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The Gist of NCERT - Indian History PDF
The Gist of NCERT - Indian History PDF
D u e c a r e h a s b e e n t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t th e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d i n t h i s b o o k
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THE INDUS or the Harappan culture is Harappan culture is noticeable in its mature
older than the chalcolithic cultures which and flourishing stage at all these six places.
have been treated earlier, but it is far more It is also found in its mature phase in the
developed than these cultures. It arose in the coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada,
north-western part of the Indian each one of which is marked by a citadel. The
subcontinent. It is called Harappan because later Harappan phase is found in Rangpur and
this civilization was discovered first in 1921 Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat.
at the modern site of Harappa situated in the In addition to these, Dholavira lying in the
province of West Punjab in Pakistan. It Kutch area of Gujarat shows Harappan
extended from Jammu in the north to the fortification and all the three phases of the
Naramada estuary in the south, and from the Harappan culture. These phases also appear
Makran coast of Balcuchistan in the west to in Rakhigarhi which is situated on the
Meerut in the north-east. The area formed a Ghaggar in Haryana and is much bigger than
triangle and accounted for about 1,299,600 Dholavira.
square kilometers. Town Planning and Structures
Nearly 1500 Harappan sites are known The Harappan culture was
so far in the subcontinent. Of these, the two distinguished by its system of town planning.
most important cities were Harappa in Punjab Harappa and Mohenjo-daro each had its own
and Mohenjodaro (literally the mound of the citadel in each city lay a lower town
dead) in Sindh, both forming parts of containing brick houses, which were
Pakistan. Situated at a distance of 483 inhabited by the common people. The
kilometres they were linked together by the remarkable thing about the arrangement of
Indus. A third city lay at Chanhu daro about the houses in the cities is that they followed
130 km south of Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and the grid system. According to it, roads cut
a fourth at Lothal in Gujarat at the head of across one another alomost at right angles,
the Gulf of Cambay. A fifth city lay at and the city was divided into so many blocks.
Kalibangan, which means black bangles, in This is true of almost all Indus settlements.
northern Rajasthan. A sixth called Banawali
The most important public place of
is situated in Hissar district in Haryana. It Mohenjo-daro seems to be the Great Bath,
saw two cultural phases, pre-Harappan and comprising the tank which is situated in the
Harappan, similar to that of Kalibangan. The citadel mound. It is an example of beautiful
2 Gist of NCERT (History)
brickwork. It measures 11.88 7.01 metres were covered with bricks and sometimes
and 2.43 metres deep. Flights of steps at ei- with stone slabs. The street drains were
ther end lead to the surface. There are side equipped with manholes. Perhaps no other
rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bronze Age civilization gave so much
Batch was made of burnt bricks. It is sug- attention to health and cleanliness as the
gested that the Great Bath served ritual bath- Harappan did.
ing, which has been so vital to any religious Agriculture
ceremony in India.
The Indus people produced wheat,
In Mohenjodaro the largest building is
barley, rai, peas, etc. They produced two
a granary, which is 45.71 metres long and
types of wheat and barley. A good quantity
15.23 metres wide. But in the citadel of
of barley has been discovered at Banawali.
Harappa we find as many as six granaries.
In addition to this they produced sesamum
We come across a series of brick platforms
and mustard. As 1800 B.C., the people of
which formed the basis for two rows of six
Lothal used rice whose remains have been
granaries. Each granary measured 15.23 6.03
found. Foodgrains were stored in huge
metres and lay within a few metres of the
granaries in both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa
river bank. The combined floor space of the
and possibly in Kalibangan. Probably, cereals
twelve units would be about 838 square
were received as taxes from peasants and
metres. Approximately it had the same area
stored in granaries for the payment of wages
as the Great Granary at Mohenjo-daro.
as well as for use during emergencies. This
Harappa also shows two-roomed barracks,
can be said on the analogy of Mesopotamian
which possibly accommodated laboures.
cities where wages were paid in barley. The
At Kalibangan also we notice in the indus people were the earliest people to
southen part brick platforms, which may have produce cotton. Because cotton was first
been used for granaries. Thus, it would peoduced in this are Greeks called it sindon,
appear that granaries constituted an which is derived from Sindh.
important part of the Harappan cities.
Domestication of Animals
The use of burnt bricks in the Hrappan
cities is remarkable, because in the Although the Harappans practised
contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly agriculture, animals were kept on a large
dried bricks were used. We find the use of scale. Ox, buffaloes, goats, sheep and pigs
baked bricks in contemporary Mesopotamia, were domesticated. The humped bulls were
but they were used to a much larger extent favoured by the Harappans. From the very
in the Harappan cities. The drainage system beginning dogs were regarded as pets. Cats
of Mohenjo-daro was very impressive. In were also domesticated, and signs of the feet
almost all cities every big or small house had of both dogs and cats have been noticed.
its own courtyard and bathroom. In They also kept asses and camels, which were
Kalibangan many houses had their wells. obviously used as beasts of burden. Evidence
Water flowed from the house to the streets of the horse comes from a superficial level of
which had drains. Sometimes these drains Mohenjo-daro and from a doubtful terracotta
figuring from Lothal. The remains of the horse
The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilization 3
are reported from Sutkotada, situated in west from south India. The Harappans were also
Gujarat, and belong to around B.C. but it is experts in bead-making. The potters wheel
doubtful. In any case the Harappan culture was in full use, and the Harappans produced
was not horse-centred. Neither the bones of their own characteristic pottery, which was
horse nor its representations appear in early made glossly and shinning.
and mature Harappan culture. Elephants were Trade
well known to the Harappans, who were also
Trade was important in the life os the
acquainted with the rhinoceros. Indus people. The Harappans carried on con-
Technology and Carafts siderable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc,
The Harappan culture belongs to the within the Indus culture zone. However, their
Bronze Age. The people of Harappa used cities did not possess the necessary raw ma-
many tools and implements of stone, but they terial for the commodities they produced.
were well acquainted with the manufacture They did not use metal money. Most prob-
and use of bronze. Ordinarily bronze was ably they carried on all exchanges through
made by the smiths by mixing tin with copper barter. In return for finished goods and pos-
mines of Rajasthan, although it could also be sibly foodgrains, they procured metals from
brought from Baluchistan. Tin was possibly the neighbouring area sby boats and bullock-
brought with difficulty from Afghanistan. carts. They practised navigation of the coast
The bronze tools and weapons recovered of the Arabian Sea. They knew the use of
from the Harappan sites; contain a smaller wheel, and carts with solid wheels were in
percentage of tin. However, the kit of bronze use in Harappa. The Harappa had commecial
goods left by the Harappans is cosiderable, links with one area of Rajasthan, and also
which suggests that the bronzesmiths with Afghanistan and Iran. They had set up
constituted an important group of artisans a trading colony in northern Afghanistan
which evidently facilitated trade with Cen-
in the Harappan society. They produced not
tral Asia. Their cities also carried commerce
only images and utensils but also various tools
with those in the land of the Tigris and the
and weapons such as axes, saws, knives and
Euphrates. Many Harappan seals have been
spears. Several other important crafts
discovered in Mesopotania, and it seems that
flourished in the Harappan towns. A piece of
the Harappans imitated some consmetics used
woven cotton has been recovered from
by the urban people of Mesopotamia.
Mohenjo-daro, and textile) impressions found
The Mesopotamia records from about
on several objects. Spindle whorls were used
2350 B.C. onwards refer to trade relations
for spinning. Weavers wove cloth of wool and
with Meluha, which was the ancient name
cotton. Huge brick structures suggest that
given to the Indus region. The Mesopotamian
brick-laying was an important craft. They
texts speaks of two intermediate trading sta-
also attest the existence of a class of masons.
tions called Dilmun and Makan, which lay
The Harappans also practised boat-making. between Mesopotamia and Meluha. Dilmun
The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold can probably be identified with Bahrain on
and precious stones; the first two may have the Persian Gulf.
been obtained from Afghanistan and the last
4 Gist of NCERT (History)
of Harappan stone sculptures. One steatite sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which
statue wears an ornamented robe over the caused floods. Earthquakes caused changes
left shoulder under the right arm, and its in the course of the Indus which led to the
short locks at the back of the head are kept inundation of fee hinterland of Mohenjo-
tidy by a woven fillet. daro. And still others point out that the
Origin, Maturity and End Harappan culture was destroyed by the
Aryans, but there is very little evidence for
The mature Harappan culture, broadly
this.
speaking, existed between 2550 B.C. and 1900
B.C. Throughout the period of its existence The consequences of the disintegration
it seems to have retained the same kind of of the largest Bronze Age cultural entity are
tools, weapons and houses. The whole style still to be clarified. We do not know whether
of life appears to be uniform. We notice the the urban eclipse led to the migration of
same town-planning, the same seals, the same merchants and craftsmen, and the
terracotta works, and the same long chet dissemination of the elements of Harappan
blades. But the view stressing changelessness technology and way of life in the countryside.
cannot be pushed too far. We do notice Something is known about the post-urban
changelessness cannot be pushed too far. We situation in Sindh, Punjab and Haryana. We
do notice changes in the pottery of Mohenjo- find agricultural settlements inside the Indus
daro over a period of time. By the region, but their connection with the
nieneteenth century B.C., the two important preceding culture is not clear. We need clear
cities of the Harappan culture, Harappa and and adequate information.
Mohenjo-daro, disappeared but the Harappan ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND
culture at other sites faded out gradually and THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA
continued in its degenerate phase in the Original Home and Identity
outlying fringes in Gujarat, Rajasthan, It Difficult to say that all the earliest
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. Aryans belonged to one race, but their culture
While the ancient cutlures of was more or less of the same type. They were
Mesopotamia continued to exist even after distinguished by their common language.
