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Molecular vibrations
Molecular vibrations: the relative motion of atoms with respect to one another
These vibrations are an energy state of the molecule
We should be able to use group theory to figure out which vibrations the molecule can actually
have.
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1: Figure out the number of unshifted atoms on for each symmetry operation
of unshifted atoms 3 1 1 3
2: Use the following equation to calculate the contribution to the character per unshifted atom of the
representations
360 360
E = 3, i 3 , S =-1+2 cos( n ) ,
n
1, C n =1+ 2 cos(
n
)
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3: The reducible representation for the displacement coordinates is the multiplication of the number of
of unshift atoms 3 1 1 3
Contributions to character 3 -1 1 1
3N 9 -1 1 3
: The symbol of the reducible representation
3N
3A + A2 + 2B1 +3 B2
3N 1
Exercise Use the reduction formula to work out how many times each of the irreducible representations
appears in 3N of H2O
The reducible representation has then be reduced into its individual irreducible representation
components
These irreducible representation components are of interest
They describe the possible energy states of the molecule according to our basis
Displacement coordinates tell us how each atom moves relative to the others in molecule
rotation A , B , B 2 1 2
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In the 3 N representation, six of the irreducible representations correspond to translations and rotations
of the molecule.
every non-linear molecule has 3N-6 vibrations , where N is the number of atoms.
The irreducible representations of vibrations vib
vib = 3 N - T - R =(3A 1 +A 2 +2B 1 +3B 2 ) - (A 1 +A 2 +2B 1 +2B 2 ) =2A 1 + B 2
NH3
# of unshifted atoms 4 1 2
Contribution to character 3 0 1
3 N 12 0 2
3 N =3A 1 +A 2 +4E
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Step 5, Examining the irreducible representations (Determine vib )
T =A 1 +E, R =A 2 +E RT =A 1 +A 2 +2E
*Each E representation corresponds to a doublely degenerate state, 2E represents four energy states
vib = 3 N - T R =(3A 1 +A 2 +4E 3 )-(A 1 +A 2 +2E) = 2A 1 +2E (3N - 6= 3 4 6 = 6)
2A Two energy states; 2E four energy states
1
How can we use these results to help explain the properties of molecules?
Internal Coordinates
Internal coordinate
r : the displacement of one atom with respect to another along the line of the bond
E C2 V V'
# of unshifted coordinates 2 0 0 2
2 0 0 2
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1 1
aA1 = 4 [(2 1 1) + (2 1 1)] = 1; aA2 = 4 [(2 1 1) + (2 (-1) 1)] = 0;
1 1
aB1 = 4 [(2 1 1) + (2 (-1) 1)] = 1; aB2 = 4 [(2 1 1) + (2 1 1)] = 1
NH3
E 2C3 3 v
# of unshifted coordinate 3 0 1
1
aA1= 6 [(3 1 1)+(1 1 3)]=1;
1
aA2= 6 [(3 1 1)+(1 (-1) 3)]=0
1
aE = 6 (3 2 1) =1
str =A1+E vib = str + bend 2A1+2E = A1+E+ bend bend =A1+ E
E 2C3 3 v
# of unshifted angles 3 0 1
bend = A1 + E
The same answer as we got from the difference method ( bend = vib - str )
Sometime, generating bend from the angles of the molecule, does NOT give the same answer as
difference method. A redundant coordinate is found in the bend representation, which is often A1.
When this occurs it can be simply removed from the bend representation.
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Exercise What is the point group of the PCl5 molecule. [D3h]
Exercise Using displacement coordinates as a basis, generate the reducible representation of 3N in PCl5
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Projection Operators
Q: Can we use group theory to analise the vibrations further, and also provide a link with experiment?
A: We can use these results and use group theory to let us see what the vibrations look like
Projection operators
Px [ ( R ) R ]x ( R1 )x ( R2 )x ... ( Rh )x
R
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Consider the integral coordinates, r1 and r2 , and choose one of these to be generating coordinates
C2v E C2 v v
r1 r1 r2 r2 r1
C2v E C2 v v
A1 1 1 1 1
C2v E C2 v v
1 r1 1 r2 1 r2 1 r1
1
P r1 =1 r1 1 r2 +1 r2 +1 r1 = 2 r1 +2 r2 normalized ( r1 + r2 )
2
A1 representation has r1 + r2 as a basis
A stretch has r1 and r2 increasing or decreasing at the same time.
1
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r1 + r2 is know as a symmetry adopted linear combination (SALC)
Exercise Please use r2 as generating coordinate and find out the SALC for A1. [ r1 + r2 ]
C2v E C2 v v
B2 1 -1 -1 1
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C2v E C2 v v
r1 - r2 - r2 r1
1
P r1 = r1 - r2 - r2 + r1 = 2 r2 - 2 r2 normalize ( r1 - r2 )
2
B2 vibration in water is the one where the r1 coordinates is reducing whilst the r2 coordinates is
increase, and vice versa.
