by radiation to a parallel black wall at 80 C. What is the temperature of the heater
if it delivers 9000 W/m2 ?

Solution:

q h T 20 T 273 80 273 = 9000 W/m2
4 4

q 14.6 T 20 5.6704 10 8 T 273 353 = 9000 W/m2
4 4

By Trial and error method.

T = 294.3 C

1.35 An 8-oz. can of beer is taken from a 3 C refrigerator and placed in a 25 C room.
The 6.3 cm diameter by 9 cm high can is placed on an insulated surface ( h =7.3
W/m2.K). How long will it take to reach 12 C? Ignore thermal radiation and
discuss your other assumption.

Solution:

T T
t

e T
Ti T

Assume aluminum material for the can of beer,

Properties of aluminum, Table A.1, Appendix A
= 2707 kg/m3
cp = 905 J/kg.K
k = 237 W/m.K

Then,
T = 25 C
Ti = 3 C
T = 12 C

Time constant:

46
 1. INTRODUCTION

cV
T
hA

V D2 L
4
D = 6.3 cm = 0.063 m

V 0.063 0.09 = 2.8055 x 10-4 m3
2

4

A D 2 2 DL 0.063 2 0.063 0.09 = 0.02405 m2
2

4
4

2707 905 2.8055 104
T = 3915 s
7.3 0.02405
12 25
t

e 3915
3 25

t = 2314 sec = 38.6 min

1.36 A resistance heater in the form a thin sheet runs parallel with 3 cm slabs of cast
iron on either side of an evacuated cavity. The heater, which releases 8000 W/m 2,
and the cast iron are very nearly black. The outside surfaces of the cast iron slabs
are kept at 10 C. Determine the heater temperature and the inside slab
temperatures.

Solution:

q = 8000 W/m2

Properties of cast iron, Table A.1, Appendix A

47
 1. INTRODUCTION

= 7272 kg/m3
cp = 420 J/kg.K
kb = 52 W/m.K

L = 3 cm = 0.03 m

Inside slab temperature,

q k
10C T
= 8000 W/m2
L
q 52
10 T
0.03
T = 14.62 C

Heater temperature,

q Th T 4 = 8000 W/m2
4

q 5.6704 108 Th 273 14.62 273 = 8000 W/m2
4 4

Th = 347.2 C

1.37 A black wall at 1200 C radiated to the left side of a parallel slab of type 316
stainless steel, 5 mm thick. The right side of the slab is to be cooled convectively
and is not to exceed 0 C. Suggest a convective proceed that will achieve this.

Solution:

1.38 A cooler keeps one side of a 2 cm layer of ice at 10 C. The other side is exposed
to air at 15 C. What is h just on the edge of melting? Must h be raised or
lowered if melting is to progress?

48
 1. INTRODUCTION

Solution:

Melting point of ice = 0 C

Thermal Conductivity of ice at 0 C = 2.215 W/m.K
k T2 T1
q h T2 T3
L
k T2 T1
h T3 T2
L
k T2 T1
h T3 T2
L
T1 = -10 C
T2 = 0 C
T3 = 15 C
L = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Then,
2.215 0 10 h 15 0
0.02
h = 73.83 W/m2.K
If the melting is to progress the thickness will reduce and h must be raised.

1.39 At what minimum temperature does a black heater deliver its maximum
monochromatic emissive power in the visible range? Compare your result with
Fig. 10.2.

Solution:

Figure 1.15 or Wiens Law, Eq. (1.29)

T e max = 2898 m.K

Minimum visible range, = 0.4545 m

Then:
(0.4545 m)(Tmin) = 2898 m.K

Tmin = 6376 K

From Fig. 10.2 , T = 5900 K

1.40 The local heat transfer coefficient during the laminar flow of fluid over a flat plate
of length L is equal to F / x1/2, where F is a function of fluid properties and the
flow velocity. How does h compares with h (x = L). (x is the distance from the
leading edge of the plate.)

49
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.41 An object is initially at a temperature above that of its surroundings. We have seen
that many kinds of convection processes will bring the object into equilibrium
with its surroundings. Describe the characteristics of a process that will do so with
the least net increase of the entropy of the universe.

Solution:

Tb 1 1
S cV Tbo dTb
T Tb
Determine Tb for least net increase of the entropy of the universe.
1 1
=0
T Tb
Tb T
T Tbo T
S cV ln
T Tbo
T T T
S cV bo ln bo
T T
The characteristic of the process is unsteady state conduction having Biot number
increasing from less than one to more than one when reaching equilibrium at Tb T .

1.42 A 250 C cylindrical copper billet, 4 cm in diameter and 8 cm long is cooled in air
at 25 C. The heat transfer coefficient is 5 W/m 2.K Can this be treated as lump-capacity
cooling? What is the temperature of the billet after 10 minutes?

Solution:

Check Biot Number

Properties of copper, Table A.1, App. A

= 8954 kg/m3
cp = 384 J/kg.K
kb = 398 W/m.K

Time constant:
cV
T
hA

V D2 L
4
D = 4 cm = 0.04 m, L = 8 cm = 0.08 m

V 0.04 0.08 = 1.0053 x 10-4 m3
2

4

A D 2 2 DL 0.04 2 0.04 0.08 = 0.012566 m2
2

4
4

50
 1. INTRODUCTION

T
8954 384 1.0053 10
4

= 5501 s
5 0.012566
Biot Number

hL
Bi
kb
L 0.02 m

Bi
5 0.02
= 0.00025 << 1
398
Therefore lumped capacity cooling is valid.

T T
t

e T
Ti T

t = 10 min = 600 s

T 25
600

e 5501
250 25
T = 226.75 C

1.43 The suns diameter is 1,392,000 km, and it emerges as if it were a blackbody at
5777 K. Determine the rate at which it emits energy. Compare with a value from
the literature. What is the suns energy output in a year?

Solution:

q AT 4
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m2.K
A r2
r = (1/2)(1,392,000 km) = 696,000 km = 6.96 x 108 m

q 5.6704 108 W / m 2 .K 4 6.96 108 m 5777 K

2 4

q = 3.8446 x 1026 Watts

From http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/100/rad-temp.htm
q = 3.865 x 1026 Watts

q = (3.8446 x 1026 W)(8760 hr/yr)(3600 s/hr) = 1.212434 x 1034 J/year

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