1900 B.C., the urban Harappan culture They spoke the indo-European languages,
disappeared at Bout that thime. Various which are current in changed forms all over
causes have been suggested. It is held that Europe, Iran and the greater part of the
the amount of rainfall in the Indus region Indian subcontinent Originally the Aryans
slightly increased around 3000 B.C. and then seem to have lives somewhere in the steppes
decreased in the earlier part of the second stretching from southern Russia to Central
millennium B.C. This may have adversely Asia. Their earlist life seems to have been
affected agriculture and stockbreeding. Some mainly postoral, agriculture being a
describe the decline to the decreasing fertility secondary occupation. Although the Aryans
on account of the increasing salinity of the used several animals, the horse played the
soil caused by the expansion of the most significant role in their life. Its swiftness
neighbouring desert. Others attribute it to a enabled them and some allied people to make
6 Gist of NCERT (History)
successful inroads on West. Asia from about called naditama or the best of the rivers in
2000 B.C. onwards. the Rig Veda. The whole region in which the
On their way to India to Aryans first Aryans first settled in Indian subcontinent is
appeared in Central Asia and Iran, where the called the Land of the Seven Rivers.
Indo-Iranians lived for a long time. We know Tribal Conflicts
about the Aryans in India from the Rig Veda. We hear of many defeats inflicted by
The term Arya occurs 36 times in this text, Indra on the enemies of the Aryans. In the
and generally indicates a cultural community. Rig Veda Indra is called Purandara which
The Rig Veda is the earliest text of the Indo- means that he was the breaker of forts. The
European languages. It is a collection of Aryans succeeded everywhere because they
prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Verun possessed chariots driven by horses, and
and others gods by various families of poets intorduced them for the first time into West
or sages. It consists of ten mandalas or books, Asia and India. The Aryan soldiers were
of which Books II to VII form its earlies probably equiped also with coats of mail
portions. Books I and X seem to have been (vaiman) and better arms.
the latest additions. According to tradition, the Aryans were
The Rig Veda has many things in divided into five tribed panchajana but there
common with the Avesta, which is the holdest might have been other tribes also. The
text in the Iranian language. The two texts Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan
use the same names for several gods and even clans, and they were supported by priest
for social classes. But the earliest specimen Vasisththa. The country Bharatavarsha was
of the Indo-European language is found in eventually named after the tribe Bharata,
an inscription of about 2200 B.C. from Iraq which apperas first in the Rig Veda. The
Later such specimens occur in Hittite Bharata ruling clan was opposed by a host of
inscriptions in Anatolia (Turkey) from the ten chiefs, five of whom were heads of Aryan
nineteenth to the seventeenth centuries B.C. tribes and the remaining five of non-Aryan
Aryan names appeal in Kassijte inscriptions people. The battle that was fought between
of about about 1600 B.C. from Iraq and in the Bharatas on the one hand, and the host
Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century of ten chiefs on the other is known as the
B.C. from the Aryans appeared in India. The Battle of Ten Kings. This battle was fought
earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area on the river Parushni, identical with the river
covered by eastern Afghanistan, North-West Ravi and it gave victory to Sudas and estab-
Frontier Province, Punjab and fringes of lished the supremacy of the Bharatas. Of the
western Uttar Pradesh. Some rivers of defeated tribes, the most Important was that
Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the of the Purus. Subequently the Bharatas joined
river Indus and its five branches, are hands with the Purus and formed a new rul-
mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Sindhu, ing tribe called the Kurus. The Kurus com-
identical with the Indus, is the river par bined with the Panchalas, and they together
excellence of the Aryans, and it is repeatedly established their rule in the upper Gangetic
mentioned. Another river, the Saraswati, is basin where they played an important part
in later Vedic times.
The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilization 7
groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardlia. By assemblies. They could offer sacrifices along
and large it was a tribal system of with their husbands. We have an instance of
government in which the military element five women who composed hymns although
was strong. the later texts mention 20 such women.
Tribe and Family We also notice the practice of levirate
Kinship was the basis of social structure, and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. There
and a man was identified by the clan to which are no examples of child-marriage, and the
he belonged. People gave their primary loy- marriageable age in the Rig Veda seems to
alty to the tribe, which was called jana. The have been 16 to 17
term jana occurs at about 275 places in the Social Divisions
Rig Veda, and the term janapada or territory The Rig Veda mentions arya varna and
is not used even once. The people were at- dasa varna. The tribal chiefs and the priests
tached to the tribe, since the territory or the acquired a larger share of the booty, and they
kingdom, was not yet established. naturally grew at the cost of their kinsmen,
Another important term which stands which created social inequalities in the tribe.
for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis; it is Gradually the tribal society was divided into
mentioned 170 times in that text. Probably three groups - warriors, priests and the
the vis was divided into grama or smaller people - on the same pattern as in Iran. The
tribal units meant for fighting. When the fourth division called the schudras appeared
gramas clashed with one another it caused towards the end of the Rig Vedic period,
samgrama. The most numerous varna of because it is mentioned for the first time in
varishya arose out of the vis or the mass of the tenth Book of the Rig Veda, which is the
the tribal people. latest addition.
The term for family (kula) is mentioned In the age of the Rig Veda differentiation
rarely in the Rig Veda. It comprised not only based on occupations had started. Bat this
mother, father, sons, slaves, etc., but many division was not very sharp. We hear of a
more people also. It seems that family in early family in which a member says: I am a poet,
Vedic phase was indicated by the term griha, my father is a physician, and my mother is a
which frequently occurs in this text. In the grinder. Earning livelihood through different
earliest Indo-European languages one word means we live together... We hear of gifts
is used for nephew, grandson, cousin, etc. It of cattle, chariots, horses, slaves, tec. Unequal
seems that several generations of the family distribution of the sopils of war created social
lived under the same roof. Because it was a inequalities, and this helped the rise of princes
patriarchal society, the birth of a son was and priests at the cost of the common tribal
desired again and again, and especially people. But since economy was mainly
people prayed to the gods for brave sons to pastoral and not food-producing, the scope
fight the wars. In the Rig Veda no desire is for collecting regular tributes from the people
expressed for daughters, though the desire was very limited. We do not find gifts of land
for children and cattle is a recurrent theme and even those of cereals are rare. We find
in the hymns. Women could attend domestic slaves but not the wage-earners.
The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilization 9
Tribal elements in society were stronger and to be the god of plants and intoxi-cating drink
social divisions based on collection of taxes is named after him. The maruts personify the
or accumulation of landed property were storm.
absent. The society was still tribal and largely This we have a large number of gods.,
egalitarian. who represent the different forces of nature
Rig Vedic Gods in one form or another, but are also assigned
The most important divinity in the Rig human activities.We also find some female
Veda is Indra, who is called Purandara or divinites such as Aditi, and Ushas who
breaker of forts. Indra played the role of a represented the appearance of the dawn. But
varlord, leading the Aryan solidies to victory they were not prominent in the time of the
against the demons. Two hundred and fifty Rig Veda; in the set-up of the period the male
hymns are devoted to him. He is considered gods were far more imp[ortant than the
to be the rain god and thought to be female.
responsbile for causing rainfall. The dominant mode of worshipping the
The second position is held by Agni (fire dos was through the recitation of prayers and
god) to whom 200 hymns are devoted. Fire offering of sacrifices. Prayers played an
played a significant part in the life of primitive important part in Rig Vedic times. Both
people because of its use in burning forests, collective and individual prayers were made.
cooking, etc. Originally every tribe or clan was the votary
of a special god. It seems that prayers were
The cult of fire occupied a central place
not only in India but also in Iran, It Vedic offered to gods in chorus by the members of
a whole tribe. This also happened in the case
times Agni acted as a king of intermediary
between the gods on the one hand, and the of sacrifices. Agni and Indra were invited to
people on the other. The third important partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe
(jana). Offerings of vevetables, barely, etc.
position is occupied by Varuna who
personified water. Varuna was supposed to were made to gods. But in Rig Vedic times
the process was not accompanied by any ritual
uphold the natural order, and whatever
happened in the world was thought to be the or sacrificial formulae. They asked mainly for
praja (children), pashu (cattle), food, wealth,
reflection of his desires. Soma was considered
health, etc.
10
2
Gist of NCERT (History)
EXPANSION IN THE life of the people in the first half of the first
LATER VEDIC PERIOD (C. 1000-500 B.C.) millennium B.C. in western Uttar Pradesh
THE HISTORY of the later Vedic period and adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana and
is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were Rajasthan.
compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. The The texts show that the Aryans
collections of the Vedic hymns or mantras expanded from Punjab over the whole of
were known as the Samhitas. For purposes western Uttar Pradesh covered by the
of recitation, the prayers of the Rig Veda were Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharatas and
set to tune, and this modified collection was Purus, the two major tribes, combined and
known as the Sama Veda Samhita. In addition thus formed the Rum people. In the beginning
to the Sama Veda. in post-Rig Vedic times two they lived between the Sarasvati and the
other collections were: composed. These were Drishadvati just on the fringe of the doab.
- the Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper
Veda Samhita. The Yajur Veda contains not portion of the doab, the area called
only hymns but also rituasls which have to Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus.
accompany their recitation. The Atharva Veda Gradually they coalesced with a people called
contains charms and spells to ward off evils the Panchalas, who occupied the middle
and diseases. The Vedic Samhitas were portion of the doab. The authority of the
followed by the composition of a series of Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi, and
texts known as the Brahmanas. These are full the upper and middle portion of the doab.
of ritualistic formulae and explain the social The authority of the Kuru-Panchala people
and religious meaning of rituals. spread over Delhi, and the upper and middle
All these later Vedic texts were complied parts of the doab. They set up their capital at
in the upper Gangetic basin in circa 1000-500 Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut.
