Lecture in Fluid Mechanics PDF

Fluid Mechanics 101
A Skeleton Guide
J. E. Shepherd
Aeronautics and Mechanical Engineering
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, CA USA 91125
1995-present - Revised December 16, 2007

Foreword
This is guide is intended for students in Ae101 Fluid Mechanics, the class on the fundamentals of fluid
mechanics that all first year graduate students take in Aeronautics and Mechanical Engineering at Caltech.
It contains all the essential formulas grouped into sections roughly corresponding to the order in which the
material is taught when I give the course (I have done this now five times beginning in 1995). This is not a
text book on the subject or even a set of lecture notes. The document is incomplete as description of fluid
mechanics and entire subject areas such as free surface flows, buoyancy, turbulent flows, etc., are missing
(some of these elements are in Brad Sturtevants class notes which cover much of the same ground but are
more expository). It is simply a collection of what I view as essential formulas for most of the class. The
need for this typeset formulary grew out of my poor chalk board work and the many mistakes that happen
when I lecture. Several generations of students have chased the errors out but please bring any that remain
to my attention.
JES December 16, 2007

Contents
1 Fundamentals 1
1.1 Control Volume Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Reynolds Transport Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Integral Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Simple Control Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Steady Momentum Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Curvilinear Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.3 Gauss Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 Stokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.5 Div, Grad and Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.6 Specific Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Differential Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 Conservation form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Convective Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Divergence of Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10 Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Thermodynamics 11
2.1 Thermodynamic potentials and fundamental relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Maxwell relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Various defined quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 v(P, s) relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Equation of State Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Compressible Flow 15
3.1 Steady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1 Streamlines and Total Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Quasi-One Dimensional Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.1 Isentropic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Heat and Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1 Fanno Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.2 Rayleigh Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Shock Jump Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.1 Lab frame (moving shock) versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Perfect Gas Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.6 Reflected Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.7 Detonation Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8 Perfect-Gas, 2- Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8.1 2- Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.8.2 High-Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.9 Weak shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.10 Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.11 Multipole Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.12 Baffled (surface) source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.13 1-D Unsteady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.14 2-D Steady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.14.1 Oblique Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
i
3.14.2 Weak Oblique Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.14.3 Prandtl-Meyer Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.14.4 Inviscid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.14.5 Potential Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.14.6 Natural Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.14.7 Method of Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4 Incompressible, Inviscid Flow 34

4.1 Velocity Field Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Solutions of Laplaces Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 Streamfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.1 2-D Cartesian Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4.3 Spherical Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 Simple Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.6 Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7 Key Ideas about Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 Unsteady Potential Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.9 Complex Variable Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.9.1 Mapping Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.10 Airfoil Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.11 Thin-Wing Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.11.1 Thickness Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.11.2 Camber Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.12 Axisymmetric Slender Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.13 Wing Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5 Viscous Flow 52
5.1 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2 Two-Dimensional Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Parallel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3.1 Steady Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3.2 Poiseuille Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.3 Rayleigh Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4 Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4.1 Blasius Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4.2 Falkner-Skan Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 Karman Integral Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 Thwaites Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.7 Laminar Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.8 Compressible Boundary Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.8.1 Transformations and Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.8.2 Energy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.8.3 Moving Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.8.4 Weak Shock Wave Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.9 Creeping Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
A Famous Numbers 69
B Books on Fluid Mechanics 71
ii
1 FUNDAMENTALS 1
1 Fundamentals
1.1 Control Volume Statements

is a material volume, V is an arbitrary control volume, indicates the surface of the volume.
mass conservation:
Z
d
dV = 0 (1)
dt
Momentum conservation:
Z
d
u dV = F (2)
dt
Forces: Z Z
F= G dV + T dA (3)

Surface traction forces
T = P n + n = T n (4)
Stress tensor T
T = P I + or Tik = P ik + ik (5)
where I is the unit tensor, which in cartesian coordinates is
I = ik (6)
Viscous stress tensor, shear viscosity , bulk viscosity v

1
ik = 2 Dik ik Djj + v ik Djj implicit sum on j (7)
3
Deformation tensor
1 ui uk 1
u + uT

Dik = + or (8)
2 xk xi 2
Energy conservation:
|u|2
Z
d
e+ dV = Q + W (9)
dt 2
Work: Z Z
W = G u dV + T u dA (10)

Heat: Z
Q = q n dA (11)

heat flux q, thermal conductivity k and thermal radiation qr
q = kT + qr (12)
Entropy inequality (2nd Law of Thermodynamics):
q n
Z Z
d
s dV dA (13)
dt T
1 FUNDAMENTALS 2
1.2 Reynolds Transport Theorem

The multi-dimensional analog of Leibnizs theorem:
Z Z Z
d
(x, t) dV = dV + uV n dA (14)
dt V (t) V (t) t V
The transport theorem proper. Material volume , arbitrary volume V .

Z Z Z
d d
dV = dV + (u uV ) n dA (15)
dt dt V V
1.3 Integral Equations

The equations of motions can be rewritten with Reynolds Transport Theorem to apply to an (almost) arbi-
trary moving control volume. Beware of noninertial reference frames and the apparent forces or accelerations
that such systems will introduce.
Moving control volume:
Z Z
d
dV + (u uV ) n dA = 0 (16)
dt V V
Z Z Z Z
d
udV + u (u uV ) n dA = G dV + T dA (17)
dt V V V V
|u|2 |u|2
Z Z
d
e+ dV + e+ (u uV ) n dA =
dt V 2 V 2
Z Z Z
G u dV + T u dA q n dA (18)
V V V
Z Z Z
d q
sdV + s (u uV ) n dA + n dA 0 (19)
dt V V V T
Stationary control volume:
Z Z
d
dV + u n dA = 0 (20)
dt V V
Z Z Z Z
d
udV + uu n dA = G dV + T dA (21)
dt V V V V
|u|2 |u|2
Z Z
d
e+ dV + e+ u n dA =
dt V 2 V 2
Z Z Z
G u dV + T u dA q n dA (22)
V V V
Z Z Z
d q
sdV + su n dA + n dA 0 (23)
dt V V V T
1 FUNDAMENTALS 3
1.3.1 Simple Control Volumes

Consider a stationary control volume V with i = 1, 2, . . ., I connections or openings through which there is
fluid flowing in and j = 1, 2, . . ., J connections through which the fluid is following out. At the inflow and
outflow stations, further suppose that we can define average or effective uniform properties hi , i , ui of the
fluid. Then the mass conservation equation is
Z I J
dM d X X
= dV = Ai mi Aj mj (24)
dt dt V i=1 j=1
where Ai is the cross-sectional area of the ith connection and mi = i ui is the mass flow rate per unit area
through this connection. The energy equation for this same situation is
I
|u|2 |ui |2
Z
dE d X
= e+ + gz dV = Ai mi hi + + gzi
dt dt V 2 i=1
2
J
|uj |2
X
Aj mj hj + + gzj + Q + W (25)
j=1
2
where Q is the thermal energy (heat) transferred into the control volume and W is the mechanical work
done on the fluid inside the control volume.
1.3.2 Steady Momentum Balance

For a stationary control volume, the steady momentum equation can be written as
Z Z Z Z
uu n dA + P n dA = G dV + n dA + Fext (26)
V V V V
where Fext are the external forces required to keep objects in contact with the flow in force equilibrium.
These reaction forces are only needed if the control volume includes stationary objects or surfaces. For a
control volume completely within the fluid, Fext = 0.
1.4 Vector Calculus

1.4.1 Vector Identities
If A and B are two differentiable vector fields A(x), B(x) and is a differentiable scalar field (x), then
the following identities hold:
(A B) = (B )A (A )B ( A)B + ( B)A (27)

(A B) = (B )A + (A )B + B ( A) + A ( B) (28)
() = 0 (29)
( A) = 0 (30)
( A) = ( A) 2 A (31)
(A) = A + A (32)
1.4.2 Curvilinear Coordinates

Scale factors Consider an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system (x1 , x2 , x3 ) defined by a triad of unit
vectors (e1 , e2 , e3 ), which satisfy the orthogonality condition:
ei ek = ik (33)
1 FUNDAMENTALS 4
and form a right-handed coordinate system
e3 = e1 e2 (34)
The scale factors hi are defined by
dr = h1 dx1 e1 + h2 dx2 e2 + h3 dx3 e3 (35)

or

r
hi
(36)
xi
The unit of arc length in this coordinate system is ds2 = dr dr:
ds2 = h21 dx21 + h22 dx22 + h23 dx23 (37)

The unit of differential volume is
dV = h1 h2 h3 dx1 dx2 dx3 (38)
1.4.3 Gauss Divergence Theorem

For a vector or tensor field F, the following relationship holds:
Z Z
F dV F n dA (39)
V V
This leads to the simple interpretation of the divergence as the following limit
Z
1
F lim F n dA (40)
V 0 V V
A useful variation on the divergence theorem is

Z Z
( F) dV n F dA (41)
V V
This leads to the simple interpretation of the curl as
Z
1
F lim n F dA (42)
V 0 V V
1.4.4 Stokes Theorem

For a vector or tensor field F, the following relationship holds on an open, two-sided surface S bounded by
a closed, non-intersecting curve S:
Z Z
( F) n dA F dr (43)
S S
1.4.5 Div, Grad and Curl

The gradient operator or grad for a scalar field is
1 1 1
= e1 + e2 + e3 (44)
h1 x1 h2 x2 h3 x3
A simple interpretation of the gradient operator is in terms of the differential of a function in a direction a
da = lim (x + da) (x) = da (45)

da0
1 FUNDAMENTALS 5
The divergence operator or div is

1
F= (h2 h3 F1 ) + (h3 h1 F2 ) + (h1 h2 F3 ) (46)
h1 h2 h3 x1 x2 x3
The curl operator or curl is

h 1 e1 h 2 e2 h3 e3
1
F=
x1 x2 x3
(47)
h1 h2 h3 h 1 F1 h 2 F2 h3 F3
The components of the curl are:

e1
F = (h3 F3 ) (h2 F2 )
h2 h3 x2 x3

e2
+ (h1 F1 ) (h3 F3 )
h3 h1 x3 x1

e3
+ (h2 F2 ) (h1 F1 ) (48)
h1 h2 x1 x2
The Laplacian operator 2 for a scalar field is

2 1 h2 h3 h3 h1 h1 h2
= ( )+ ( )+ ( ) (49)
h1 h2 h3 x1 h1 x1 x2 h2 x2 x3 h3 x3
1.4.6 Specific Coordinates

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) x y z h1 h2 h3
Cartesian
(x, y, z) x y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical
(r, , z) r sin r cos z 1 r 1
Spherical
(r, , ) r sin cos r sin sin r cos 1 r r sin
Parabolic Cylindrical
1
(u, v, z) 2
(u2 v 2 ) uv z u2 + v 2 h1 1
Paraboloidal
1
(u, v, ) uv cos uv sin 2
(u2 v2 ) u2 + v 2 h1 uv
Elliptic Cylindrical p
(u, v, z) a cosh u cos v a sinh u sin v z a sinh2 u + sin2 v h1 1
Prolate Spheroidal p
(, , ) a sinh sin cos a sinh sin sin a cosh cos a sinh2 + sin2 h1 a sinh sin
1.5 Differential Relations

1.5.1 Conservation form
The equations are first written in conservation form

density + flux = source (50)
t
1 FUNDAMENTALS 6
for a fixed (Eulerian) control volume in an inertial reference frame by using the divergence theorem.