Exercise Please use r2 as generating coordinate and find out the SALC for A1. [ r1 - r2 ]
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NH 3 (C3v)
C3v E C3 C32 v v v
r1 r1 r2 r3 r2 r3 r2
C3v E C3 C32 v v v
A1 1 1 1 1 1 1
E 2 -1 -1 0 0 0
For A1 P r1 =( r1 + r2 + r3 ); For E P r1 =2 r1 - r2 - r3
The letters A and B are used for the symmetry species of
one-dimensional irreducible representation E is used for 2-D T is
used for 3-D. The E vibration is doubly degenerate and should have
C3v E C3 C32 v v v
1 1 2 3 2 1 3
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C3v E C3 C32 v v v
A1 1 1 1 1 1 1
E 2 -1 -1 0 0 0
For A1 1 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 1 + 3 =2 1 +2 2 +2 3
For E 2 1 - 2 - 3
P( 2 + 3 ) = P 2 +P 3 = 2 - 3 [(2 1 - 2 - 3 )]
Exercise Please use, 2 and 3 as generating coordinate and find out the SALC for A1 and E.
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AuBr (D )
4 4h
D 4h E 2C 4 C 2 2C '
2 2C "
2 i 2S 4 h 2 v 2 d
# of unshifted coordinates 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 4 2 0
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aA1g = 1 ; aA2g = 0 ; aB1g = 1; aB2g = 0 ; aEg = 0; aA1u = 0; aA2u = 0; aB1u = 0; aB2u = 0; aEu =1
st = A1g + B1g + Eu
E C41 C43 C2 C2(x) C2(y) C2(1) C2(2) i S41 S43 h v v d d
r1
A1g
B1g
E
For A1g, P r1 = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 ; For B1g, P r1 = r1 - r2 + r3 - r4 ; For Eu, P r1 = r1 - r3
For the remaining Eu SALC, use r2 as a generating coordinate.
P r2 = r2 - r4 [( r1 - r3 )]
Exercise Please use r2 , r3 as generating coordinate and find out the SALC for Eu.
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Exercise For PCl5, determine the SALCs for the stretching vibrations of the molecule. Use the
projection operation method to view the SALCs, sketch the results.
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d : small space
A transition is allowed if the equation is not zero.
We can use the results of group theory to simplify the use of this daunting equation greatly.
Infra-red spectroscopy
In infra-red spectroscopy, a molecule can be excited from its ground vibration state to a fundamental
vibration using infra-red radiation. This all occurs if there is a dipole moment change in the molecule
upon absorption.
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For infra-red spectroscopy,
* *
i T f d i f d
1. f : A1 or B2
2. i : A1
3. : character table, xB1, yB2, zA1
B1
* *
i T f d i f d A1 B2 f d
A
1
All we have to decide is whether the symmetry of the appropriate parts of the equation all multiply
In group theory language all we need to decide is whether the multiplication of the symmetries gives the
totally symmetric representation (e.g. A1, A1g) or not.
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Raman spectroscopy
2 2 2
T : x , y , z , xy, yz, xz
Consider H 2O
x 2 , y 2 , z 2 A1 , xy A2 , xz B1 , yz B2
If f = A1
B1 B1
B2 B2
A1 A1 A1 = A1
A A
2 2
One equation contains the A1 representation, hence we expect to see bands in the Raman spectrum
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If a band due to a vibration appears in the infra-red spectrum, the vibration is known as infra-red active
If a band due to a vibration appears in the Raman spectrum, the vibration is known as Raman active.
In H 2 O , we expect to see three fundamental vibration bands, all three of which are Raman and infra-red
active.
To assign vibration spectra of molecule, we need one rule and one rule-of-thumb.
Any molecule which possesses a centre of symmetry, i, is subject to something know as the mutual
exclusion rule. This rule states that any vibration in such a molecule cannot be both IR-active and
Raman-active
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Tetra chloromethane, CCl 4
1
Infra-red spectrum ( cm 1 ) Raman spectrum( cm )
____ 218 depolarized
1. point group Td
2. consider displacement coordinates
3.
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1
a A1 = [(15 1 1) (1 1 3) (1 1 6) (3 1 6)] 1
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a A = 0, aE 1 aT 1 aT 3
2 1 2
# of unshift coordinate 4 1 0 0 2
str 4 1 0 0 2
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a A1 =1, a A2 =0, aE 0 aT1 0 aT2 1
str = A1 T2 bend = E T2
Use internal coordinates,
E 8C 3 3C 2 6S 4
6 d
# of unshifted coordinate 6 0 2 0 2
bend 6 0 2 0 2
a A1 =1, a A2 =0, aE 1 aT1 0 aT2 1
bend = A1 E T2
x,y,z T2
for f A1 A1 T2 T1 T2
f T2 A1 T2 T2 A1 E T1 T1
f E A1 T2 E T1 T2
xy,yz,zx T2 ; x , y , z E & A1
2 2 2
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