B.C. These are called Painted Grey Ware The history of the Kuru tribe is important
(PGW) sites because they were inhabited by for the battle of Bharata, which is the main
people who used earthern bowls and dishes theme of the great epic called the
made of painted grey pottery. They also used Mahabharata. This war is supposed to have
iron weapons. With the combined evidence been fought around 950 B.C. between, the
from the later Vedic texts and PGW iron- Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both
phase archaeology we can fom an idea of the of them belonged to the Kuru clan. As a result
The Later Vedic Phase 11
practically the whole of the kuru clan was in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh. For the
wiped out. first time the Vedic people came to be
Towards the end of the later Vedic acquainted with rice in the doab. It is called
period, around 600 B.C. the Vedic people vrihi in the Vedic texts, and its remains
spread from the board further east of Koshala recovered from Hastinapur belong to the
in eastern Uttar Pradesh and videha in north eighth century B.C. The use of rice is
Bihar. Although Koshala is associated with recommended in Vedic rituals, but that of
the story of Rama, it is not mentioned in Vedic wheat only rarely.
literature. Agriculture and various crafts enabled
The UGW-Iron Phase the later Vedic people to lead a settled life.
Culture and Later Vedic Economy Excavations and explorations give us some
Around 1000 B.C. iron appears in idea about settlements in later Vedic times.
Dharwar district in Karnataka. Excavations Widespread Painted Grey Ware sites are
show that iron weapons such as arrow-heads found not only in western Uttar Pradesh and
and spear-heads came to be commonly used Delhi, which was the Kuru-Panchala area but
in western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C. also in the adjoining paras of Punjab and
onwards. With iron weapons the Vedic people Haryana, which was the Madras area and in
may have defeated the few adversaries that those of Rajasthan, which was the Matsya
may have faced them in the upper portion of area. Also we can court nearly 700 sites,
the doab. Towards the end of the Vedic mostly belonging to the upper Gangetic basin.
period kjowledge of iron spread in eastern Althoug the term nagara is used in later
Uttar Pradesh and Videha. The earliest iron Vedic texts we can trace only the faint
implements discovered in this area belong to beginnings of towns towards the end of the
the seventh Century B.C., and the metal itself later Vedic period. Hastinapur and
is called shyama or krishna ayas in the later Kaushambi near Allahabad) can be regarded
Vedic texts. as primitive towns belonging to the end of
Although very few agricultural tools the Vedic period. They may be called
made of iron have been found, undoubtedly protourban sites.
agriculture was the chief means of livelibood Political Organization
of the later Vedic people. The Shatapatha In later Vedic times Rig Vedic popular
Brahmana speaks at length about the assemblies lost importance, and royal power
ploughing rituals. According to ancient increased at their cost The vidatha completely
legends, janaka, the king of Videha and father disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued
of Sita, lent his hand to the plought. In later to hold the ground, but their character
times ploughing came to be prohibited, for changed. They came to be dominated by
the members of the upper vernas. chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer
The Vedic people continued to produce permitted to sit on the sabha, and it was now
barly, but during this period rice and wheat dominated by nobles and brahmanas.
became their chief crops. In subsequent times The formation of bigger kingdoms made
wheat became the staple food of the people the chief or the king more powerful. Tribal
12 Gist of NCERT (History)
status, and were entitled to the sacred thread creator, came to occupy the supreme position
ceremony. Therefore, even in later Vedic times in the later Vedic pantheon. Some of the other
varna distinctions had not advanced very far. minor gods of the Rig Vedic period also came
In the family we notice the increasing to the forefront. Rudra, the god of animals,
power of the father, who could even became important in later Vedic times, and
disinherit his son. In princely families the Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver
right of primogeniture was getting stronger. and protector of the people. In addition, some
Male ancestors came to be worshipped. objects began to be worshipped as symbols
Women were generally given a lower of vidinity; signs of idolatry appear in later
position. Althoug some women theologians Vedic times. Pushan, who was supposed to
tookpart in philosophic discussion and some look after cattle, came to be regarded as the
queens participated in coronation rituals, god of the shudras.
ordinarily women were thought to be People worshiped gods for the same
inferior and subordinate to men. material reasons in this period as they did in
The institution of gotra appeared in later earlier times. However, the mode of worship
Vedic times. Literally it means the cow-pen changed considerably. Prayers continued to
or the place where cattle belonging to the be recited. Sacrifices became far more
whole clan are kept, but in course of time it important, and they assumed both public and
signified descent from a common ancestor. domestic character.
People began to practise gotra exogamy. No Sacrifices involved the killing of animals
marriage could take place between persons on a large scale and, especially the
belonging to the same gotra or having the desctruction of cattle wealth. The guest was
same lineage. known as goghna or one who was fed on
Ashramas or four stages of life were not cattle. Sacrifices were accompanied by
well established in Vedic times. In the post- formulae which had to be carefully
Vedic texts we hear of four ashramas-that of pronounced by the sacrificer. The sacrificer
Brahmachari or student, grihastha or was known as the yajamana, the performer,
householder, vanaprastha or hermit and of yajna, and much of his success depended
sannyasin or ascetic who completely on the magical power of words uttered
renounced the worldly life. Only the first correctly in the sacrifices.
three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts; In addition to cows, which were usually
the last or the fourth stage had not been well given as sacrificial gifts, gold, cloth and horses
established in later Vedic times though ascetic were also given. Sometimes the priests
life was not unknown. Even in post-Vedic claimed poetions of territory as dakshina,
times only the stage of the housholder was The Shatapatha brahmana states that in the
commonly practised by all the varnas. ashvamedha, north, south, east and west all
Good, Rituals said Philosophy should be given to the priest.
The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Towards the end of the Veclie period
Indra and Agni, lost thieir former began a strong reaction against priestly
Importance. On the other hand, Prajapati the domination, against cults and rituals,
14 Gist of NCERT (History)
especially in the land of the Panchalas and attached to birth in the varna system. The
Videha where, around 600 B.C., the kshatriya reaction against the domination of
Upanishads were compiled. These the priestly class called brahmanas, who
philosophical texts criticized the rituals and claimed various privileges, was one of the
laid stress on the value of right belief and causes of the origin of new religions.
knowledge. They emphasised that the Vardhamana Mahavira, who founded
knowledge of the self or atman should be Jainism, and Gautama Budha, who founded
acquired and the relation of atman with Buddhism belonged to the kshatriya clan, and
Brahma should be properly understood. both disputed the authority of the
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM brahmanas.
NUMEROUS religious, sects arose in the But the real cause of the rise of these
middle Gangetic plains in the second half of new religions lay in the spread of a new
the sixth century B.C. Of these sects Jainism agricultural economy in north-eastern India.
and Buddhism were the most important, and In the middle Gangeic plains, large-scale
they emerged as the most potent religious habitations began in about 600 B.C., when
reform movements. iron came to be used in this area. The use of
iron tools made possible clearance,
Causes of Origin
agriculture and large settlements. The
In post-Vedic times society was clearly agricultural economy based on the iron
divided into four varnas: brahmanas, ploughshare required the use of bullocks, and
kshtriyas, vaishyas and shudras. Each varna it could not flourish without animal
was assigned well-defined functions, husbandry. But the Vedic practice of killing
although it was emphasised that varna was cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood in
based on birth. The brahmanas, who were the way of the progress of new agriculture.
given the functions of priests and and But if the new agrarian economy had to be
teachers, claimed the highest status in society. stable, this killing had to be stopped.
The kshatriyas ranked second in the varna The period saw the rise of a large
heiracrchy. The vaishyas were engagerd in
number of cities in north-eastern India. We
agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade. may refer, for example, to Kaushambi near
They appear as principal taxpayers. The Allahabad, Kusinagar (in Deoria district of
shudras were meant for servint the three Uttar Pradesh).
higher varnas, and along with women were Banaras, Vaishali (in the newly created
barred from taking to Vedic studies. district of the same name in north Bihar),
Naturally the varna-divided society Chirand (in Saran district) and Rajgir
seems to have generated tensions. We have (situated at a distance of about 100 km south-
no means to find out the reactions of the east of Patna). Besides others these cities had
vaishyas and the shudras. But the kshatriyas, many artisans and traders, who began to use
who functioned as rulers, reacted strongly coins for the first time. The earliest coins
against the ritualistic domination of the belong to the fifth century B.C., and they are
brahmanas, and seem to have led a kind of called punch-marked coins. They circulated
protest movement against the importance
The Later Vedic Phase 15
for the first time in eastern Uttar Pradesh and became an ascetic. In the thirteenth year,
Bihar. The use of coins naturally facilitated when he had reached the age of 42, he
trade and commerce, which added to the attained kaivalya.
importance of the vaishyas. In the Through kaivalyahe conquered misery
brahmanical society the vaishyas ranked and happiness. Because of this conquest he is
third, the first two being brahmanas and known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina,
kshatriyas. Naturally they looked for some i.e. the conqueror, and his followers are
religion which would improve their position. known as Jainas. He propagated his religion
Vardhmana Mahavira and Jainism for 30 years, and his mission took him to
According to the Jainas, the origin of Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa, etc. He
Jainism goes back to very ancient times. They passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at a
believe in twenty-four tirthankaras or great place called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir.
teachers or leaders of their religion. The first According to another tradition, he was born
tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhadev in 599 B.C. and passed away in 527 B.C.
who was born in Ayodhya. He is said to have Doctrines of Jainism
laid the foundations for orderly human Jainism taught five doctrines: (i) do not
society. The last, twenty-fourth, tirthankara, commit violence, (ii) do not speak a lie, (ii)
was Vardhamana Mahavira who was a do not steal, (iv) do not acquire property, and
contem-porary of Gautama Buddha. The (v) observe continence (brahmacharya. It is
twenty-third tirthankara was Parshvanath said that only the fifth doctrine was added
who was born in Varanasi. He gave up royal by Mahavira: the other four were taken over
life and became an ascetic. Many teachings by him from previous teachers. Jainism
of Jainism are attributed to him. According attached the utmost importance to ahmsa or
to Jaina tradition, he lived two hundred years non-injury to living beings in later times,
before Mahavira. Mahavir is said to be the Jainism was divided into two sects:
twenty-fourth. shvetambaras or those who put on white
According to one tradition, dress, and digmbaras or those who keep
Vardhamana Mahavira was born is 540 B.C. them-selves naked.
in a village called Kundagrama near Vaishali, Jainism mainly aims at the attainment
which is identical with Basarh in the district of freedom from worldly bonds. No ritual is
of Vaishali, in north Bihar. His father required for acquiring such liberation. It can
Siddhartha was the head of a famous be obtained through right knowledge, right
kshatriya clan called Jnatrika and the ruler faith and right action. These three are
of his own area. Mahaviras mother was considered to be the Three Jewels or triratna
named Trishala, sister of the Lichchhavi chief of Jainism.
Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded to Jainnism prohibited the practice of war
Bimbisara. and even agriculture for its followers because
In the biginning, Mahavira led the life both involve the killing of living beings.
of a householder, but in the search for truth Eventually the Jainas mainly confined
he abandoned the world at the age of 30 and themselves to trade and mercantile activities.
16 Gist of NCERT (History)
the age of 29, like Mahavira again, he left be taken as a kind of reovlution in the history
home. He kept on wandering for about seven of Indian religions. It particularly won trie
years and then attained knowledge at the age support of the lower orders as it attacked
of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipel tree. From the varna system. People were taken into the
this time onwards he began to be called the Buddhist order without any consideration of
Buddha or the enlightened, Gautam Buddha caste. Women also were admitted to the
delivered his first sermons at Sarnath in sangha and thus brought on par with men.
Banaras, passed away at the age of 80 in 483 In comparison with Brahmanism, Buddhism
B.C. at a place called Kusinagar, identical with was liberal and democratic.
the village called Kasia in the district of Deoria The use of Pali, the language of the
in eastern Uttar Pradesh. peopel, also contributed to the spread of
Doctrines of Buddhism Buddhism. It facilitated the spread of
Gautama Buddha recommended an Buddhist doctrines among the common
eight-fold path (ashtangika marga) for the people. Gautama Buddha also organized the
elimination of human misery. This path is sangha or the religious order, whose doors
attributed to him in a text of about the third were kept open to every body, irrespective
century B.C. It comprised right observation, of caste and sex. The only condition required
right determination, right speech, right of the the monks was that they would
action, right livelibood, right execise, right faithfully observe the rules and regulations
memory and right meditation. If a person of the sangha. Once they were enrolled as
follows this eight fold path he would not members of the Buddhist Church they had
depend on the machinations of the priests, to take the vow of continence, poverty and
and will be able to reach his destination. faith. So there are three main elements in
Gautama taught than a person should avoide Buddhism: Buddha, sangha and dhamma.
the excess of both luxury and a austerity. He The monarchies of Magadha, Koshala and
prescribed the middle path. Kaushambi and several republican states and
their people adopted this religion.
The Buddha also laid down a code of
conduct for his followers on the same lines Two hundred years after the death of
as was done by the Jaina teachers. The main the Buddha, the famous Maurya king Ashoka
items in these social conduct are: (i) do not embraced Buddhism. This was an epoch-
cover the propert of others, (ii) do not com- making event. Through his agents Ashoka
mit violence, (iii) do not use intoxicants, (iv) spred Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia
do not speak a lie, and (v) do not indulge in and Sri Lanka, and thus transformed it into
corrupt practices. These techining are com- a world religion. Even today Sri Lanka,
mon to the social conduct ordinend by al- Burma (Myanmar), Tibet and parts of China
most all religons. and Japan, profess Buddhism Although.
Special Features of Importance and Influence of Buddhism
Buddhism and the Causes of Its Spread Despite its ultimate disppearance as an
Buddhism does not recognize the organized religion, Buddhism left its abiding
existence of god and soul (atman). This can mark on the history of India. The Buddhist
18 Gist of NCERT (History)
showed a keen awareness of the problems Buddha, the second deals with the rules to
that faced the people of north-east India in be observed by members of thesangha, and
the the sixxth century B.C. the third presents the philosophical exposition
Undoubtedly the objective of the of the dhamma. In the first three centuries of
Buddhist teaching was to secure the salvation the Charistian era, by mixing Pali with San-
of the individual or nirvana. skrit the Buddhists created a new language
Buddhism made an important impact on which is called Hybrid Sanskrit. The literary
society by keeping its doors open to women activities of the Buddhist monks continued
and shudras. Since both women and shudras even in the Middle Ages, and some famous
were placed in the same category by Apabhrams writing in east India were
Brahmanism, they were neither given scred composed by them. The Buddhist
thread nor allowed to read the Vedas. Their monasteries developed as great centres of
conversion to Buddhism freed them from such learning, and can be called-residential
marks of inferiority. universities. Mention may be made of
With its emphasis on non-violence and Nalanda and Vikramashila in Bihar, and
the sanctity of animal life, Buddhism boosted Valabhi in Gujrat.
the cattle wealth of the country. The earliest Buddhism left its mark on the art of
Buddhist text Suttanipata declares the cattle ancient India. The first human statues
to be givers of food, beauty and happiness worshipped in India were probably those of
(annada, Vannada, sukhada), and thus pleads the Buddha. From the first century A.D.
for their protection. This teaching came onwards the panel images of Gautama
significantly at a time when the non-Aryans Buddha began to be made. The Greek and
slaughtered animals for food, and the Aryans the Indian sculptors worked together to
in tghe name of religion. create a new kind of art on the north-west
Buddhism created and developed a new frontier of India, which is known as the
awareness in the field of intellect and culture. Gandhara art. For the residence of the monks
They enormously enriched Pali by their rooms were hewn out of the rocks, and thus
writings. The early Pali literature can be began the cave archtecture in the Barabar hills
divided into three categories. The first in Gaya and in western India acround Nasik.
contains the sayings and teachings of the Buddhist art flourished in the Krishna delta
in the south and in Mathura in the north.
The Later Vedic Phase
3 19
which they had attained in the later Veidc 544 B.C. to 492 B.C. He was succeeded by
period. his son Ajatashatru (492-460 B.C.). Ajatashatru
In central Malwa and the adjoining parts killed his father and seized the throne for
of Madhya Pradesh lay the state of the himself. Throughout his reign he pursued an
Avantis. It was divided into two parts. The aggressive policy of expansion. This
northern part had its capital at Uggain, and provoked against him a combination of Kashi
the southern part at Mahishamati. and Koshala. There began a prolonged
Rise and Growth of the Magadha Empire conflict between Magadha and Koshala.
Ultimately Ajatashatru got the best of the
Magadha came into prominence under
war, and the Koshalan king was compelled
the leadership of Bimbisara, who belonged
to purchase peace by giving his daughter in
to the Haryanka dynasty. He was a
marriage to Ajatashatru and leaving him in
contemporary of the Buddha. He started the
sole possession of Kashi.
policy of conquest and aggression which
ended with the Kalinga war of Ashoka. Although his mother was a Lichchhavi
Bimbisara acquired Anga and placed it under princess, this did not prevent him from
the viceroyaity of his son Ajatashatru at making war against Vaishli. He created
Champa. He also strengthened his position dissensions in the ranks of the Lichchhavis
by marriage alliances. He took three wives. and finally destroyed their independence by
His first wife was the daughter of the king invading their territory and by defeating
of Koshala and the sister of Parsenajit. His them in battle. It took him full 16 years to
second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi destroy Vaishali. Eventually he succeeded in
princess from Vaishali who gave birth to doing so because of a war engine which was
Ajatashatru and his third wife was the used to throw stones like catapults. He also
daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of possessed a chariot to which a mace was
Punjab. attahced, and it facilitated mass killings. The
Magadhan empire was thus enlarged with the
Magadhas most serious rival was
addition of Kashi and Vaishali.
Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. Its king
Chanda Pradyota Mahasena fought Ajatashatru faced a stronger rival in the
Bimbisara, but ultimately the two thought it ruler of Avanti. Avanti had defeated the
wise to become friends. Later when Pradyota Vatsas of Kaushambi and now threatened an
was attacked by jaundice, at the Avanti kings invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger
request Bimbisara sent the royal physician Ajatashatru began the fortification of Rajgir.
Jivaka to Ujjain. The remins of the walls can be still seen.
However, trie invasion did not materialize
The earliest capital of Magadha was at
in his lifetime.
Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time.
If was surrounded by five hills, the openings Ajatashatru was succeeded by Udayin
in which were closed by stone-walls on all (460-444 B.C.) His reign is important because
sides. This made Rajgir impregnable. he built the fort upon the confluence of the
According to the Buddhist chronicles, Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done
Bimbisara ruled for 52 years. roughly from because Patna lay in the centre of the
Territorial States and the First Magadhan Empire 21
Magadhan kingdom, which now extended speaks of the existence of a kshatriya clan
from the Himalayas in the north to the hills called Mauryas living in the region of
of Chotanagpur in the south. Gorakhpur adjoining the Nepalese terai. In
Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty all likelihood, Chandragupta was a member
of Shishunagas, who temporarily shifted the of this clan. He took advantage of the
capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement growing weakness and unpopularity of the
was the destruction of the power of Avanti Nandas in the last days of their rule. With
with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an the help of Chanakya, who is known as
end the 100 year old rivalry between Kautilya, he overthrew the Nandas and
Magadha and Avanti. From now onwards established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.