+ (u) = 0 (51)
t

(u) + (uu T) = G (52)
t
|u|2 |u|2

e+ + u e + Tu+q = G u (53)
t 2 2
q
(s) + us + 0 (54)
t T
1.6 Convective Form

This form uses the convective or material derivative
D
= +u (55)
Dt t
D
= u (56)
Dt
Du
= P + + G (57)
Dt
|u|2

D
e+ = (T u) q + G u (58)
Dt 2
Ds q
(59)
Dt T
Alternate forms of the energy equation:
|u|2

D
e+ = (P u) + ( u) q + G u (60)
Dt 2
Formulation using enthalpy h = e + P/
|u|2

D P
h+ = + ( u) q + G u (61)
Dt 2 t
Mechanical energy equation
D |u|2
= (u ) P + u + G u (62)
Dt 2
Thermal energy equation
De Dv
= P + v :u v q (63)
Dt Dt
Dissipation
ui
= :u = ik sum on i and k (64)
xk
Entropy
2
Ds q T
= + +k (65)
Dt T T T
1 FUNDAMENTALS 7
1.7 Divergence of Viscous Stress

For a fluid with constant and v , the divergence of the viscous stress in Cartesian coordinates can be
reduced to:

1
= 2 u + v + ( u) (66)
3
1.8 Euler Equations

Inviscid, no heat transfer, no body forces.
D
= u (67)
Dt
Du
= P (68)
Dt
|u|2

D P
h+ = (69)
Dt 2 t
Ds
0 (70)
Dt
1.9 Bernoulli Equation

Consider the unsteady energy equation in the form
|u|2

D P
h+ = + ( u) q + G u (71)
Dt 2 t
and further suppose that the external force field G is conservative and can be derived from a potential as
G = (72)
then if (x) only, we have
|u|2

D P
h+ + = + ( u) q (73)
Dt 2 t
The Bernoulli constant is

|u|2
H =h+ + (74)
2
In the absence of unsteadiness, viscous forces and heat transfer we have
|u|2

u h+ + =0 (75)
2
Or
H = constant on streamlines
For the ordinary case of isentropic flow of an incompressible fluid dh = dP/ in a uniform gravitational
field = g(z z ), we have the standard result
|u|2
P + + gz = constant (76)
2
1 FUNDAMENTALS 8
1.10 Vorticity
Vorticity is defined as
u (77)
and the vector identities can be used to obtain
|u|2
(u )u = ( ) u ( u) (78)
2
The momentum equation can be reformulated to read:
|u|2

u
H = h + + = + u + T s + (79)
2 t
1 FUNDAMENTALS 9
1.11 Dimensional Analysis

Fundamental Dimensions
L length meter (m)
M mass kilogram (kg)
T time second (s)
temperature Kelvin (K)
I current Ampere (A)
Some derived dimensional units
force Newton (N) M LT 2
pressure Pascal (Pa) M L1 T 2
bar = 105 Pa
energy Joule (J) M L2 T 2
frequency Hertz (Hz) T 1
power Watt (W) M L2 T 3
viscosity () Poise (P) M L1 T 1
Pi Theorem Given n dimensional variables X1 , X2 , . . ., Xn , and f independent fundamental dimensions

(at most 5) involved in the problem:
1. The number of dimensionally independent variables r is
rf
2. The number p = n - r of dimensionless variables i

Xi
i =
X11 X22
Xrr
that can be formed is

pnf
Conventional Dimensionless Numbers

Reynolds Re U L/
Mach Ma U/c
Prandtl Pr cP /k = /
Strouhal St L/U T
Knudsen Kn /L
Peclet Pe U L/
Schmidt Sc /D
Lewis Le D/
Reference conditions: U , velocity; , vicosity; D, mass diffusivity; k, thermal conductivity; L, length scale;
T , time scale; c, sound speed; , mean free path; cP , specific heat at constant pressure.
Parameters for Air and Water Values given for nominal standard conditions 20 C and 1 bar.
1 FUNDAMENTALS 10
Air Water
shear viscosity (kg/ms) 1.8105 1.00103
kinematic viscosity (m2 /s) 1.5105 1.0106
thermal conductivity k (W/mK) 2.54102 0.589
thermal diffusivity (m2 /s) 2.1105 1.4107
specific heat cp (J/kgK) 1004. 4182.
sound speed c (m/s) 343.3 1484
density (kg/m3 ) 1.2 998.
gas constant R (m2 /s2 K) 287 462.
thermal expansion (K1 ) 3.3104 2.1104
isentropic compressibility s (Pa1 ) 7.01106 4.51010
Prandtl number Pr .72 7.1

Fundamental derivative 1.205 4.4
ratio of specific heats 1.4 1.007
Gruneisen coefficient G 0.40 0.11
2 THERMODYNAMICS 11
2 Thermodynamics
2.1 Thermodynamic potentials and fundamental relations
energy
e(s, v)
de = T ds P dv (80)
enthalpy h(s, P ) = e + Pv
dh = T ds + v dP (81)
Helmholtz f (T, v) = e Ts
df = s dT P dv (82)
Gibbs g(T, P ) = e Ts + Pv
dg = s dT + v dP (83)
2.2 Maxwell relations

T P
= (84)
v s s v

T v
= (85)
P s s P

s P
= (86)
v T T v

s v
= (87)
P T T P
Calculus identities:

F F
F (x, y, . . . ) dF = dx + dy + . . . (88)
x y,z,... y x,z,...

f
x y
= x (89)
y f
f
x
y

x 1
= (90)
f y
f
x
y
2 THERMODYNAMICS 12
2.3 Various defined quantities

e
specific heat at constant volume cv (91)
T v

h
specific heat at constant pressure cp (92)
T P
cp
ratio of specific heats (93)
c
sv
P
sound speed c (94)
s

1 v
coefficient of thermal expansion (95)
v T P

1 v
isothermal compressibility KT (96)
v P T

1 v 1
isentropic compressibility Ks = 2 (97)
v P s c
Specific heat relationships

P P
KT = Ks or = (98)
v
s v T
2
P v
cp cv = T (99)
v T T P
Fundamental derivative
c4 2 v

(100)
2v 3 P 2 s
v3 2 P

= (101)
2c2 v 2 s

c
= 1 + c (102)
P
2 2 s
1 v h
= +1 (103)
2 c2 v 2 s
Sound speed (squared)

P
c2 (104)
s

P
= v 2 (105)
v s
v
= (106)
Ks
v
= (107)
Kt
Gruneisen Coefficient
2 THERMODYNAMICS 13
v
G (108)
cv KT

P
= v (109)
e v
v
= (110)
cp Ks

v T
= (111)
T v s
2.4 v(P, s) relation
dv T ds
= Ks dP + (Ks dP )2 + + ... (112)
v cp
2
dP dP T ds
= + +G + ... (113)
c2 c2 c2
2.5 Equation of State Construction

Given cv (v, T ) and P (v, T ), integrate

P
de = cv dT + T P dv (114)
T v

cv P
ds = dT + dv (115)
T T v
along two paths: I: variable T , fixed and II: variable , fixed T .
Energy:
Z T Z !
P d
e = e + cv (T, ) dT + P T (116)
T T 2
| {z } | {z }
I II
Ideal gas limit 0,
lim cv (T, ) = cig

v (T ) (117)
0
The ideal gas limit of I is the ideal gas internal energy

Z T
ig
e (T ) = cig
v (T ) dT (118)
T
Ideal gas limit of II is the residual function

Z !
r P d
e (, T ) = P T (119)
0 T 2
and the complete expression for internal energy is
e(, T ) = e + eig (T ) + er (, T ) (120)

Entropy:
Z T Z !
cv (T, ) P d
s = s + dT + (121)
T T T 2
| {z } | {z }
I II
2 THERMODYNAMICS 14
The ideal gas limit 0 has to be carried out slightly differently since the ideal gas entropy, unlike the
internal energy, is a function of density and is singular at = 0. Define
T
cig
Z Z
v (T ) d
sig = dT R (122)
T T
where the second integral on the RHS is R ln /. Then compute the residual function by substracting the
singular part before carrying out the integration
Z !
r 1 P d
s (, T ) = R (123)
0 T
and the complete expression for entropy is
s(, T ) = s + sig (, T ) + sr (, T ) (124)

3 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 15
3 Compressible Flow
3.1 Steady Flow
A steady flow must be considered as compressible when the Mach number M = u/c is sufficiently large. In
an isentropic flow, the change in density produced by a speed u can be estimated as
1
s = c2 P M 2 (125)
2
from the energy equation discussed below and the fundamental relation of thermodynamics.
If the flow is unsteady, then the change in the density along the pathlines for inviscid flows without body
forces is
u u2 1 1 u2

1 D 1 P
= u = (126)
Dt 2c2 c2 2 t t
This first term is the steady flow condition M 2 . The second set of terms in the square braces are the
unsteady contributions. These will be significant when the time scale T is comparable to the acoustic transit
time L/c , i.e., T Lco .
3.1.1 Streamlines and Total Properties

Stream lines X(t; x ) are defined by
dX
=u X = x when t = 0 (127)
dt
which in Cartesian coordinates yields
dx1 dx2 dx3
= = (128)
u1 u2 u3
Total enthalpy is constant along streamlines in adiabatic, steady, inviscid flow
|u|2
ht = h + = constant (129)
2
Velocity along a streamline is given by the energy equation:
p
u = |u| = 2(ht h) (130)
Total properties are defined in terms of total enthalpy and an idealized isentropic deceleration process along
a streamline. Total pressure is defined by
Pt P (s , ht ) (131)
Other total properties Tt , t , etc. can be computed from the equation of state.
3.2 Quasi-One Dimensional Flow

Adiabatic, frictionless flow:
d(uA) = 0 (132)
udu = dP (133)
u2
h+ = constant or dh = udu (134)
2
ds 0 (135)
3.2.1 Isentropic Flow

If ds = 0, then
(d)2
dP = c2 d + c2 ( 1) + ... (136)

For isentropic flow, the quasi-one-dimensional equations can be written in terms of the Mach number as:
1 d M 2 1 dA
= (137)
dx 1 M 2 A dx
1 dP M 2 1 dA
= (138)
c2 dx 1 M 2 A dx
1 du 1 1 dA
= 2
(139)
u dx 1 M A dx
1 dM 1 + ( 1)M 2 1 dA
= (140)
M dx 1 M2 A dx
2
1 dh M 1 dA
= (141)
c2 dx 1 M 2 A dx
At a throat, the gradient in Mach number is:
2
d2 A

dM
= (142)
dx 2A dx2
Constant- Gas If the value of is assumed to be constant, the quasi-one dimensional equations can be
integrated to yield:
t 1
1 + ( 1)M 2
2(1)
= (143)

1
ct t 1/2
= = 1 + ( 1)M 2 (144)
c
ht
1 + ( 1)M 2

= (145)
h
1/2
M2

u = ct (146)
1 + ( 1)M 2

1 1 + ( 1)M 2 2(1)

A
= (147)
A M

P Pt 1 21
= 1 + ( 1)M 2 2(1) 1 (148)
t c2t 2 1
(149)
Ideal Gas For an ideal gas P = RT and e = e(T ) only. In that case, we have
Z T Z T
cP (T )
h(T ) = e + RT = h + cv (T ) dT, s = s + dT R ln(P/P ) (150)
T T T
and you can show that is given by:

+ 1 1 T d
ig = + (151)
2 2 dT
Perfect or Constant- Gas Perfect gas results for isentropic flow can be derived from the equation of
state
R
P = RT h = cp T cp = (152)
1
the value of for a perfect gas,
+1
pg = (153)
2
the energy integral,
1 2
Tt = T 1+ M (154)
2
and the expression for entropy
T
s so = cp ln R ln P/Po (155)
To
or
T
s so = cv ln R ln /o
To
Tt 1 2
= 1+ M (156)
T 2

1
Pt Tt
= (157)
P T
11
t Tt
= (158)
T
Mach NumberArea Relationship

+1
2(1)
A 1 2 1 2
= 1+ M (159)
A M +1 2
Choked flow mass flux
+1
2(1)
2
M = ct t A (160)
+1
or
+1
2(1)
2 P
M = t A
+1 RTt
Velocity-Mach number relationship
M
u = ct q (161)
1 2
1+ 2 M
Alternative reference speeds

r r
+1 +1
ct = c umax = c (162)
2 1
3.3 Heat and Friction

Constant-area, steady flow with friction F and heat addition Q
u = m = constant (163)
udu + dP = F dx (164)
dh + udu = Qdx (165)

1 F
ds = Q+ dx (166)
T
F is the frictional stress per unit length of the duct. In terms of the Fanning friction factor f
2
F = f u2 (167)
D
where D is the hydraulic diameter of the duct D = 4area/perimeter. Note that the conventional DArcy
or Moody friction factor = 4 f .
Q is the energy addition as heat per unit mass and unit length of the duct. If the heat flux into the fluid
is q, then we have
q 4
Q= (168)
u D
3.3.1 Fanno Flow