Avanti became a part of the Magadhan empire The machinations of Chanakya against
and continued to be so till the end of the Chandraguptas enemies are described in
Maurya rule. detail in the Mudrarakshasa, a drama written
The Shishunagas were succeeded by the by Vishakhadatta in the ninth century. Several
Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful plays have been based on it in modern times.
rulers of Magadha. So great was their power Justin, a Greek writer, says that
that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that Chandragupta overran the whole of India
time, did not dare to move towards the east. with an army of 600,000. But Chandragupta
The nandas added to the Magadhan power liberated north-western India from the
by conquering Kalinga from where they thraldom of Selucus, Chandragupta thus built
brought an image of the Jina as a victory up a vast empire which included not only
trophy. All this took place in the reign of Bihar and good portions of Orissa and Bengal
Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to be ekarat, but also western and northwestern India, and
the sole sovereign who destroyed all the the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil nadu and
other ruling princes. It seems that he acquired parts of north-easrtern India the Mauryas
not only Kalinga but also Koshala which had ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In
probably rebelled against him. the north-west they held sway over certain
The later Nandas turned out to be weak areas which were not included even in the
and unpopular. Their rule in Magadha was British empire.
supplanted by that of the Maurya dynasty Imperial Organization
under which the Magadhan empire reached The Mauryas organized a very elaborate
the apex of glory. system of administration. We know about it
THE AGE OF THE MAURYAS from the account of Megasthenes and the
Chandragupta Maurya Arthashastra of Kautilya. Megasthenes was
a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the
THE MAURYA dynasty was founded by
court of Chandragupta Maurya. He lived in
Chandragupta Maurya, who seems to have
the Maurya capital of Pataliputra and wrote
belonged to some ordinary family. According
an account not only of the administration of
to the brahmanical tradition he was born of
the city of Pataliputra but also of the Maurya
Mura, a shudra woman in the court of the
empire as a whole. The account of
Nandas. But an earlier Buddhist tradition
22 Gist of NCERT (History)
and domestic polices, and the extent of his appointed a class of officers known as the
empire. rajukas, who were vested with the authority
Impact of the Kalinga War of not only rewarding people but also
The ideology of Buddhism guided punishing them, wherever necessary.
Ashokas state policy at home and abroad. Internal Policy and Buddhism
After his accession to the throne, Ashoka Ashoka was converted to Buddhism as
fought only one major war called the Kalinga a result of the Kalinga war. According to
War. According to him, 100,000 people were tradition hs became a monk, made huge gifts
killed in this war, several lakhs perished, and to the Buddhists and undertook pilgrimages
150,000 were taken prisoners. At any rate it to the Buddhist shrines. The fact of his visiting
seems that the king war moved by the the Buddhist shrines is also suggested by the
massacre in this war. So he abandoned the dhamma yatras mentioned in his inscriptions.
policyof physical occupation in favour of According to tradition the Buddhist council
policy of cultural conquest. In other words, (Sangiti) was held by Ashoka and missionaries
bherighosha was replaced with dhamma- were sent not only to south India but also to
ghosha. We quote below the worlds of Sri Lanka, Burma and other countries to
Ashoka from his Thirteenth Major Rock covert the people there. Brahmi inscriptions
Edict: of the second and first centuries B.C. have
Ashoka no longer treated foreign been found Sri Lanka.
dominions as legitimate areas for military Ashoka set a very high ideal for himself,
conquest. He tried to conquer them and this was the ideal of paternal kingship.
ideologically. He took steps for the welfare He repeatedly asked his officials to tell the
of men and animals in foreigh lands, which subjects that the king looked upon them as
was a new thing considering the condition his children. As agents of the king, the official
of those days. He sent ambassadors of peace were also asked to take care of the people.
to the Greek kingdoms in West Asia and Ashoka appointed Dhammama-hamatras for
Greece. He sent mission-aries for the propagating dharma among various social
propagation of Buddhism to Sri Lanka and groups including women. He also appointed
Central Asia. As an enlightened ruler Ashoka rajukas for the administration of justice in his
tiled to enlarge his area of political influence empire.
through propaganda. He disapporved of rituals, especially
It would be wrong to think that the those observed by women. He forbade
Kalinga war made Ashoka an extreme killing certain birds and animals, and
pacifist. On the other hand he adopted a completely prohibited the slaughter of
practical policy of consolidating his empire. animals in the capital. He interdicted gay
He retained Kalinga after its conquest and social functions in which people indulged in
incorporated it into his empire. There is also revelries.
nothing to show that he disbanded the huge Ashokas Place in History
army maintained from the time of It is said that the pacific policy of
Chandragupta Maurya. Within the empire he
Ashoka rained the Maury a empire, but this
24 Gist of NCERT (History)
is not true. On the country Ashoka has a independent in their respective areas after
number of achievements to his credit. He was the retrirement of the king in 232 B.C.
certainly a great missionary ruler in the Similarly, the policy could not convert his
history of the ancient world. He worked neighbours, who swooped on the north-
with great zeal and devotion to his mission western frontier of his empire within 30 years
and achieved a lot, both at home and abroad. of Ashokas exit from power in 232 B.C.
Ashoka brought about the political THE RISE AND GROWTH OF
unification of the country. He bound it further THE GUPTA EMPIRE
by one dharma, one language and practically Background
one script called Brahmi which was used in
AFTER THE break-up of the Maurya
most of his inscriptions. In unifying the
empire, the Satavahanas and the Kushans
country he respected such scripts as Brashmi,
emerged as two large political powers. The
Kharoshthi, Aramaci and Greek. Evidently
Satavahanas acted as a stablizing factor in the
he also accommodated such languages as
Deccan and south to which they gave political
Greek, Prakrit and Sanskrit and various
unity and economic prosperity on the
religious sects. Ashoka follwed a tolerant
strength of their trade with the Roman
religious policy. He did not try to foist his
empire. The Kushans performed the same role
buddhist faith on his subjects. On the other
in the north. Both these empires came to an
hand he made gifts to non-Buddhist and even
end in the middle of the third, century A.D.
anti-Buddhist sects. Ashoka was fired with
zeal for missionary activities. He deputed On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose
officials in the far-flung parts of the empire. a new empire, whiclvestablished its sway
This helped the cause of ad-ministration and over a good part of the former dominious of
also promoted cultural contacts between the both the Kushans and Satavahanas. This was
developed Gangetic basin and the backward the empire of the Guptas, who may have been
distant provinces. The material culture, of vaishya origin. Although the Gupta empire
typical of the heart of the empire, spread to was not as large as the Maurya empire, it kept
Kalinga and the lower Deccan and norther north India politically united for more than
Bengal. Above all ashoka is important in a century from A.D. 335 to 455. The original
history for his policy of peace, non- kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar
aggression and cultural conquest. He had no Pradesh and Bihar at the end of the third
model in early Indian history for pursuing century A.D. Uttar Pradesh seems to have
such a policy; nor did such an example exist been a more important province for the
in any country except Egypt where Akhnaton Guptas than Bihar, because early Gupta coins
had pursued a pacific policy in the fourteenth and inscriptions have been mainly found in
century B.C. But it is obvious that Ashoka that state. If we leave out some feudatories
was not aware for his Egyptian predecessor. and private individuals, whose inscriptions
have been mostly found in Madhya Pradesh,
However, Ashokas policy did not make
Uttar Pradesh will stand out as the most
any lasting impression on his viceroys and
important area in respect of the finds of the
vassals, who declared themselves
Gupta antiquitiews. Hence Uttar Pradesh
Territorial States and the First Magadhan Empire 25
seems to have been the place from where the end around A.D. 230 and then a good part of
Guptas operated and fanned out in different central India fell under the rule of the
directions. Probably with their centre of Murundas, who were possibly the kinsmen
power at Prayag they spread in the of the Kushans. The Murundas continued to
neighbouring regions. rule till A.D. 250. Twenty-five years later, in
The Guptas were possibly the about A.D. 275, they dynasty of the Gupta
feudatories of the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh came to power.
and seems to have succeeded them without Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-334)
any wide time-lag. At many places in Uttar The first important king of the Gupta
Pradesh and Bihar the Kushan antiquities are dynasty was Chandragupta I. He married a
immediately followed by the Gupta Lichchhavi princess most probably from Ne-
antiquities. It is likely that the Guptas learnt pal, which strengthened his position. The
the use of saddle, reins, but-toned-coats, Guptas were possibly vaishyas, and hence
trousers and boots from the Kushans. All marriage in a kshtriya family gave them pres-
these gave them mobility and made them tige. Chandragupta I seems to have been a
excellent horsemen. In the Kushan scheme of ruler of considerable importance because he
things, horse-chariots and elephants had started the Gupta era in A.D. 319-20, which
ceased to be important. Horsemen played the marked the date of his accession. Later many
main part. This also seems to have been the inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta
case with the Gupta on whose coins horsemen era.
are represented. Although some Gupta kings Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380)
are described as excellent and unrivailed
The Gupta kingdom was enlarged
chariot warriors, their basic strength lay in
enormously by Chandragupta Is son and
the use of horses.
successor Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380). He
The Guptas enjoyed certain material was the opposite of Ashoka. Ashoka believed
advantages. The centre of their operations in a policy of peace and son-aggression, but
lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesha Samudragupta delighted in violence and
covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They could conquest. His court poet Harishena wrote a
exploit the iron ores of central India and glowing account of the military exploits of
south Bihar. Further, they took advantage of his patron. In a long inscription the poet
their proximity to the areas in north India enumerates the peoples and countries that
which carried on silk trade with the Eastern were conquered by Samudragupta. The
Roman empire, also known as the Byzantine inscription is engraved at Allahabad on the
empire. On account of these favourable same pillar which carries the inscriptions of
factors the Guptas set up their rule over the peace-loving Ashoka. The places and the
Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), countries conquered by Samudragupta can be
Prayag (modern Allahabad), Saketa (modern divided into five groups. Group one includes
Ayodhya) and Magadha. In course of time princes of the Ganga-Yamuna doab who
this kingdom became an all-India empire. were defeated and whose kingdoms were
The Kushan power in north India came to an incorporated into the Gupta empire. Group
26 Gist of NCERT (History)
Central Asia in the second half of the fifth Alongside them the Maukharis rose to power
century A.D. Although in the be-ginning the in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and had their
Gupta king Skandragupta tried effectively to capital at Kanauj. It seems that by 550 Bihar
stem the march of the Hunas into India, his and Uttar Pradesh had passed out of Gupta
successors proved to be weak and could not hands. By the beginning of the sixth century
cope with the Huna invaders, who excelled we find independent princes issuing land
in horsemanship and possibly used strrups grants in their own rights in northern Madhya
made of metal. They could move quickly and Pradesh, although they use the Gupta era in
being excellent archiers they seem to have dating their charaters. The rulers of Valabhi
attained considerable successor not only in established their authority in Gujarat and
Iran but also in India. western Malwa. After the reign of
By 485 the Hunas occupied eastern Skandagupta, i.e. A.D. 467, hardly any Gupta
Malwa and a good portion of central India coin or inscription has been found in western
where their inscriptions have been found. The Malwa and Saurashtra.
inter-mediate regions such as Punjab and The Gupta state may have found it
Rajasthan also passed under their possession. difficulut to maintain a large professional
This must have drastically reduced the extent army on account of the growing practice of
of the Gupta empire at the beginning of the land grants for religious and other purposes,
sixth century. Although the Huna power was which was bound to reduce their revenues.
soon overthrown by Yashodharaman of Their income may have further been affected
Malwa who belonged to the Aulikara by the decline of foreign trade. The
feaudatory family, the Malwas prince migration of a guild of silk-weavers from
successfully chanllenged the authority of the Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473 and their
Gupta snd set up in 532, pillars of victory adoption of nonproductive professions show
commemorating his conquest of almost the that there was not much demand for cloth
whole of northern India, Yashodharmans produced by them. The advantages from
rule was shortlived, but it meant a severe Gujarat trade gradually disappeared. After
blow to the Gupta empire. the middle of the fifth century the Gupta
The Gupta empire was further kings made desperate attempts to maintain
undermined by the rise of the feudatories. their gold currency by reducing the content
The governors appointed by the Gupta kings of pure gold in it. But this proved of no avail.
in north. Bengal and their feudatories in Although the rule of the Imperial Guptas
Samatata or south-east Bengal tended to lingered till the middle of the sixth century
become independent. The late Guptas of A.D., the imperial glory had vanished a
Magadha established their power in Bihar.. century earlier.
28
4 Gist of NCERT (History)
lenged the authority of Delhi. At about the out at Lahore and sirhind. She personnaly
same time, Iltutmish took step s to recover led an expedition against Lahore, and com-
Gwalior and Bayana. Ajmer and Negor re- pelled the governor to Submit. On the way
mained under his control. He sent expedi- to Sirhind, internal rebellion broke out in
tions against Ranthambhor and Jalor to reas- which Yaqut Khan was killed, an Raziya im-
sert his suzerainty. He also attacked Nagda, prisoned at Tabarhinda (Bhatinda). However,
the capitals of Mewar (about 22 Km from Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and af-
Udaipur), but had to beat a retreat at the ar- ter marrying him made a renewed attempt
rival of the Gujarat armies, which had come on Delhi. Raziya fought valiantly, but was
to aid the Rana. As a revenge, Iltutmish dis- defeated and killed in fight by bandits.
patched an expedition against the Chalukyas Era of Balban (1246-87)
of Gujarat, but it was repulsed with Losses.
The struggle between the monarchy and
Raziya (1236-39) the Turkish chiefs continued, till one of the
After anxious consideration, Iltutmish Turkish chiefs, Ulugh Khan, Known in his-
finally decided to nominate his daughter, tory by his later title of Balban, gradually
Raziya, to the throne, and induced the nobles arrogated all power to himself, and finally
and the theologians (Ulama) to agree to the ascended the throne in 1265 during the ear-
nomnation the nomination of a woman in lier period, Balban held the positon of Naib
preference to sons was a novel step. In order or deputy of Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger
to asset brothers as well as against powerful son of Iltutmish, whom Balban had helped
Turkish nobles, and could rule only for three in securing the throne in 1246. Balban fur-
years. Though brief, her rule had a number ther strengthened his positon by marrying
of interesting features. it marked the monar- one of his daughters to the young sultan. The
chy and the Turkish chiefs, sometimes called growing authority of Balban alienated many
the forty or the Chahalgani. Iltutmish had of the Turkish chiefs who had hoped to con-
shown great deference to these Turkish tinue their former power and influence in the
chiefs. After his death, these chiefs, drunk affairs of government, since Nasiruddin
with power and arrogance, wanted to install Mahmud was young and inexperienced.
on the throne a puppet whom they could con- They, therefore, hatched a conspiracy (1250)
trol. They soon discovered that though a and outsted Balban from his position. Balban
woman, Raziya was not prepared to play their was replaced by Imadduddin Raihan who
game. She discarded the female apparel and was an Indian Muslim. Balban agreed to step
started holding court with her face unveiled. aside, but carefully continued to build his own
She even hunted, and led army in war. The group. Within one and a half years of his dis-
Wazir, Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi, who had op- missal, he managed to win over some of his
posed her elevation to the throne, and backed opponents. Sultan Mahmud bowed to the
to supported a rebellion of nobles against superior strength of Balbans group and dis-
her, was defeated successfully established missed Raihan. After some time, Raihan was
law and order in the length and breath of defeated and killed. Balban got rid of many
her Kingdom. But the attempt to create a of his other rivals by fair or foul means. He
party of noble, Yaqut Khan. Rebellions broke even went so far as to assume the royal in-
30 Gist of NCERT (History)
signia, the Chhatr. But he did not assume the THE DELHI SULTANATE-II
throne himself, probably due to the senti- (Circa 1200-1400)
ments of the Turkish, chiefs. In 1265, Sultan
AFTER THE death of Balban in 1286,
Mahmud died. Some historians are of the
there was again confusion in Delhi for some
opinion that Balban poisoned the young king,
time. Balbans chosen successor. Prince
and also did away to the throne.
Muhammad, had died earlier in a battle with
While Claiming to act as a champion of
the Mongols. A second son, Bughra Khan,
the Turkish nobility, Balban was not prepared
preferred to rule over Bengal and Bihar
to share power with anyone, not even with
members of his own family. His desporters. although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi
Balban was determined to finally break the to assume the throne. Hence, a grandson of
power of the Chahalgani, i.e., the Turkish Balban was installed in Delhi. But he was too
nobles, and to exalt the power and prestige young and inexperienced to cope with the
of the monarchy. He did not hesitate even to situated.
poison his cousin, Sher Khan, to achieve this The Khaljis (1290-1320)
objective. For these reasons, a group of Khalji
At the same time, in order to win the nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had been
confidence of the public, he administered the warden of the marchese in the north-west
highest in the land were to be spared if they and had fought many successful engagements
transgressed his authority. To keep himself against the Mongols, overthrew the incom-
well informed, Balban appointed strong cen- petent successful engagements against the
tralized army, both to dela with internal Mongols, overthrew the incompetent succes-
enterenched themselves in the Punjab and sors of Balban in 1290. The Khalji rebellion
posed a serious danger to the Delhi Sultanat. was welcomed by the non-Turkish sections
For the purpose, he reorganized them mili- in the nobility. Jalaluddin Khalji ruled only
tary department (Diwan-I-arz), and pen- for a brief peiod of six years. He tried to
sioned off those soldiers and troopers who mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Baibans
were no longer fit for service. Since many of rule. He was the first ruler of the Delhi
the troopers were Turks who had come to Sultanat to clearly put forward the view that
India in the time of Iltutmish, they raised a the state should be based on the willing sup-
hue and cry against this decision, but Balban port of the governed, and that since the large
was not moved. The law and order situation majority of the people in India were Hindus,
in the area around Delhi and in the doab had the state in India could not be truly Islamic
deteriorated. In the Ganga-Jamuna doab and state. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) came to the
Awadh, roads were, poor and were infested throne by treacherously muraenng his uncle
with robbers and Dacoits, The Mewatis had and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji. As the
become so bold as to plunder people upto governor of Awadh, Alauddin had accumu-
the outskirts of Delhi. To deal with these el- lated a vast treasure by invading Deogir in
ements, Balban adopted a policy of Blood the Deccan. Alauddin framed a series of regu-
and Iron. Robbers were mercilessy pursued lations to prevent the nobles from conspir-
and put to Death. ing against him. They were forbidden to hold
The Delhi Sultanate 31
territories. There is a popular legend that gujarat. One of his daughters was married
Alauddin attached Chittor because he cov- to Alauddin. The Alliance with Rai
eted Padmini, the beautiful queen of Ratan Ramachandra was to prove to be of great
Singh. However, many modern historians do value to Alauddin in his further aggrandise-
not accept this legnd because its mentioned ment in the Deccan.
for the first time more than a hundred years Between 1309 and 1311, Malik Kafur led
later. In this story, Padmini is the princess of two campaigns in south India - the firstagainst
Singhal dvipa and Ratan Singh crosses the Warangal in the Telegana area and the other
seven seas to reach her and brings her back against Dwar Samudra and Mabar (modern
to Chittor after many adventures which ap- Karnataka) and Madurai (Tamil Nadu). The
pear improbable. The Padmini legend is a part court poet, Amir Khusrau made them the
of this account. subject of a book. For the first time, Muslim
Alauddin closely invested Chittor Af- armies penetrated as far south as Madurai,
ter a resistance by Mewar besieged for sev- and brought back untold wealth. The trade
eral months Alauddin stormed the fort routes to south India were well known and
(1303). The Rajputs performed jauhar and when Kafurs armies reached Paintan in
most of the warriors died fighting. Alauddin Mabar, they found a colony of Muslim mer-
also overran Jalor which lay on the route to chants settled there. The ruler even had a
Gujarat. contingent of Muslim tropps in his army.