Constant-area, adiabatic, steady flow with friction only:
udu + dP = F dx (170)
u2
h+ = ht = constant (171)
2
(172)
Change in entropy with volume along Fanno line, h + 1/2m2 v 2 =ht
c2 u2

ds
T = (173)
dv F anno v(1 + G)
3.3.2 Rayleigh Flow

Constant-area, steady flow with heat transfer only:
P + u2 = I (175)
dh + udu = Qdx (176)
(177)
Change in entropy with volume along Rayleigh line, P + m2 v = I
c2 u2

ds
T = (178)
dv Rayleigh vG
3.4 Shock Jump Conditions

The basic jump conditions,
1 w1 = 2 w2 (179)
P1 + 1 w12 = P2 + 2 w22 (180)
w2 w2
h1 + 1 = h2 + 2 (181)
2 2
s2 s1 (182)
or defining [f ] f2 - f1
[w] = 0 (183)
P + w2

= 0 (184)
w2

h+ = 0 (185)
2
[s] 0 (186)
The Rayleigh line:
P2 P1
= (1 w1 )2 = (2 w2 )2 (187)
v2 v1
or
[P ]
= (w)2 (188)
[v]
Rankine-Hugoniot relation:
h2 h1 = (P2 P1 )(v2 + v1 )/2 or e2 e1 = (P2 + P1 )(v1 v2 )/2 (189)

Velocity-P v relation
p
[w]2 = [P ][v] or w2 w1 = (P2 P1 )(v2 v1 ) (190)
Alternate relations useful for numerical solution

1
P2 = P1 + 1 w12 1 (191)
2
" 2 #
1 1
h2 = h1 + w12 1 (192)
2 2
3.4.1 Lab frame (moving shock) versions

Shock velocity
w1 = Us (193)
Particle (fluid) velocity in laboratory frame
w2 = Us up (194)
Jump conditions
2 (Us up ) = 1 Us (195)
P2 = P1 + 1 Us up (196)
h2 = h1 + up (Us up /2) (197)
Kinetic energy:
u2p 1
= (P2 P1 )(v1 v2 )
2 2
3.5 Perfect Gas Results
[P ] 2
M12 1

= (198)
P1 +1

[w] 2 1
= M1 (199)
c1 +1 M1

[v] 2 1
= 1 2 (200)
v1 +1 M1
[s] Pt2
= ln (201)
R Pt1

+1 2
1
Pt2 1 M1
=
2
(202)
Pt1
2 1
1
1 1 2
M2 1+ M1
+1 1 +1 2
Shock adiabat or Hugoniot:

+ 1 v2

P2 1 v1
= (203)
P1 + 1 v2
1
1 v1
Some alternatives
P2 2
M12 1

= 1+ (204)
P1 +1
2 1
= M12 (205)
+1 +1
2 +1
= (206)
1 1 + 2/M12
2
M12 +
1
M22 = (207)
2
M2 1
1 1
Prandtls relation
w1 w2 = c2 (208)
where c is the sound speed at a sonic point obtained in a fictitious isentropic process in the upstream flow.
w2
r
1
c = 2 ht , ht = h + (209)
+1 2
3.6 Reflected Shock Waves

Reflected shock velocity UR in terms of the velocity u2 and density 2 behind the incident shock or detonation
wave, and the density 3 behind the reflected shock.
u2
UR = 3 (210)
1
2
Pressure P3 behind reflected shock:
3 u 2
P 3 = P 2 + 3 2 (211)
1
2
Enthalpy h3 behind reflected shock:
3
+1
u22 2
h3 = h2 + (212)
2 3 1
2
Perfect gas result for incident shock waves:
P2
(3 1) ( 1)
P3 P1
= (213)
P2 P2
( 1) + ( + 1)
P1
3.7 Detonation Waves

Jump conditions:
1 w1 = 2 w2 (214)
P1 + 1 w12 = P2 + 2 w22 (215)
w2 w2
h1 + 1 = h2 + 2 (216)
2 2
s2 s1 (217)
3.8 Perfect-Gas, 2- Model

Perfect gas with energy release q, different values of and R in reactants and products.
h1 = cp1 T (218)
h2 = cp2 T q (219)
P1 = 1 R 1 T 1 (220)
P2 = 2 R 2 T 2 (221)
1 R1
cp1 = (222)
1 1
2 R2
cp2 = (223)
2 1
(224)
Substitute into the jump conditions to yield:
P2 1 + 1 M12
= (225)
P1 1 + 2 M22
v2 2 M22 1 + 1 M12
= (226)
v1 1 M12 1 + 2 M22
1 1 q
+ M2 + 2
T2 1 R1 1 1 2 1 c1
= (227)
T1 2 R2 1 1
+ M22
2 1 2
Chapman-Jouguet Conditions Isentrope, Hugoniot and Rayleigh lines are all tangent at the CJ point

PCJ P1 P P
= = (228)
vCJ V1 v Hugoniot v s
which implies that the product velocity is sonic relative to the wave
w2,CJ = c2 (229)
Entropy variation along adiabat
1
ds = (v1 v)2 dm2 (230)
2T
Jouguets Rule
" #
w2 c2

G P P
= 1 (v1 v) (231)
v2 2v v Hug v
where G is the Gruniesen coefficient.
The flow downstream of a detonation is subsonic relative to the wave for points above the CJ state and
supersonic for states below.
3.8.1 2- Solution
Mach Number for upper CJ (detonation) point
s s
(1 + 2 )(2 1) (2 1 )(2 + 1)
MCJ = H + + H+ (232)
21 (1 1) 21 (1 1)
where the parameter H is the nondimensional energy release
(2 1)(2 + 1)q
H= (233)
21 R1 T1
CJ pressure
2
PCJ 1 MCJ +1
= (234)
P1 2 + 1
CJ density
2
CJ 1 (2 + 1)MCJ
= 2 ) (235)
1 2 (1 + 1 MCJ
CJ temperature
TCJ PCJ R1 1
= (236)
T1 P1 R2 CJ
Strong detonation approximation MCJ 1
q
UCJ 2(22 1)q (237)
2 + 1
CJ 1 (238)
2
1 2
PCJ 1 UCJ (239)
2 + 1
(240)
3.8.2 High-Explosives
For high-explosives, the same jump conditions apply but the ideal gas equation of state is no longer appro-
priate for the products. A simple way to deal with this problem is through the nondimensional slope s of
the principal isentrope, i.e., the isentrope passing through the CJ point:

v P
s (241)
P v s
Note that for a perfect gas, s is identical to = cp /cv , the ratio of specific heats. In general, if the principal
isentrope can be expressed as a power law:
P v k = constant (242)
then s = k. For high explosive products, s 3. From the definition of the CJ point, we have that the
slope of the Rayleigh line and isentrope are equal at the CJ point:

P PCJ P1 PCJ
= = s,CJ (243)
v s vCJ V1 vCJ
From the mass conservation equation,

s,CJ
vCJ = v1 (244)
s,CJ + 1
and from momentum conservation, with PCJ P1 , we have
2
1 UCJ
PCJ = (245)
s,CJ + 1
3.9 Weak shock waves

Nondimensional pressure jump
[P ]
= (246)
c2
A useful version of the jump conditions (exact):
[w] [v] [w] [v]

= M1 = M12 = M1 (247)
c1 v1 c1 v1
Thermodynamic expansions:
[v]
= + 2 + O()3 (248)
v1
2
[v] [v] 3
= + + O ([v]) (249)
v1 v1
Linearized jump conditions:
[w] 2
= + O()3 (250)
c1 2
2
[w] [w]
M1 = 1 +O (251)
2 c1 c1

M1 = 1 + + O()2 (252)
2

M2 = 1 + O()2 (253)
2
[c]
= ( 1) + O()2 (254)
c1
M1 1 1 M2 (255)
Prandtls relation
1 1
c w1 + [w] or w2 [w] (256)
2 2
Change in entropy for weak waves:
3
T [s] 1 1 [v]
= 3 + . . . or = + ... (257)
c21 6 6 v
3.10 Acoustics
Simple waves
P = c2 (258)
P = cu (259)
+ for right-moving waves, - for left-moving waves
Acoustic Potential
u = (260)

P0 = o (261)
t
o
0 = 2 (262)
co t
Potential Equation
1 2
2 =0 (263)
c2o t2
dAlemberts solution for planar (1D) waves
= f (x co t) + g(x + co t) (264)
Acoustic Impedance The specific acoustic impedance of a medium is defined as
P0
z= (265)
|u|
For a planar wavefront in a homogeneous medium z = c, depending on the direction of propagation.
Transmission coefficients A plane wave in medium 1 is normally incident on an interface with medium
2. Incident (i) and transmitted wave (t)
2z1
ut /ui = (266)
z2 + z1
2z2
Pt0 /Pi0 = (267)
z2 + z1
Harmonic waves (planar)
2 2
= A exp i(wt kx) + B exp i(wt + kx) c= k= = = 2f (268)
k T
Spherical waves
f (t r/c) g(t + r/c)

= + (269)
r r
Spherical source strength Q, [Q] = L3 T 1
Q(t) = lim 4r2 ur (270)

r0
potential function
Q(t r/c)
(r, t) = (271)
4r
Energy flux
= P 0u (272)
Acoustic intensity for harmonic waves
T 0
P 2
Z
1
I =< >= dt = rms (273)
T 0 c
Decibel scale of acoustic intensity
dB = 10 log10 (I/Iref ) Iref = 1012 W/m2 (274)

or
0 0 0
dB = 20 log10 (Prms /Pref ) Pref = 2 1010 atm (275)
2 1
Cylindrical waves, q source strength per unit length [q] = L T
Z tr/c
1 q() d
(r, t) = p (276)
2 (t )2 r2 /c2
or
Z
1
(r, t) = q(t r/c cosh ) d (277)
2 0
3.11 Multipole Expansion

Potential from a distribution of volume sources, strength q per unit source volume
q(xs , t R/c)
Z
1
(x, t) = dVs R = |x xs | (278)
4 Vs R
Harmonic source
q = f (x) exp(it)
Potential function
exp i(kR t)
Z
1
(x, t) = f (xs ) dVs (279)
4 Vs R
Compact source approximation:
1. source distribution is in bounded region around the origin xs < a,

and small a r = |x|
2. source distribution is compact ka << 1 or a, so that the phase factor exp ikR does not vary too
much across the source
Multipole expansion:

exp ikR X (xs x )n exp ikr

= (280)
R n=0
n! r
Series expansion of potential
= 0 + 1 + 2 + . . . (281)
Monopole term
exp i(kr t)
Z
0
(x, t) = f (xs )dVs (282)
4r Vs
Dipole term
ikx D i
1 (x, t) = 1+ exp i(kr t) (283)
4r2 kr
Dipole moment vector D Z
D= xs f (xs )dVs (284)
Vs
Quadrupole term
k2

2 3i 3 X
(x, t) = 1+ exp i(kr t) xi xj Qij (285)
4r3 kr k 2 r2 i,j
Quadrupole moments Qik Z

1
Qij = xs,i xs,j f (xs )dVs (286)
2 Vs
3.12 Baffled (surface) source

Rayleighs formula for the potential
un (xs , t R/c)
Z
1
= dA (287)
2 R
Normal component of the source surface velocity
un = u n (288)
Harmonic source
un = f (x) exp(iwt)
Fraunhofer conditions |xs | a
aa
1
r
Approximate solution:
exp i(kr wt)
Z
= f (xs ) exp i xs dA
2r As
3.13 1-D Unsteady Flow

The primitive variable version of the equations is:

+ (u) = 0 (289)
t
u
+ (uu) = P (290)
t
u2 u2

e+ + u(h + ) = 0 (291)
t 2 2
s
+ (us) 0 (292)
t
(293)
Alternative version
1 D
= u (294)
Dt
Du
= P (295)
Dt
u2

D P
h+ = (296)
Dt 2 t
Ds
0 (297)
Dt
The characteristic version of the equations for isentropic flow (s = constant) is:
d dx
(u F ) = 0 on C : =uc (298)
dt dt
This is equivalent to:

(u F ) + (u c) (u F ) = 0 (299)
t x
Riemann invariants:
Z Z Z
c dP dc
F = d= = (300)
c 1
Bending of characteristics:
d
(u + c) = (301)
dP c
For an ideal gas:
2c
F = (302)
1
Pressure-velocity relationship for expansion waves moving to the right into state (1), final state (2) with
velocity u2 < 0.
2
P2 1 u2 1 2c1
= 1+ < u2 0 (303)
P1 2 c1 1
Shock waves moving to the right into state (1), final state (2) with velocity u2 > 0.
s
2 2
[P ] ( + 1) u2 4 c1
= 1 + 1 + u2 > 0 (304)
P1 4 c1 + 1 u2
Shock Tube Performance

2 4
P4 c1 4 1 1 4 1
21
Ms2 1

= 1 Ms 1+ (305)
P1 c4 + 1 Ms 1 + 1
Limiting shock Mach number for P4 /P1

c4 1 + 1
Ms (306)
c1 4 1
3.14 2-D Steady Flow

3.14.1 Oblique Shock Waves
Geometry:
w1 = u1 sin (307)
w2 = u2 sin( ) (308)
v = u1 cos = u2 cos( ) (309)
2 w1 tan
= = (310)
1 w2 tan( )
Shock Polar
[w] M1 tan
= (311)
c1 cos (1 + tan tan )
[P ] M12 tan
2 = (312)
1 c1 cot + tan
Real fluid results
w2 = f (w1 ) normal shock jump conditions (313)

1
= sin (w1 /u1 ) (314)
!
w 2
= tan1 p 2 (315)
u1 w12
Perfect gas result
2 cot M12 sin2 1

tan = (316)
( + 1)M12 2 M12 sin2 1

Mach angle
1
= sin1 (317)
M
3.14.2 Weak Oblique Waves

Results are all for C + family of waves, take - for C family.
2
1 1 [w] [w]
= p + O (318)
2 M12 1 c1 c1
p 2
M12 1 [w]

[w]
= 2 +O (319)
M1 c1 c1
2
[P ] M
= p 21 + O()2 (320)
1 c21 M1 1
T1 [s] 1 M16
= 3 + O()4 (321)
c21 6 (M12 1)3/2
Perfect Gas Results
[P ] M 2
= p 2 1 + O()2 (322)
P1 M1 1
3.14.3 Prandtl-Meyer Expansion

d u1
q
d = M12 1 (323)
u1
Function , d = -d

M2 1 d M
d (324)
1 + ( 1)M 2 M
Perfect gas result
r r
+1 1 p
(M ) = tan1 (M 2 1) tan1 M 2 1 (325)
1 +1
Maximum turning angle
r
+1
max = 1 (326)
2 1
3.14.4 Inviscid Flow

Crocco-Vaszonyi Relation
u u2
+ ( u) u = T S (h + ) (327)
t 2
3.14.5 Potential Flow

Steady, homoentropic, homoenthalpic, inviscid:
(u) = 0 (328)
u = 0 (329)
u2
h+ = constant (330)
2
or with u = = (x , y )
(2x c2 )xx + (2y c2 )yy + 2x y xy = 0 (331)

Linearized potential flow:
u = U + 0x (332)
v = 0y (333)
2
1 0xx 0yy

0 = M (334)
Wave equation solution

p
= 2 1
M 0 = f (x y) + g(x + y) (335)
Boundary conditions for slender 2-D (Cartesian) bodies y(x)

U dy
f 0 () = y0 (336)
dx
Prandtl-Glauert Scaling for subsonic flows
p
(x, y) = inc (x, 2 y)
1 M 2 inc = 0 (337)
Prandtl-Glauert Rule
Cpinc
Cp = p (338)
2
1 M
3.14.6 Natural Coordinates

= cos sin (339)
x s n

= sin + cos (340)
y s n
u = U cos (341)
v = U sin (342)
The transformed equations of motion are:
U
+ U = 0 (343)
s n
U P
U + = 0 (344)
s s
P
U 2 + = 0 (345)
s n
U
z = U = 0 (346)
s n
Curvature of stream lines, R = radius of curvature
1
= (347)
s R
Vorticity production
1 Po (T To ) S
z = + (348)
U o n U n
Elimination of pressure dP = c2 d
U
(M 2 1) U = 0 (349)
s n
U
U = 0 (350)
n s
3.14.7 Method of Characteristics
1
( ) + ( ) = 0 (351)
s M 1 n
2
1
( + ) ( + ) = 0 (352)
s 2
M 1 n
(353)
Characteristic directions
dn 1
C = = tan (354)
ds M2 1
Invariants
J = = constant on C (355)
4 INCOMPRESSIBLE, INVISCID FLOW 34
4 Incompressible, Inviscid Flow

4.1 Velocity Field Decomposition
Split the velocity field into two parts: irrotational ue , and rotational (vortical) uv .
u = ue + uv (356)
Irrotational Flow Define the irrotational portion of the flow by the following two conditions:
ue = 0 (357)
ue = e(x, t) volume source distribution (358)
This is satisfied by deriving ue from a velocity potential
ue = (359)
2 = e(x, t) (360)
Rotational Flow Define the rotational part of the flow by:
uv = 0 (361)
uv = (x, t) vorticity source distribution (362)
This is satisfied by deriving uv from a vector potential B
uv = B (363)
B = 0 choice of gauge (364)
2
B = (x, t) (365)
4.2 Solutions of Laplaces Equation

The equation 2 = e is known as Laplaces equation and can be solved by the technique of Greens functions:
Z
(x, t) = G(x|)e(, t)dV (366)

For a infinite domain, Greens function is the solution to
2 G = (x ) (367)
1 1 1
G = = (368)
4 |x | 4r
r = |r| r=x (369)
This leads to the following solutions for the potentials
Z
1 e(, t)
(x, t) = dV (370)
4 r

Z
1 (, t)
B(x, t) = dV (371)
4 r

The velocity fields are
Z
1 re(, t)
ue (x, t) = dV (372)
4 r3

r (, t)
Z
1
uv (x, t) = dV (373)
4 r3

If the domain is finite or there are surfaces (stationary or moving bodies, free surfaces, boundaries), then
an additional component of velocity, u0 , must be added to insure that the boundary conditions (described
subsequently) are satisfied. This additional component will be a source-free, u0 = 0, irrotational u0
= 0 field. The general solution for the velocity field will then be
u = ue + uv + u0 (374)
4.3 Boundary Conditions

Solid Boundaries In general, at an impermeable boundary , there is no relative motion between the
fluid and boundary in the local direction n normal to the boundary surface.
u n = u n on the surface (375)

In particular, if the surface is stationary, the normal component of velocity must vanish on the surface
u n = 0 on a stationary surface (376)

For an ideal or inviscid fluid, there is no restriction on the velocity tangential to the boundary, slip boundary
conditions.
u t arbitrary on the surface (377)

For a real or viscous fluid, the tangential component is zero, since the relative velocity between fluid and
surface must vanish, the no-slip condition.
u=0 on the surface (378)
Fluid Boundaries At an internal or free surface of an ideal fluid, the normal components of the velocity
have to be equal on each side of the surface
u1 n = u2 n = u n (379)
and the interface has to be in mechanical equilibrium (in the absence of surface forces such as interfacial
tension)
P1 = P2 (380)
4.4 Streamfunction
The vector potential in flows that are two dimensional or have certain symmetries can be simplified to one
component that can be represented as a scalar function known as the streamfunction . The exact form of
the streamfunction depends on the nature of the symmetry and related system of coordinates.
4.4.1 2-D Cartesian Flows

Compressible In a steady two-dimensional compressible flow:
u v
u = 0 u = (u, v) x = (x, y) + =0 (381)
x y
The streamfunction is:
1 1
u= v= (382)
y x
Incompressible The density is a constant

u v
u=0 u = (u, v) x = (x, y) + =0 (383)
x y
The streamfunction defined by

u= v= (384)
y x
will identically satisfy the continuity equation as long as
2 2
=0 (385)
xy yx
which is always true as long as the function (x, y) has continuous 2nd derivatives.
Stream lines (or surfaces in 3-D flows) are defined by = constant. The normal to the stream surface is

n = (386)
||
Integration of the differential of the stream function along a path L connecting points x1 and x2 in the plane
can be interpreted as volume flux across the path
d = u nL dl = v dx + u dy (387)
Z Z
d = 2 1 = u nL dl = volume flux across L (388)
L L
where 1 = (x1 ) and 2 = (x2 ). For compressible flows, the difference in the streamfunction can be
interpreted as the mass flux rather than the volume flux.
For this flow, the streamfunction is exactly the nonzero component of the vector potential

B = (Bx , By , Bz ) = (0, 0, ) u = B = x y (389)
y x
and the equation that the streamfunction has to satisfy will be
2 2
2 = + = z (390)
x2 y 2
where the z-component of vorticity is
v u
z = (391)
x y
A special case of this is irrotational flow with z = 0.
4.4.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

In cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z) with u = (ur , u , uz )
x = r cos (392)
y = r sin (393)
z = z (394)
u = ur cos u sin (395)
v = ur sin + u cos (396)
w = uz (397)
The continuity equation is
1 rur 1 u uz
u=0= + + (398)
r r r z
Translational Symmetry in z The results given above for 2-D incompressible flow have translational
symmetry in z such that /z = 0. These can be rewritten in terms of the streamfunction (r, ) where
B = (0, 0, ) (399)
The velocity components are
1
ur = (400)
r

u = (401)
r
The only nonzero component of vorticity is
1 ru 1 ur
z = (402)
r r r
and the stream function satisfies

1 1 1
r + = z (403)
r r r r r
Rotational Symmetry in If the flow has rotational symmetry in , such that / = 0, then the
stream function can be defined as

B = 0, , 0 (404)
r
and the velocity components are:
1
ur = (405)
r z
1
uz = (406)
r r
The only nonzero vorticity component is
ur uz
= (407)
z r
The stream function satisfies

1 1
+ = (408)
z r z r r r
4.4.3 Spherical Polar Coordinates

This coordinate system (r, , ) results in the continuity equation
1 1 u 1
r 2 ur +

2
+ (u sin ) = 0 (409)
r r r sin r sin
Note that the r coordinate in this system is defined differently than in the cylindrical polar system discussed
previously. If we denote by r0 the radial distance from the z-axis in the cylindrical polar coordinates, then
r0 = r sin . With symmetry in the direction /, the following Stokes stream function can be defined

B = 0, 0, (410)
r sin
Note that this stream function is identical to that used in the previous discussion of the case of rotational
symmetry in for the cylindrical polar coordinate system if we account for the reordering of the vector
components and the differences in the definitions of the radial coordinates.
The velocity components are:
1
ur = (411)
r2 sin
1
u = (412)
r sin r
The only non-zero vorticity component is:
1 ru 1 ur
= (413)
r r r
The stream function satisfies

1 1 1 1
+ 2
= (414)
r r sin r r r sin
4.5 Simple Flows

The simplest flows are source-free and irrotational, which can be derived by a potential that satisfies the
Laplace equation, a special case of ue
2 = 0 u=0 (415)
In the case of flows, that contain sources and sinks or other singularities, this equation holds everywhere
except at those singular points.
Uniform Flow The simplest solution is a uniform flow U:
=Ux u = U = constant (416)

In 2-D cartesian coordinates with U = U x, the streamfunction is
= Uy (417)
In spherical polar coordinates, Stokes streamfunction is
U r2
= sin2 U = U z (418)
2
Source Distributions Single source of strength Q(t) located at point 1 . The meaning of Q is the volume
of fluid per unit time introduced or removed at point 1 .
lim 4r12 u r1 = Q(t) r1 = x 1 e = Q(t)(x 1 ) (419)

r1 0
which leads to the solution:
Q(t) r1 Q(t) r1 Q(t)

= u= = (420)
4r1 4r13 4r12
For multiple sources, add the individual solutions
k
1 X ri Qi
u= (421)
4 i=1 ri3
In spherical polar cordinates, Stokes stream function for a single source of strength Q at the origin is
Q
=
cos (422)
4
For a 2-D flow, the source strength q is the volume flux per unit length or area per unit time since the
source can be thought of as a line source.
q q q
u = ur r ur = = ln r = (423)
2r 2 2
Dipole Consider a source-sink pair of equal strength Q located a distance apart. The limiting process
0 Q Q (424)
defines a dipole of strength . If the direction from the sink to the source is d, then the dipole moment
vector can be defined as
d = d (425)
The dipole potential for spherical (3-D) sources is
dr
= (426)
4r3
and the resulting velocity field is