Deccan and South India These expeditions greatly raised Kafur in
public estimation and Alauddin appointed
In 1306-7, Alauddin planned two cam-
him malik-naib or vice-gegent of the empire.
paigns. The first was against Rai Karan who
Following the accession of Ghiyasuddin
after his expulsion from Gujarat, had been
Tughlaq in 1320, a sustained and vigorous
holding Baglana on the border of Malwa. Rai
forward policy was embarked upon. After
Karan fought bravely, but he could not resist
reorganizing his armies, the attacked again
for long. The second expedition was aimed
and this time no quarter was given to the
against Rai Ramachandra, the ruler of Deogir,
Rai. This was followed by the conquest of
who had been in alliance with Rai Karan. In
Mabar which was also annexed. Muhammad
an earlier campaign, Rai Ramchandra had
bin Tughlaq them raided Orissa, and returned
agreed to pay an yearly tribute to Delhi. This
to Delhi with rich plunder. Next year, he sub-
had failled into arrers. The command of the
dued Bengal which had been independent
second army was entrusted to Alauddins
since the death of Balban. Thus, by 1324, the
slave, Malik Kafur. Rai Ramchandra who sur-
territories of the Delhi Sultanat reached up
rendered to Kafur, was honourably treated
to Madurai. The last Hindu principality in the
and carried to Delhi where, after some time,
area, Kampili in South Karnataka, was an-
he was restored to his dominaions with the
nexed in 1328. A cousin of Muhammad bin
title of Rai Rayan. A gidt of one lakh tonkas
Tughlaq, who had rebelled, had been given
was given to him along with a gloden col-
shelter there, thous providing a convenient
oured canopy which was a symbol of
excus for attacking it.
rulership. he was also given a district of
The Delhi Sultanate
5 33
ARCHITECTURE
One of the first requirements of the new tar in their buildings. Thus, new architectural
rulers was houses to live in, and places of forms and mortar of a superior kind became
worship. They at first converted temples and widespread in north India, with the arrival
other existing buildings into mosques. Exam- of the Turks.
ples of this are the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque The arch and the dome were known to
near the Quatab Minar in Delhi and the build- the Indians earlier, but they were not used
ing at Ajmer called Arhai Din ka Jhonpra. The on a large scale. The Turkish rulers used both
only new construction in Delhi was a facade the dome and arch method as well as the slab
of three elaborately carved arches in front and beam method as well as slab and beam
of the deity room (garbha griha) which was method in their buildings. In the sphere of
demolished. In their buildings, the Turks decoration, the Turks eschewed representa-
used the arch and the dome on a wide scale. tion of human and animal figures in the build-
Neither the arch nor the dome was a Turk- ings. Instead, they used geometrical and flo-
ish or Muslim invention. The Arabs borrowed ral designs, combining them with panels of
them from Rome through the Byzantine em- inscriptions containing verses from the
pire, developed them and made them their Quran. Thus, the Arabic script itself became
own. a work of a art. The combination of these
The use of the arch and the dome had a decorative devices was called Arabesque.
number of advantages. The dome rose They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such
higher. Many experiments were made in as the bell motif, the bel motif, swastika, lo-
putting a round dome on a square building tus, etc.
and in raising the dome higher and higher. The most magnificent building con-
In this way, many lofty and impressive build- structed by the Turks in the thirteenth cen-
ing were constructed. The arch and the dome tury was the Qutab Minar. This tapering
dispensed with the need for a large number tower, originally 71.4 metre high, build by
of pillars to support the roof and enabled the Iltutmish, was dedicated to the Sufi saint,
construction of large halls with a clear view. Qutab-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki, who was
Such places of assembly were useful in greatly venerated by all the people of Delhi.
mosques as well as in palaces. Howeever, the Although traditions of building towers are
arch and the dome needed a strong cement, to be found both in India and West Asia, the
otherwise the stones could not be held in Qutab Minar is unique in many ways.
place. The Turks used fine quality light mor- The Khalji period saw a lot of building
34 Gist of NCERT (History)
activity. Alauddin built his capital at Siri, a chitecture was the deliberate attempt to com-
few kilometres away from the site around bine the principles of the arch, and the lintel
the Qutab. But he added an entrance door to and beam in their buildings. This is found in
the Qutab This door, which is called the Alai a marked manner in the buildings of Firoz
Darwaza, has arches of very pleasing Tughlaq. In the Hauz Khas, which was a pleas-
proportions. It also contains a dome which, ure resort and had a huge lake around it, al-
for the first time was built on correct scientific ternate stories have arches, and the lintel and
lines. Thus, the art of building the arch and beam. The same is and had a huge lake
the dome on scientific lines had been around it, alternate stories have arches, the
mastered by the Indian craftsmen by this lintel and beam. The same is to be found in
time. Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq some buildings of Firuz Shahs new fort
built the huge place-fortress complex called which is now called the Kotla. The Tughlaqs
Tughlaqabad. By blocking the passage of the did not generally use the costly red sand-
Jamuna, a huge artificial lake was created stone in their buildings but the cheaper and
around it. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin marks a more easily available greystone. Another de-
new trend in architecture. To have a good vice used by the Lodis was placing their
skyline, the building was put upon a high buildings, especially tombs, on a high plat-
platform. Its beauty was heightened by a form, thus giving the Building a feeling of
marble dome. size as well as a better skyline. Some of the
tombs were placed in the midst of gardens.
A striking feature of the Tughlaq archi-
The Lodi Garden in Delhi is a fine example
tecture was the sloping, walls. This is called
of this. Some of the tombs were of an oc-
better and gives the effect of strength and
tagonal shap[e. Many of these features were
solidity to the building. However, we do not
adopted by the Mughlas later on and then
find any batter in the buildings of Firoz
culmination is to be found in the Taj Mahal
Tughlaq. A second feature of the Tughlaq ar-
built by Shah Jahan.
Architecture
6 35
The Sufi Movement penanee, fasting and holding the breath are
Mystics, who are called Sufis, had risen sometimws traced to the, Buddhist and
in Islam at a very early stage these saints Hindu yogic influence. Buddhism was widely
wanted to have nothing to do with the state prevalent in Central Asia before the advent
- a tradition which continued later on. Some of Islam, and the legend of the Buddha as a
of the early Sufis, such as the woman mystic saintly man had passed into the Islamic leg-
Rabia and Mansur bin Hallj laid great em- end. Yogis continued to visit West Asia even
phasis on love as the bond between God and after the advent of Islam and the yogic book,
the individual soul. But their pantheistic ap- Amrit-kund, had been translated into Per-
proach led them into conflict with the ortho- sian from Sanskrit.
dox elements who had Mansur executed for The Sufi orders are broadly divided into
heresy Despite this setback, mystic ideas con- two: Ba-shara, that is, those which followed
tinued to spread among the Muslim masses. the Islamic Law (shara) and be-shara, that is,
Al-Ghazzaili (1112), who is venerated those which were not bound by it Both types
both by the orthodox elements and the Sufis, of orders prevailed in India, the latter being
tried to reconcile mysticism with Islamic or- followed more by wandering saints. Although
thodoxy. This he was able to do in a large these saints did not establish an order, some
measure. He gave a further blow to the ra- of them became figures of popular venera-
tionalist philosophy by arguing that positive tion, often for the Muslims and Hindus alike.
knowledge of God and his qualities cannot The Chishti and Suharwardi Silsilahs
be gained by reason, but only by revelation. Of the bashara movements, only two
Thus, the revealed book, Quaran, was vital acquired significant influence and following
for a mystic. Around this time, the Sufis were in north India during the thirteenth and four-
organised in 12 orders or silsilahs. The teenth centuries. These were the Chisti and
silsilahs were generally led by a prominent Suharwardi silsilahs. The Chisti order was
mystic who lived in a khanqah or hospice established in India by Khwaja Muinuddin
along with his disciples. The like between the Chishti who came to India around 1192,
teacher or pir and his disciples or mufids was shortly after the defeat and death of Prithvi
a vital part of the Sufi system. Every pir Raj Chauhan. After staying for some time in
nominated a successor or wali to carry on Lahore and Delhi he finally shfted to Ajmer
his work. The monastic organisation of the which was an important political centre and
Sufis, and some of their practices such as already had a sizable Muslim population.
36 Gist of NCERT (History)
Among the disciples of Shaikh Muinuddin the seventh and the twelfth century. As has
were Bakhtiyar Kaki and his disciple Farid- been noticed earlier, the Shaiva nayanars and
ud-Din Ganj-j-Shakar. Farid-ud-Din confined the Vaishnavite alvarsh disregarded the
his activities to Hansi and Ajodhan (in mod- austerities preached by the Jains and the
ern Haryana and the Punjab, respectively). Buddhists and preached personal devotion
He was deeply respected in Delhi, so much to God as a means of salvation. They
so that streams of people would throng disregarded the rigidities of the caste system
around him whenever he visited Delhi. His and carried their message of love and
outlook was so broad and humane that some personal devotion to God to various parts of
of his verses are later found quoted in the south India by using the local languages.