1 3d r d
u= r (427)
4 r5 r3
If the dipole is aligned with the z-axis, Stokes stream function is
sin2
= (428)
4r
and the velocity components are
cos
ur = (429)
2r3
sin
u = (430)
4r3
The dipole potential for 2-D source-sink pairs is
cos
= (431)
2 r
and the stream function is

sin
= (432)
2 r
The velocity components are
cos
ur = (433)
2 r2
sin
u = (434)
2 r2
Combinations More complex flows can be built up by superposition of the flows discussed above. In
particular, flows over bodies can be found as follows:
half-body: source + uniform flow

sphere: dipole (3-D) + uniform flow
cylinder: dipole (2-D) + uniform flow
closed-body: sources & sinks + uniform flow
4.6 Vorticity
Vorticity fields are divergence free In general, we have ( A) 0 so that the vorticity = u,
satisfies
0 (435)
Transport The vorticity transport equation can be obtained from the curl of the momentum equation:

D
= ( )u ( u) + T s + (436)
Dt
The cross products of the thermodynamic derivatives can be written as
P
T s = P v = (437)
2
which is known as the baroclinic torque.
For incompressible, homogeneous flow, the viscous term can be written 2 and the incompressible
vorticity transport equation for a homogeneous fluid is
D
= ( )u + 2 (438)
Dt
Circulation The circulation is defined as

I Z
= u dl = n dA (439)

where is is a simple surface bounded by a closed curve .
Vortex Lines and Tubes A vortex line is a curve drawn tangent to the vorticity vectors at each point in
the flow.
dx dy dz
= = (440)
x y z
The collection of vortex lines passing through a simple curve C form a vortex tube. On the surface of the
vortex tube, we have n =0.
A vortex tube of vanishing area is a vortex filament, which is characterized by a circulation . The
contribution du to the velocity field due to an element dl of a vortex filament is given by the Biot Savart
Law
r dl
du = (441)
4 r3
Line vortex A potential vortex has a singular vorticity field and purely azimuthal velocity field. For a
single vortex located at the origin of a two-dimensional flow

= z(r) u = (442)
2r
For a line vortex of strength i located at (xi , yi ), the velocity field at point (x, y) can be obtained by
transforming the above result to get velocity components (u, v)
i y yi
u = (443)
2 (x xi )2 + (y yi )2
i x xi
v = (444)
2 (x xi )2 + (y yi )2
(445)
Or setting = z
i ri
ui = (446)
2ri2
where ri = i - xi .
The streamfunction for the line vortex is found by integration to be
i
i = ln ri (447)
2
For a system of n vortices, the velocity field can be obtained by superposition of the individual contributions
to the velocity from each vortex. In the absence of boundaries or other surfaces:
n
X i ri
u= (448)
i=1
2ri2
4.7 Key Ideas about Vorticity

1. Vorticity can be visualized as local rotation within the fluid. The local angular frequency of rotation
about the direction n is
u 1 | n|
fn = lim =
r0 2r 2 2
2. Vorticity cannot begin or end within the fluid.
=0
3. The circulation is constant along a vortex tube or filament at a given instant in time
Z
n dA = constant
tube
However, the circulation can change with time due to viscous forces, baroclinic torque or nonconser-
vative external forces. A vortex tube does not have a fixed identity in a time-dependent flow.
4. Thompsons or Kelvins theorem Vortex filaments move with the fluid and the circulation is constant
for an inviscid, homogeneous fluid subject only to conservative body forces.
D
=0 (449)
Dt
Bjerknes theorem If the fluid is inviscid but inhomgeneous, (x, t), then the circulation will change due
to the baroclinic torque P :
P
I Z
D dP
= = ndA (450)
Dt 2
Viscous fluids have an additional contribution due to the diffusion of vorticity into or out of the tube.
4.8 Unsteady Potential Flow

Bernoullis equation for unsteady potential flow
U2 ||2
P P = ( ) + (451)
t 2 2
Induced Mass If the external force Fext is applied to a body of mass M , then the acceleration of the
body dU/dt is determined by
dU
Fext = (m + M) (452)
dt
where M is the induced mass tensor. For a sphere (3-D) or a cylinder (2-D), the induced mass is simply M
= mi I.
2 3
mi,sphere = a (453)
3
mi,cylinder = a2 (454)
(455)
Bubble Oscillations The motion of a bubble of gas within an incompressible fluid can be described by
unsteady potential flow in the limit of small-amplitude, low-frequency oscillations. The potential is given by
the 3-D source solution. For a bubble of radius R(t), the potential is
R2 (t) dR
= (456)
r dt
Integration of the momentum equation in spherical coordinates yields the Rayleigh equation
2
d2 R 3

dR P (R) P
R 2 + = (457)
dt 2 dt
4.9 Complex Variable Methods

Two dimensional potential flow problems can be solved in the complex plane
z = x + iy = r exp(i) = r cos + ir sin

The complex potential is defined as
F (z) = + i (458)
and the complex velocity w is defined as
dF
w = u iv = (459)
dz
NB sign of v-term! The complex potential is an analytic function and the derivatives satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann conditions

= (460)
x y

= (461)
y x
which implies that both 2 = 0 and 2 = 0, i.e., the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function
represent irrotational, potential flows.
Examples
1. Uniform flow u = (U , V )
F = (U iV )z
2. Line source of strength q located at zo
q
F = ln(z z )
2
3. Line vortex of strength located at z

F = i ln(z z )
2
4. Source doublet (dipole) at z oriented along +x axis

F =
2(z z )
5. Vortex doublet at z oriented along +x axis
i
F =
2(z z )
6. Stagnation point
F = Cz 2
7. Exterior corner flow
F = Cz n 1/2 n 1
8. Interior corner flow, angle

F = Cz n 1n=

9. Circular cylinder at origin, radius a, uniform flow U at x =
a2
F = U (z + )
z
4.9.1 Mapping Methods

A flow in the plane can be mapped into the z plane using an analytic function z = f (). An analytic function
is a conformal map, preserving angles between geometric features such as streamlines and isopotentials as
long as df /dz does not vanish. The velocity in the -plane is w and is related to the z-plane velocity by
dF w dF w
w = = or w= = (462)
d d dz dz
dz d
In order to have well behaved values of w, require w =0 at point where dz/d vanishes.
Blasius Theorem The force on a cylindrical (2-D) body in a potential flow is given by
I
i
D iL = w2 dz (463)
2 body
For rigid bodies
D=0 L = U (464)
where the lift is perpendicular to the direction of fluid motion at . The moment of force about the origin
is
I
1 2
M = < zw dz (465)
2 body
4.10 Airfoil Theory

Rotating Cylinder The streamfunction for a uniform flow U over a cylinder of radius a with a bound
vortex of strength is
a 2 r
= U r sin 1 ln( ) (466)
r 2 a
The stagnation points on the surface of the cylinder can be found at

sin s = (467)
4U a
The lift L is given by
L = U (468)
The pressure coefficient on the surface of the cylinder is
2
P P 4
CP = 1 2
= 1 4 sin2 + sin (469)
2 U 2aU 2aU
Generalized Cylinder Flow If the flow at infinity is at angle w.r.t. the x-axis, the complex potential
for flow over a cylinder of radius a, center and bound circulation is:
a2 exp(i)

z
F (z) = U exp(i)(z ) + i ln( ) (470)
z 2 a
Joukowski Transformation The transformation
T2
z=+ (471)

is the Joukowski transformation, which will map a cylinder of radius T in the -plane to a line segment y
=0, 2T x 2T . Use this together with the generalized cylinder flow in the plane to produce the flow
for a Joukowski arifoil at an angle of attack. The inverse transformation is
r
z z 2
= T2 (472)
2 2
Kutta Condition The flow at the trailing edge of an airfoil must leave smoothly without any singularities.
There are two special cases:
For a finite-angle trailing edge in potential flow, the trailing edge must be a stagnation point.
For a cusp (zero angle) trailing edge in potential flow, the velocity can be finite but must be equal on
the two sides of the separating streamline.
Application to Joukowski airfoil: Locating the stagnation point at T = + a exp i, the circulation
is determined to be:
= 4aU sin( + ) (473)

and the lift coefficient is
L a
CL = 1 2
= 8 sin( + ) (474)
2 U c
c
4.11 Thin-Wing Theory

The flow consists of the superposition of the free stream flow and an irrotational velocity field derived from
disturbance potentials t and c associated with the thickness and camber functions.
u = U cos + ut + uc (475)
v = U sin + vt + vc (476)
ut = t (477)
uc = c (478)
(479)
where is the angle of attack and 2 i = 0.
Geometry A thin, two-dimensional, wing-like body can be represented by two surfaces displaced slightly
about a wing chord aligned with the x-axis, 0 x c. The upper (+) and lower () surfaces of the wing
are given by
y = Y+ (x) for upper surface 0 x c (480)

y = Y (x) for lower surface 0 x c (481)
and can be represented by a thickness function f (x) and a camber function g(x).
f (x) = Y+ (x) Y (x) (482)

1
g(x) = [Y+ (x) + Y (x)] (483)
2
The profiles of the upper and lower surface can be expressed in terms of f and g as
1
Y+ (x)
= g(x) + f (x) upper surface (484)
2
1
Y (x) = g(x) f (x) lower surface (485)
2
The maximum thickness t = O(f ), the maximum camber h = O(g), and the angle of attack are all
considered to be small in this analysis
t h
1 and ui , vi << U (486)
c c
Boundary Conditions The exact slip boundary condition for inviscid flow on the body is:
dY v
= (487)
dx u (x,Y (x))
The linearized version of this is:

dY vt + vc
= + lim (488)
dx y0 U (x,y)
with cos 1, and sin . This can be written as

1 0
vt (x, 0+) + vc (x, 0+) = U g 0 + f U (489)
2

1 0
vt (x, 0) + vc (x, 0) = U g 0 f U (490)
2
where f 0 = df /dx and g 0 = dg/dx.
The boundary conditions are then divided between the thickness and camber disturbance flows as follows:
1
vt = U f 0 for y 0 (491)
2
vc = U (g 0 ) for y 0 (492)
In addition, the disturbance velocities have to vanish far from the body.
4.11.1 Thickness Solution

The potential t for the pure thickness case, which can be interpreted as a symmetric body at zero angle
of attack, can be calculated by the superposition of sources of strength q dx using the general solution for
potential flow
Z c
1
t (x, y) = ln(y 2 + (x )2 )q() d (493)
2 0
Z c
1 (x )q() d
ut = (494)
2 0 y 2 + (x )2
Z c
1 yq() d
vt = (495)
2 0 y 2 + (x )2
Apply the linearized boundary condition to obtain
Z c
1 df 1 yq() d
U = lim (496)
2 dx y0 2 0 y2 + (x )2
Delta Function Representation The limit of the integrand is one of the representations of the Dirac
delta function
1 y
lim = (x ) (497)
y0 y 2 + (x )2
where Z +
0 x 6=
(x ) = f ()(x ) d = f (x) (498)
x=
Source Distribution This leads to the source distribution

df
q(x) = U (499)
dx
and the solution for the velocity field is
U c (x )f 0 () d
Z
t
ut = = (500)
x 2 0 y 2 + (x )2
U c yf 0 () d
Z
t
vt = = (501)
y 2 0 y 2 + (x )2
The velocity components satisfy the following relationships across the surface of the wing
[u] = u(x, 0+) u(x, 0) = 0 (502)

[v] = v(x, 0+) v(x, 0) = q(x) (503)
Pressure Coefficient The pressure coefficient is defined to be
P P u2 + v 2
CP = 1 2
=1 2
(504)
2 U
U
The linearized version of this is:
ut + uc
CP 2 (505)
U
For the pure thickness case, then we have the following result:
1 c f 0 () d
Z
CP (506)
0 (x )
The integral is to be evaluated in the sense of the Principal value interpretation.
Principal Value Integrals If an integral has an integrand g that is singular at = x, the principal value
or finite part is defined as
Z a Z x Z a
P g() d = lim g() d + g() d (507)
0 0 0 x+
Important principal value integrals are

Z c
d x
P = ln (508)
0 (x ) xc
and
c
1/2 d
Z
1 c+ x
P = ln (509)
0 (x ) x c x
A generalization to other powers can be obtained by the recursion relation

Z c n Z c n1
d d cn
P = xP (510)
0 (x ) 0 (x ) n
A special case can be found for the transformed variables cos = 1 - 2/c
Z
cos nd sin no
P = (511)
0 cos cos o sin o
4.11.2 Camber Case

The camber case alone accounts for the lift (non-zero ) and the camber. The potential c for the pure
camber case can be represented as a superposition of potential vortices of strength (x) dx along the chord
of the wing:
Z c
1 1 y
c = () tan d (512)
2 0 x
Z c
c 1 y() d
uc = = (513)
x 2 0 y + (x )2
2
Z c
c 1 (x )() d
vc = = (514)
y 2 0 y 2 + (x )2
The u component of velocity on the surface of the wing is
(x)
lim uc (x, y) = u(x, 0) = (515)
y0 2
Apply the linearized boundary condition to obtain the following integral equation for the vorticity distribution
Z c
dg 1 () d
U = P d (516)
dx 2 0 (x )
The total circulation is given by

Z c
= () d (517)
0
The velocity components satisfy the following relationships across the surface of the wing
[u] = u(x, 0+) u(x, 0) = (x) (518)

[v] = v(x, 0+) v(x, 0) = 0 (519)
Kutta Condition The Kutta condition at the trailing edge of a sharp-edged airfoil reduces to
(x = c) = 0 (520)
Vorticity Distribution The integral equation for the vorticity distribution can be solved explicity. A
solution that satisfies the Kutta boundary condition is:
1/2 " Z c 0 1/2 #
cx 1 g ()
(x) = 2U + P d (521)
x 0 x c
The pressure coefficient for the pure camber case is
(x)
CP = for y 0 (522)
U
The integrals can be computed exactly for several special cases, which can be expressed most conveniently
using the transformation
2x 2
z= 1 = 1 (523)
c c
Z 1 r
1 1+
P d = (524)
1 z 1
Z 1 p
1 2
P d = z (525)
1 z
Z 1
1
P p d = 0 (526)
1 1 2 (z )
Z 1

P p d = (527)
1 1 2 (z )
Z 1
2
P p d = z (528)
1 1 2 (z )
Higher powers of the numerator can be evaluated from the recursion relation:
1 1
n n1 1(3) (n 2)
Z Z

P p d = zP p d [1 (1)n ] (529)
1 1 2 (z ) 1
2
1 (z ) 2 2(4) (n 1)
4.12 Axisymmetric Slender Bodies

Disturbance potential solution using source distribution on x-axis:
Z c
1 f () d
(x, r) = p (530)
4 0 (x )2 + r2
Velocity components:
Z c
1 (x )f () d
u = U + = (531)
x 4 0 [(x )2 + r2 ]3/2
Z c
1 rf () d
v = = (532)
r 4 0 [(x )2 + r2 ]3/2
(533)
Exact boundary condition on body R(x)

v dR
= (534)
u (x,R(x)) dx

Linearized boundary condition, first approximation:

dR
v(x, r = R) = U (535)
dx
Extrapolation to x axis:
dR
lim (2rv) = 2R U (536)
r0 dx
Source strength
dR
f (x) = U 2R = U A0 (x) A(x) = R2 (x) (537)
dx
Pressure coefficient
2
2u dR
CP (538)
U dx
4.13 Wing Theory

Wing span is b/2 < y < +b/2. The section lift coefficient, L0 = lift per unit span
L0
CL0 (y) = 1 2
= m (y) ( i (y)) (539)
2 U c(y)
Induced angle of attack, w = downwash velocity

w w
i = tan1 (540)
U U
Induced drag
Di = U i (541)
Load distribution (y), bound circulation at span location y
1
(y) = m U c(y) ( i (y)) (542)
2
Trailing vortex sheet strength
d
= (543)
dy
Downwash velocity
Z +b/2
1 () d
w= P (544)
4pi b/2 y
Integral equation for load distribution
" Z +b/2 0 #
1 1 () d
(y) = m (y)U c(y) (y) P (545)
2 4piU b/2 y
Boundary conditions
b b
( ) = ( ) = 0 (546)
2 2
Elliptic load distribution, constant downwash, induced angle of attack
y 2 1/2 s s
(y) = s 1 w= i = (547)
2b 2b 2U
Lift
b2
L = U s (548)
4
Induced drag (minimum for elliptic loading)
1 L2
Di = 1 2 b2
(549)
2 U
Induced drag coefficient
CL2 b
CD,i = AR = b2 /S (550)
AR c
5 VISCOUS FLOW 52
5 Viscous Flow
Equations of motion in cartesian tensor form (without body forces) are:
Conservation of mass:
uk
+ =0 (551)
t xk
Momentum equation:
ui ui P ik
+ uk = + (i = 1, 2, 3) (552)
t xk xi xk
Viscous stress tensor

ui uk uj
ik = + + ik sum on j (553)
xk xi xj
Lames constant
2
= v (554)
3
Energy equation, total enthalpy form:
ht ht P ki ui qi
+ uk = + sum on i and k (555)
t xk t xk xi
Thermal energy form
h h P P ui qi
+ uk = + uk + ik sum on i and k (556)
t xk t xk xk xi
or alternatively
e e uk ui qi
+ uk = P + ik sum on i and k (557)
t xk xk xk xi
Dissipation function
ui
= ik (558)
xk
Fouriers law
T
qi = k (559)
xi
5.1 Scaling
Reference conditions are
velocity U
length L
time T
density
viscosity
thermal conductivity k
5 VISCOUS FLOW 53
Inertial flow Limit of vanishing viscosity, 0. Nondimensional statement:

U L
Reynolds number Re = 1 P U2 (560)

Nondimensional momentum equation
Du 1
= P + (561)
Dt Re
Limiting case, Re , inviscid flow
Du
= P (562)
Dt
Viscous flow Limit of vanishing density, 0. Nondimensional statement:

U L U
Reynolds number Re = 1 P (563)
L
Nondimensional momentum equation
Du
Re = P + (564)
Dt
Limiting case, Re 0, creeping flow.
P = (565)
5.2 Two-Dimensional Flow

For a viscous flow in two-space dimensions (x, y) the components of the viscous stress tensor in cartersian
coordinates are

u u v u v
2 + + +

xx xy x x y y x
= = (566)
yx yy u + v 2 v + u + v
y x y x y
Dissipation function
" 2 #
2 2 2
u v u v u v
= 2 +2 + + + + (567)
x y y x x y
5.3 Parallel Flow

The simplest case of viscous flow is parallel flow,
(u, v) = (u(y, t), 0) u = 0 = (y) only (568)

Momentum equation

u P u
= + (569)
t x y y
P
0 = (570)
y
We conclude from the y-momentum equation that P = P (x) only.
Energy equation
2
e e u T T
+ u = + k + k (571)
t x y x x y y
5 VISCOUS FLOW 54
5.3.1 Steady Flows

In these flows t = 0 and inertia plays no role. Shear stress is either constant or varies only due to imposed
axial pressure gradients.
Couette Flow A special case are flows in which pressure gradients are absent
P
=0 (572)
x

and the properties strictly depend only on the y coordinate, these flows have x = 0. The shear stress is
constant in these flows
u
xy = = w (573)
y
The motion is produced by friction at the moving boundaries
u(y = H) = U u(y = 0) = 0 (574)

and given the viscosity (y) the velocity profile and shear stress w can be determined by integration
!1
y H
dy 0 dy 0
Z Z
u(y) = w w = U (575)
o (y 0 ) 0 (y 0 )
The dissipation is balanced by thermal conduction in the y direction.
2
u T
= k (576)
y y y
Using the constant shear stress condition, we have the following energy integral
T
u q = qw = constant q = k qw = q(y = 0) (577)
y
This relationship can be further investigated by defining the Prandtl number
cP k
Pr = = = (578)
k cP
For gases, P r 0.7, approximately independent of temperature. The Eucken relation is a useful approxi-
mation that only depends on the ratio of specific heats
4
Pr (579)
7.08 1.80
For many gases, both viscosity and conductivity can be approximated by power laws T n , k T m where
the exponents n and m range between 0.65 to 1.4 depending on the substance.
Constant Prandtl Number Assuming P r = constant and using d h = cp d T , the energy equation can
be integrated to obtain the Crocco-Busemann relation
u2 qw
h hw + P r = Pr u (580)
2 w
For constant cP , this is
u2 qw P r
T = Tw P r u (581)
2cP w cP
5 VISCOUS FLOW 55
Recovery Temperature If the lower wall (y = 0) is insulated qw = 0, then the temperature at y = 0 is

defined to be the recovery temperature. In terms of the conditions at the upper plate (y = H), this defines
a recovery enthalpy
1
hr = h(Tr ) h(TH ) + P r U 2 (582)
2
If the heat capacity cP = constant and we use the conventional boundary layer notation, for which TH =
Te , the temperature at the outer edge of the boundary layer
1 U2
Tr = Te + P r (583)
2 cP
Contrast with the adiabatic stagnation temperature
1 U2
Tt = Te + (584)
2 cP
The recovery factor is defined as
Tr Te
r= (585)
Tt Te
In Couette flow, r = P r. The wall temperature is lower than the adiabatic stagnation temperature Tt when
P r < 1, due to thermal conduction removing energy faster than it is being generated by viscous dissipation.
If P r > 1, then viscous dissipation generates heat faster than it can be conducted away from the wall and
Tr > Tt .
Reynolds Analogy If the wall is not adiabatic, then the heat flux at the lower wall may significantly
change the temperature profile. In particular the lower wall temperature (for cp = constant) is
qw
Tw = Tr + P rU (586)
cP w
In order to heat the fluid qw > 0, the lower wall must be hotter than the recovery temperature.
The heat transfer from the wall can be expressed as a heat transfer coefficient or Stanton number
qw
St = (587)
U cP (Tw Tr )
where qw is the heat flux from the wall into the fluid, which is positive when heat is being added to the fluid.
The Stanton number is proportional to the skin friction coefficient
w
Cf = 1 2
(588)
2 U
For Couette flow,
Cf
St = (589)
2P r
This relationship between skin friction and heat transfer is the Reynolds analogy.
Constant properties If and k are constant, then the velocity profile is linear:
U w
w = u= y (590)
H
The skin friction coefficient is
2 U H
Cf = Re = (591)
Re
5 VISCOUS FLOW 56
5.3.2 Poiseuille Flow

If an axial pressure gradient is present, P
x < 0, then the shear stress will vary across the channel and fluid
motion will result even when the walls are stationary. In that case, the shear stress balances the pressure
drop. This is the usual situation in industrial pipe and channel flows. For the simple case of constant
P 2u
0= + 2 (592)
x y
With the boundary conditions u(0) = u(H) = 0, this can be integrated to yield the velocity distribution
P H 2 y y
u= 1 (593)
x 2 H H
and the wall shear stress
P H
w = (594)
x 2
Pipe Flow The same situation for a round channel, a pipe of radius R, reduces to
1 u 1 P
r = (595)
r r r x
which integrates to the velocity distribution
1 P
R2 r 2

u= (596)
4 x
and a wall shear stress of
P R
w = (597)
x 2
The total volume flow rate is
P R4
Q= (598)
x 8
The skin friction coefficient is traditionally based on the mean speed u and using the pipe diameter d = 2R
as the scale length.
Q P R2
u = = (599)
R2 x 8
and is equal to
w 16 ud
Cf = = Red = (600)
1/2u2 Red
In terms of the Darcy friction factor,
8w 64
= 2
= (601)
u Red
Turbulent flow in smooth pipes is correlated by Prandtls formula
1
= 2.0 log Red 0.8 (602)

or the simpler curvefit
2.5
= 1.02 (log Red ) (603)
5 VISCOUS FLOW 57
5.3.3 Rayleigh Problem

Also known as Stokes first problem. Another variant of parallel flow is unsteady flow with no gradients in
the x direction. The Rayleigh problem is to determine the motion above an infinite ( < x < ) plate
impulsively accelerated parallel to itself.
The x-momentum equation (for constant ) is
u 2u
= 2 (604)
t y
The boundary conditions are
u(y, t = 0) = 0 u(y = 0, t > 0) = U (605)

The problem is self similar and in terms of the similarity variable , the solution is
y
u = U f () = f 00 + f 0 = 0 (606)
t 2
The solution is the complementary error function
Z s
2
f = erfc( ) erfc(s) = 1 erf(s) erf(s) = exp(x2 ) dx (607)
2 0
Shear stress at the wall

U
w = (608)
t
Vorticity
u U 2
= = exp( ) (609)
y t 4
Vorticity thickness
Z
1
= (y, t) dy = t (610)
0
5.4 Boundary Layers

For streamline bodies without separation, viscous effects are confined to a thin layer y , when the
Reynolds number is sufficiently high, Re 1.
Scaling
x L (611)
y (612)
u U (613)
U
v U (614)
L Re1/2
L
(615)
Re1/2
Exterior or outer flow, ue . Re , slip boundary conditions. Equations are inviscid flow equations of
motion.
Interior or inner flow , ui . Finite Re but L, noslip boundary conditions ui (y = 0) = 0, matching to
outer flow, limy ui = limy0 ue . Equations are
5 VISCOUS FLOW 58
Boundary Layer Equations The unsteady, compressible boundary-layer equations are:
u v
+ + = 0 (616)
t x y
u u u P xy
+ u + v + = (617)
t x y x y
P
0 = (618)
y
ht ht ht P
+ u + v = + (uxy qy ) (619)
t x y t y
Thickness Measures 99% velocity thickness
.99 = y(u = .99ue ) (620)
Displacement thickness
Z
u
= 1 dy (621)
0 e u e
Momentum thickness
Z
u u
= 1 dy (622)
0 e ue ue
Displacement Velocity Near the boundary layer, the external flow produces a vertical velocity ve which
can be estimated by continuity to be
e ue
e ve y (623)
x
The boundary layer displaces the outer flow, producing a vertical velocity v far from the surface which differs
from ve by the amount v
d
e v =(e ue ) (624)
dx
The boundary layer influence on the outer flow can therefore by visualized as a source distribution producing
an equivalent displacement.
Steady Incompressible Boundary layers The pressure gradient can be replaced by using Bernoullis
equation in the outer flow

P ue
= ue (625)
x x y=0
For constant and k, the equations are
u v
+ = 0 (626)
x y
u u ue 2u
u +v = ue + 2 (627)
x y x y
2
e e u 2T
u + v = +k 2 (628)
x y y y
5 VISCOUS FLOW 59
5.4.1 Blasius Flow

The steady flow ue = U over a semi-infinite flat plate (0 x < ) with no pressure gradient can be solved
by a similarity transformation for the case of isothermal, incompressible flow.
r
y 2x
= (x) = (629)
(x) U
Define a stream function

u= v= = (x)U f () (630)
y x
to obtain the Blasius equation
f 000 + f f 00 = 0 f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0 f 0 () = 1 (631)

Numerical solution yields f 00 (0) = 0.469600 for a skin friction coefficient of
0.664 U x
Cf = 1/2
Rex = (632)
Rex
The various thickness measures are:
5.0x 1.7208x 0.664x
.99 = 1/2
= 1/2
= 1/2
(633)
Rex Rex Rex
The displacement is equivalent to that produced by a slender body of thickness (x). The vertical velocity
outside the boundary layer (y ) is
d 0.861U
v U = 1/2
(634)
dx Rex
which agrees with direct computation from the stream function
U
v = lim = lim 1/2
(f 0 () f ()) (635)
x 2Rex
where by numerical computation
lim f = = 1.21678 f 0 () = 1 (636)

5.4.2 Falkner-Skan Flow

For flows of the type ue = Cxm , i.e., external flows representing flow over an exterior or interior corner of
angle = m/(m + 1) , similarity solutions to the boundary layer equations can be obtained. Define the
similarity variable and streamfunction similar to Blasius case
s
2x
= y/(x) = = ue (x)(x)f () (637)
(m + 1)ue (x)
The resulting equation for the function f is
2m
f 000 + f f 00 + 1 f 02 = 0

= (638)
m+1
Some cases
5 VISCOUS FLOW 60
m flow
-.0904 separating
<0 retarded flows, expansion corner
0 flat plate, zero pressure gradient
1 stagnation point
0< accelerated flows, wedges
-2 doublet near a wall
-1 point sink
5.5 Karman Integral Relations

Integration of the momentum equation for incompressible flow results in
Cf d due
= + (2 + H) H= (639)
2 dx ue dx
The Karman-Pohlhausen technique consists of assuming a Blausius-type similarity profile for the velocity
y
u = ue (x)f () = (640)

where locates a definite outer edge of the boundary layer. Matching the boundary layer solution
smoothly to the outer flow at = 1 and satisfying the noslip condition at = 0, results in the following
conditions on f
f (0) = 0 (641)
w
f 0 (0) = (642)
ue
2 due
f 00 (0) = (643)
dx
f 000 (0) = 0 (644)
f (1) = 1 (645)
n>1
f (1) = 0 (646)
This results in an ordinary differential equation for as a function of x.
5.6 Thwaites Method

Rewrite the Karman integral equation as
ue d2 2 due w
= 2(S (2 + H)) = S= (647)
dx dx ue
Thwaites 1949 correlation
2(S (H + 2)) 0.45 6 (648)

Karman integral equation

d due
ue = 0.45 6 u0e = (649)
dx u0e dx
Approximate solution
Z x
0.45
2 = u5e dx (650)
u6e 0
Correlation functions S() and H()

5 VISCOUS FLOW 61
ue
w = S() = H() (651)

5.7 Laminar Separation

Seperation of the boundary layer from the wall and the creation of a recirculating flow region occurs when
the shear stress vanishes.
u
w,sep = =0 (652)
y y=0,x=xsep
For laminar boundary layers, this occurs when a sufficiently long region of adverse pressure gradient dP/ dx >
0 exists.
2

.99 dP
'5 sep ' 0.0931 (653)
ue dx sep
5.8 Compressible Boundary Layers

Steady, compressible, two-dimensional boundary layer equations:
u v
+ = 0 (654)
x y
u u Pe u
u + v = + (655)
x y x y y
2
h h u T
u + v = + k (656)
x y y y y
5.8.1 Transformations and Approximations

Modified stream function

u = v = (657)
y x
Density-weighted y-coordinate (Howarth-Doronitsyn-Stewartson)
Z

Y = dy X=x (658)

Derivative transformation
Y
= = + (659)
y Y x X x Y
Chapman-Rubesin parameter, enthalpy-temperature relation

C= dh = cp dT (660)

Boundary layer equations
2 2 2
= o C (661)
Y XY X Y 2 Y Y 2
2 2
h h C h
= + C (662)
Y X X Y Y P r Y Y 2
Similarity variable
5 VISCOUS FLOW 62
r
y 2 x
= = (663)
(x) U
Streamfunction ansatz for zero pressure gradient
= U f () h = h g() (664)
Similarity function equations
(Cf 00 )0 + f f 00 = 0 (665)
C 2
( g 0 )0 + f g 0 = CEc (f 00 ) (666)
Pr
where the Eckert number is
U2
Ec = = ( 1)M 2 for perfect gases (667)
h
Transport property approximation
cP
C = 1 = Pr = = constant (668)
k
Approximate equation set:
f 000 + f f 00 = 0 (669)
00 0 00 2
g + P rf g = P rEc (f ) (670)
5.8.2 Energy Equation

Integration of the energy equation results in the integral relationship for heat flux at the wall
Z
u ht
qw = (e ue ht,e h ) h = 1 dy (671)
x 0 e ue ht,e
where h is the energy thickness.
The recovery factor r determines the wall enthalpy in adiabatic flow,
1
hr = hw (qw = 0) = h + r u2 (672)
2
The recovery factor is found to be an increasing function of the Prandtl number. In gases,
r ' P r1/2 laminar boundary layers

(673)
r ' P r1/3 turbulent boundary layers
Unity Prandtl Number For P r = 1, the energy equation is
u2

ht ht ht
u + v = ht = he + e (674)
x y y y 2
This has as a solution in adiabatic flow
u2e u2
ht = he + = h + = constant for qw = 0 (675)
2 2
Therefore, the recovery enthalpy is
5 VISCOUS FLOW 63
u2
hr = h + (676)
2
From the exact correspondence to the x-momentum equation, the general, qw 6= 0, solution is ht = a + bu.
This leads directly to the Crocco integral
u2 u2

u
h = h + [hw hr ] 1 + 1 2 (677)
u 2 u
The Stanton number can be derived from this result in the form of Reynolds analogy
Cf
St = (678)
2
The generalization of this to other Prandtl numbers that is valid for laminar and turbulent boundary layers
in gases is
Cf
St ' (679)
2P r2/3
General Prandtl Number For similarity solutions, the nondimensional enthalpy can be found by inte-
gration of the energy equation, simplest when C = 1, and P r = constant.
2
g 00 + P r f g 0 = P r Ec (f 00 ) (680)
This equation can be integrated exactly to yield
0
"Z #
2
(f 00 ()) d
Z Z
0 0 0 0
g() = g(0) + g (0) F ( ; P r) d P r Ec F ( ; P r) d 0 (681)
0 0 0 F (; P r)
where
0
!
Z Z
F (; P r) = exp P r f () d d 0 (682)
0 0
and the boundary conditions yield

hw T k he 0
g(0) = qw = k = g (0) (683)
he y w cP e
This results in a recovery factor of
"Z #
2
(f 00 ()) d
Z
r = 2P r F (; P r) d (684)
0 0 F (; P r)
which for a laminar flat plate boundary layer has the approximate value
r P r1/2 0.1 P r 3.0 (685)
The Stanton number is
Z 1
qw G(P r)
St = 1/2
G(P r) = F (; P r) d (686)
e ue (hw hr ) 2P rRex 0
and for a flat plate boundary layer G can be approximated as
G 0.4969P r1/3 0.1 P r 3.0 (687)

so that the Stanton number for flat plate gas flow is approximately
0.33206
St = 1/2
(688)
P r2/3 Rex
5 VISCOUS FLOW 64
Coordinate stretching The physical coordinate can be computed from the transformed similarity variable
and the velocity profile
r Z
u
y = d (689)
2 x 0
The density profile can be computed from the temperature profile since the pressure is constant across the
boundary layer. For an ideal gas
T
= (690)
T
For the case of P r = 1 and a perfect gas, the temperature profile is
Z
T 1 2
1 f 02 d 0

=1+ M (691)
T 2 0
where u = u f 0 (). The coordinate transformation is then

r Z
u 1 2
1 f 02 d 0

y =+ M (692)
2 x 2 0
If we suppose that the viscosity varies as T , then the skin friction coefficient is
00
2f (0) 1
Cf = 1/2 1 (693)
1 2
Rex 1 + 2 M
5.8.3 Moving Shock Waves

For a moving shock wave, the boundary conditions in the shock fixed frame are that the wall is moving with
the upstream velocity w1 and the freestream condition is w2 . If the reference velocity is w2 , then boundary
conditions on f are
uw w1
f (0) = 0, f 0 (0) = = f 0 () = 1 (694)
ue w2
This results in a negative displacement thickness.
5.8.4 Weak Shock Wave Structure

In contrast to the usual Boundary layer equations, here y = z = 0, and only derivatives in the x direction
are considered.
u = 1 u 1 (695)
4 0 u
P + 1 u 1 u = P1 + 1 u21 (696)
3 x
u2 4 0 u k T u21
h+ u = h1 + (697)
2 3 1 u1 x 1 u1 x 2
where
3
0 = + v (698)
4
Entropy creation by gradients:
" 2 2 #
+
4 0
Z
1 u 1 T
s2 s1 = +k dx (699)
1 u 1 3T x T x
Weak shock thickness estimate based on maximum slope:
5 VISCOUS FLOW 65
80 1 3
m = 0 = + v (700)
3c M1n 1 4
For a perfect gas ( = constant), the mean free path can be estimated as
1/2
= (701)
2 c
and the shock thickness for = 1.4, v = 0, is
1.8
m = (702)
(M1n 1)
5 VISCOUS FLOW 66
5.9 Creeping Flow

In the limit of zero inertia, the flow is described by Stokes approximation to the momentum equation
P = (703)
If the viscosity and density are constant this is equivalent to
P = 2 u or P = (704)
Applying the divergence and curl operations to these equations yields
2 P = 0 or 2 = 0 (705)
The Reynolds number enters solely through the boundary conditions. Consider a flow with characteristic
velocity U , lateral dimension L and viscosity . If the velocity is specified at the boundaries,
u = U g(x/L, geometry) (706)

then the pressure distribution can be obtained by integrating the momentum equation to get
U 2 U L
P = f (x/L, geometry) ReL = (707)
ReL
If the pressure is specified at the boundaries,
P = U 2 f (x/L, geometry) (708)

then the velocity will be given by
u = U ReL g(x/L, geometry) (709)

For flows in two space dimensions, a streamfunction can be used to satisfy the continuity equation.
In cartesian coordinates, the streamfunction for Stokes flow of a constant viscosity fluid will satisfy the
Biharmonic equation
4 = 0 (710)
Stokes Sphere Flow The force on a moving body in viscous flow is

Z Z
F= n dA P n dA (711)

Estimating the magnitude of the integrals, the force in a particular direction will have the magnitude
F = CU L (712)
The constant C will in general depend on the shape of the body, the direction x of the force and the motion
of the body.
For a sphere, the flow can be solved by using Stokes axisymmetric streamfunction . The velocity
components are:
1
ur = (713)
r2
sin
1
u = (714)
r sin r
The analog of the biharmonic equation is
5 VISCOUS FLOW 67
2
2

sin 1
+ 2 =0 (715)
r2 r sin
The boundary conditions at the surface of the sphere are:

=0 =0 =0 r=a (716)
r
and the flow approaches a uniform flow far from the sphere
U r2
lim = sin2 (717)
r 2
The solution is
a 3r 2r2

U
= a2 sin2 + 2 (718)
4 r a a
The pressure on the body is found by integrating the momentum equation
3aU
P = P cos (719)
2r2
and the force (drag) is directed opposite to the direction of motion of the sphere with magnitude
D 24 U 2a
D = 6U a CD 2 2
= Re = (720)
1/2U a Re
For a thin disk of radius a moving normal to the freestream the drag is
D = 16U a (721)
and moving parallel to the freestream
32
D= U a (722)
3
Oseens Approximation The inertial terms neglected in Stokes approximation become significant at a
distance r a/Re. The Oseen equations are a uniform approximation for incompressible viscous flow over
a body. If the mean flow at large distances from body is U in direction x, then the Oseen equations are:
u = 0 (723)
u u
+ U = P + 2 u (724)
t x
This results in a corrected drag law (the flow now has a wake) for the sphere

24 3Re 9 2
CD = 1+ + Re ln Re + . . . (725)
Re 16 160
Reynolds Lubrication Theory Incompressible flow in a two-dimensional channel with a slowly-varying

height h(x) and length L can be treated as a boundary layer-like flow if
L h h
1 which implies that vu (726)
h x x
The thin-layer or lubrication equations result when the channel is very thin h/L 0, and viscous forces
dominate inertia Re 1.
5 VISCOUS FLOW 68
h hu
+ = 0 (727)
t x
P u
0 = + (728)
x y y
P
0 = (729)
y
For a constant property flow, the velocity is given at any point in the channel by the Couette-Poiseuille
expression of parallel flow if the lower boundary is moving with velocity U and the upper boundary is at
most moving in the y direction
h2 P y y y
u= 1 +U 1 (730)
2 x h h h
Combining this result with the continuity equation yields the Reynolds lubrication equation

1 3 P h h
h = 6U + 12 (731)
x x x t
For a slipper pad bearing, the pressure is equal to the ambient value P at x = 0 and x = L and the gap
height h is
x
h = h 1 1 (732)
L
The pressure is given by
h h2

U L h
P P = 6 1 3 1 (733)
h2 h h h2
where h is the gap height at the location of the pressure maximum
h 1 2
=2 1 + O(3 ) (734)
h 2 2 4
and the maximum pressure is approximately
3 U L
Pmax P + O(2 ) (735)
4 h2
A FAMOUS NUMBERS 69
A Famous Numbers
Fundamental Physical Constants
co speed of light in a vacuum 2.998108 m/s

o permittivity of the vacuum 8.8541012 C2 /kg-m
o permeability of the vacuum 4107 H/m
h Planck constant 6.6261034 J-s
k Boltzmann constant 1.3811023 J/K
No Avogadro number 6.0221023 molecules/mol
e charge on electron 1.6021019 C
amu atomic mass unit 1.6611027 kg
me electron mass 9.1091031 kg
mp proton mass 1.6731027 kg
G universal gravitational constant 6.6731011 m3 /kg-s2
Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.670108 W/m2 K4
Astronautics
go gravitational acceleration at earths surface 9.807 m/s2

RE radius of earth 6378 km
ME mass of earth 5.9761024 kg
MS mass of sun 1.991030 kg
au mean earth-sun distance 1.496108 km
mass of moon 7.3491022 kg
mean earth-moon distance 3.844105 km
Ideal Gas Stuff
R Universal gas constant 8314.5 J/kmol-K

8.3145 J/mol-K
82.06 cm3 -atm/mol-K
1.9872 cal/mol-K
mechanical equivalent of heat 4.186 J/cal
volume of 1 kmol at 273.15 K and 1 atm 22.41 m3
number of molecules at 298.15 K and 1 atm 2.461025 m3
collision frequency at 273.15 K and 1 atm 4.3109 s1
mean free path in N2 at 273.15 K and 1 atm 74 nm
Consistent with the 1998 CODATA adjustment of the funadamental physical constants
A FAMOUS NUMBERS 70
Our Atmosphere
composition (mol fractions)

0.7809 N2
0.2095 O2
0.0093 Ar
0.0003 CO2
Sea level
P pressure 1.01325105 Pa
density 1.225 kg/m3
T temperature 288.15 K
c sound speed 340.29 m/s
R gas constant 287.05 m2 /s2 -K
W molar mass 28.96 kg/kmol
viscosity (absolute) 1.79105 kg/m-s
k thermal conductivity 2.54103 W/m-K
cp heat capacity 1.0 kJ/kg-K
30 kft
P pressure 3.014104 Pa
density 0.458 kg/m3
T temperature 228.7 K
c sound speed 303.2 m/s
Based on the U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 NOAA-S/T 76-1562, 1976.
Unit Conversions
1m 3.28 ft
0.3048 ft 1m
1 lb (force) 4.452 N
1 lb (mass) 0.454 kg
1 btu 1055 J
1 hp 745.7 W
1 hp 550 ft-lbf /s
1 mile (land) 1.609 km
1 mph 0.447 m/s
1 mile (nautical) 1.852 km
B BOOKS ON FLUID MECHANICS 71
B Books on Fluid Mechanics

There are a very large number of books on fluid mechanics. The following are a selected texts that cover
various topics. The call numbers (LOC system) are those used in the Caltech library system.
General Fluid Dynamics
1. Tritton, D. J. Physical Fluid Dynamics QC151.T74 1988 (available in paperback)

2. Panton, R. L. Incompressible Flow TA357.P29 1995.
3. Batchelor, G. K. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics QA911.B33 1973 (available in paperback)

4. Landau, L. D. and Lifshitz, E. M. Fluid Mechanics QA901.L283 1989
Compressible Flow
1. Anderson, J. D. Modern Compressible Flow: with historical perspective, QA911.A6 1990.

2. Liepmann, H. A. and Roshko, A. Elements of Gasdynamics, QC168.L5 (available now as a Dover
paperback)
3. Thompson, P. A. Compressible Fluid Dynamics QC168.T5 1984. (Available from RPI bookstore
- see JES web page for information on ordering and errata for older editions)
Viscous Flow and Boundary Layers
1. Sherman, F. Viscous Flow TA357.S453 1990

2. Schlichting, H. Boundary Layer Theory TL574.B6 S283 1968
3. White, F.M. Viscous Fluid Flow 2nd Ed. 1991 QA929.W48
Acoustics
1. Pierce, A.D. Acoustics: an introduction to its physical principles and applications QC225.15
P52 1989
Aerodynamics
1. Kuethe, A.M. and Chow, C.-Y. Foundations of Aerodynamics TL570.K76 1998

2. Karamcheti, K. Principles of Ideal-Fluid Aerodynamics QA930.K74
Rotating Flow
1. Vanyo, J. P. Rotating Fluids in Engineering and Science TA357.V36 2000 (Dover paperback)
Thermodynamics
1. D. Kondepudi and I. PrigogineModern Thermodynamics, Wiley, 1998.
2. M. Abbott and H. van Ness Thermodynamics Schaums Outline Series. TJ265.A19 1989
3. Adkins, C. J. Equilibrium Thermodynamics QC318.T47 A34 1983
Some Data Tables
1. NACA 1135, Equations, Tables and Charts for Compressible Flow

2. Reynolds, W.C. Thermodynamic Properties in SI QC311.3 .R38
B BOOKS ON FLUID MECHANICS 72
3. Poling, B. E., Prausnitz, J. M., and OConnell, J. P. The Properties of Gases and Liquids.
TP243.P62 2000.
Vector Analysis
1. Aris, R. Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics QA911.A69 1989
2. Spiegel, M.R. Vector Analysis Schaums Outline Series Not in CIT libraries
Dimensional Analysis
1. Hornung, H. G. Dimensional Analysis: Examples of the use of Symmetry, Dover, 2006.

2. Bridgman, P. W. Dimensional Analysis QC39.B7 1922.
3. Sedov, L. I. Similarity and Dimensional Methods in Mechanics QC20.7 .D55 S42
Visualization
1. van Dyke, M. An Album of Fluid Motion TA357.V35

2. Lugt, H. Vortex Flow in Nature and Technology QC159.L8413 1983.
3. Pozrikidis, C. Little Book of Streamlines QA911.P66 1999

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Fluid Mechanics 101

1995-present - Revised December 16, 2007

JES December 16, 2007

4 Incompressible, Inviscid Flow 34

B Books on Fluid Mechanics 71

1.1 Control Volume Statements

Viscous stress tensor, shear viscosity , bulk viscosity v

Entropy inequality (2nd Law of Thermodynamics):

1.2 Reynolds Transport Theorem

The transport theorem proper. Material volume , arbitrary volume V .

1.3 Integral Equations

1.3.1 Simple Control Volumes

1.3.2 Steady Momentum Balance

1.4 Vector Calculus

(A B) = (B )A (A )B ( A)B + ( B)A (27)

1.4.2 Curvilinear Coordinates

and form a right-handed coordinate system

The scale factors hi are defined by

dr = h1 dx1 e1 + h2 dx2 e2 + h3 dx3 e3 (35)

ds2 = h21 dx21 + h22 dx22 + h23 dx23 (37)

dV = h1 h2 h3 dx1 dx2 dx3 (38)

1.4.3 Gauss Divergence Theorem

A useful variation on the divergence theorem is

1.4.4 Stokes Theorem

1.4.5 Div, Grad and Curl

da = lim (x + da) (x) = da (45)

The divergence operator or div is

The Laplacian operator 2 for a scalar field is

1.4.6 Specific Coordinates

1.5 Differential Relations

1.6 Convective Form

Mechanical energy equation

1.7 Divergence of Viscous Stress

1.8 Euler Equations

1.9 Bernoulli Equation

then if (x) only, we have

The Bernoulli constant is

1.11 Dimensional Analysis

Pi Theorem Given n dimensional variables X1 , X2 , . . ., Xn , and f independent fundamental dimensions

1. The number of dimensionally independent variables r is

2. The number p = n - r of dimensionless variables i

that can be formed is

Conventional Dimensionless Numbers

Prandtl number Pr .72 7.1

2.2 Maxwell relations

2.3 Various defined quantities

Specific heat relationships

Sound speed (squared)

2.4 v(P, s) relation

2.5 Equation of State Construction

Ideal gas limit 0,

lim cv (T, ) = cig

The ideal gas limit of I is the ideal gas internal energy

Ideal gas limit of II is the residual function

e(, T ) = e + eig (T ) + er (, T ) (120)

s(, T ) = s + sig (, T ) + sr (, T ) (124)

3.1.1 Streamlines and Total Properties

3.2 Quasi-One Dimensional Flow

3.2.1 Isentropic Flow

and you can show that is given by:

Mach NumberArea Relationship

Alternative reference speeds

3.3 Heat and Friction