Adi-Granth of the Sikhs. Although these were many points of contact
The most famous of the Chisti saints, between south and north India, the
however, were Nizamuddin Auliya and transmission of the ideas of the Bhakti saints
Nasiruddin Charigh-i-Delhi. These early Sufis from south to north India was a slow and
mingled frely with people of the lower classes, long drawn-out process. The ideas of Bhakti
including the Hindus. They led an austere, were carried to the north by scholars as well
simple life, and conversed with people in as by saints. Among these, mention may be
their dialect, Hindawi or Hindi. Nizamuddin made of the Maharashtrian saint, Namadeva,
Auliya adopted yogic breathing exercises, so who flourished in the first part of the
much so that the yogis called him a sidh or fourteenth century, and Ramananda who is
perfect. After the death of Nasiruddin placed in the second half of the fourteenth
Chiragh-i-Delhi in the middle of the four- and the first quarter of the fifteenth century.
teenth century, the Chishtis did not have a
Namadeva was a tailor who had taken
commanding figure in Delhi.
to banditry before he became a saint. His
The Suharwardi order entered India at
poetry which was written in Marathi
about the same time, as the Chistis, but its
breathes a spirit of intense love and devotion
activities were confined largely to the Pun-
to God. Namadeva is said to have travelled
jab and and Multan. The most well-known
far and wide and engaged in discussions with
saints of the order were Shaikh Shihabuddin
the Sufi saints in Delhi. Ramanda, who was a
Suharwardi and Hamid-ud-Din Nagore.
follower of Ramanuja, was born at Prayag
Unlike the Chistis, the Suharwardi saints did
not believe in leading a life of poverty. They (Allahabad) and lived there and at Banaras.
accepted the service of the state, and some He substituted the worship of Rama in place
of them-held important posts in the ecclesi- of Vishnu. He enrolled disciples from all
astical department. The Chistis, on the other castes, including the low castes. Thus his
hand, preferred to keep aloof from state poli- disciples included Ravidas, who was a
tics and shunned the company of rulers and cobbler by caste; Kabir, who was a weaver;
nobles. Sena, who was a barber; and Sadhana, who
The Bhakti Movement
was a butcher. Namadeva was equally broad-
minded in enrolling his disciples. The seeds
However, the real development of scattered by these saints fell on fertile soil.
Bhakti took place in south Indian between The brahmanas had lost both in prestige and
Literature Literature 37
power following the defeat of the Rajput ings, whether on the basis of castes or reli-
rulers and the establishment of the Turkish gion, race, family or wealth.
Sultanat. As a result, movements, such as the Guru Nanak, from whose teachings the
Nath Panthi movement challenging the caste sikh religion was derived, was born in a
system and the superiority of the brahmanas, Khatri household in the village of Talwandi
had gained great popularity. (now called Nankana) on the bank of the
These concided with the Islamic ideas river Ravi in 1469. Sometime later, he had a
of equality and brotherhood which had been mystic vision and forsook the world. He com-
preached by the Sufi saints. People were no posed hymns and sang them to the accompa-
longer satisfied with the old religion; they niment of the rabab, a stringed instrument
wanted a religion which could satisfy both played by his faithful attendant, Mardana. It
their reason and emotions. It was due to is said that Nanak undertook wide tours all
these factors that the Bhakti movement be- over India and even beyond it, to Sri Lanka
came a popular movement in north India in the south and Mecca and Medina in the
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. west. He attracted a large number of people
Among those who were most critical of towards him and his name and fame spread
the existing social order and made a strong far and wide before his death in 1538. Like
plea for Hindu-Muslim unity, the names of Kabir, Nanak laid emphasis on the one God,
Kabir and Nanak stand out. These is a good by repeating whose name and dwelling on it
deal of undertainty about the dates and early with love and devotion one could get salva-
life of Kabir. Legend has it that he was the tion without distinction of caste, creed or
son of a brahmana widow who abandoned sect. However, Nanak laid great emphasis on
him after his birth and that he was brought the purity on character and conduct as the
up in the house of a Muslim weaver. first condition of approaching God, and the
He learned the profession of his need of a guru for guidance. Like Kabir, he
adopted father, but while living at Kashi, he strongly denounced idol worship, pilgrim-
came in contact with both the Hindu and ages and other formal observances of the
Muslim saints. Kabir, who is generally placed various faiths. He advocated a middle path
in the fifteenth century, emphasised the unity in which spritual life could be combned with
of God whom he calls by several names, such the duties of the householder.
as Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Sain, Sahib, Nanak had no intention of founding a
etc. He strongly denounced idol-worship, pil- new religion. His catholic approach aimed at
grimages, bathing in holy rivers or taking bridging distinctions between the Hindus and
part in formal worship, such as namaz. Nor the Muslims, in order to create an atmosphere
did he consider it necessary to abandon the of peace, goodwill and mutual give and take.
life of a normal householder for the sake of a This was also the aim of Kabir.
saintly life Kabirstrongly denounced the The Vaishnavite Movement
caste system, especially the practice of Apart from the non-sectarian movement
untouchability, and emphasized the funda- led by Kabir and Nanak, the Bhakti
mental unity of man. He was opposed to all movement in north India developed around
kinds of discrimination between human be- the worship of Rama and Krishna, two of the
38 Gist of NCERT (History)
incarnations of the god Vishnu. The Bengal and Orissa reached extraordinary
childhood escapades of the boy Krishna and heights of Iyrical fervour and of love which
his dalliance with the milk-maids of Gokul, transcended all boundaries, including those
especially with Radha, became the themes of of caste and creed. this is seen most clearly
a remarkable series of saint-poets who lived in the life of Chaitanya. Born and schooled
and preached during the 15th and early 16th in Nadia which was the centre of Vedantic
centuries. They used the love between Radha rationalism, Chaitanyas tenor of life was
and Krishna in an allegoric manner to depict changed when he visited Gaya at the age of
the relationship of love, in its aspects of the 22 and was initiated into the Krishna cult by
individual soul with the supreme soul. Like a recluse. He became a god-intoxicated devo-
the early Sufis, Chaitanya popularisied tee who incessantly uttered the name of
musical gathering or kirtan as a special form Krishna Chaitanya is said to have travelled
of mystic experience in which the outside all over India, including Vrindavan, when he
world disppeared by dwelling on Gods revived the Krishna cult. But the one who
name. probably influenced the saint poets most was
Vallabha, a Tailang brahmana, who lived in
The writings of Narrsinha Mehta in
the last part of the fifteenth and the early
Gujarat, of Meera in Rajasthan, of Surdas in
part of the sixteenth century.
western Uttar Pradesh and of Chaitanya in
Literature Literature
7 39
LITERATURE
says: I have praised India for two reasons. Persian into Turkish and into many European
First, because India is the land of tmy birth languages as Well. He also translated the old
and our country. Love of the country is an Indian treatise on sexology, the Kok Shastra,
important obligation... Hindustan is like into Persian. Later, in the time of Firuz Shah,
heaven. Its climate is better than that of Sanksrit books on medicine and music were
Khurasan... it is green and full of flowers all translated into Persian. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin
the year round... The brahmanas here are as of Kashmir had the famous historical work
learned as Aristotle and there are many schol- Rajatarangini and the Mahabharata translated
ars in various fields... into Persian. Sanskrit works on medicine and
Khusrau has praised the Indian lan- music.
guages, including Hindi (which he calls Regional Languages
Hindavi). He was also an accomplished mu- During this period, literary works of
sician and took part in religious musical gath- high quality were produced in many of the
erings (ama) organised by the famous Sufi regional languages as well. Amir Khusrau had
saint, Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrau it is said, noted the existence of regional languages and
gave up his life the day after he learnt of the remarked: The use of the common language
death of his pir. Nizamuddin Auliya (1325). by the Bhakti saints was, undoubtedly, an
He was buried in the same compound. important factor in the rise of these lan-
Apart from poetry, a strong school of guages,. In fact, in many parts of the coun-
history writing in Persian developed in In- try, these early saints fashioned these lan-
dia during the period. The most famous his- guages for literary purposes. It seems that in
torians of this period were Ziauddin Barani, many regional kingdoms of the pre-Turkish
Afif and Isami.Through the Persian language, period, regional languages, such as Tamil,
Indian was able to develop close cultural re- Kan-nada, Marathi, etc. were used for ad-
lations with Central Asia and Iran. In course ministrative purposes, in addition to San-
of time, Persian became not only the language skrit. This must have been continued under
of administration and diplomacy, but also the the Turkish rule, for we hear of Hindi know-
language of the upper classes and their ing revenue accountants appointed in the
dependents, at first in north India and later Delhi Sultanat. Later, when, the Delhi
of the entire country with the expansion of Sultanat broke up, local languages, in addi-
the Delhi Sultanat to the south and the es- tion to Persian, continued to be used for ad-
tablishment of Muslim kingdoms in differ- ministrative purpose in many of the regional
ent parts of the country. kingdoms. Thus, literature in Telugu devel-
At first, there was little interchange be- oped in south India under the patronage of
tween the two. Zia Nakhshabi was the first the Vijayanagara rulers. Marathi was one of
to translate into Persian Sanskrit stories the administrative languages in the Bahmani
which were related by a parrot to a woman kingdom, and later, at the court of Bijapur.
whose husband had gone on a journey. The Nusrat Shah of Bengal had the Mahabharata
book Tuti Nama (Book of the Parrot), writ- and the Ramayana translated into Bengali.
ten in the time of Muhammad Tughlaq, Maladhar Basu also translated the Bhagavata
proved very popular and was translated from Gita into Bengali under his partronage.
Literature Literature
8 41
MUGHAL EMPIRE
WHEN HUMAYUN was retreating occupied the city. However, Bairam Khan
from Bikaner, he was gallantly offered shelter took energetic steps to meet the situation. His
and help by the Rana of Amarkot. It was at bold stand put new heart into battle between
Amarkot, in 1542, that Akbar, the greatest of the Mughals and the Afghan forces led by
the Mughal rulers, was born. When Humayun Hemu, took place once again at Panipat (5
died, Akbar was at Kalangaur in the Punjab, November 1556). Although Hemus artillery
commanding operations against the Afghan had been captured earlier by a Mughal
rebels there. He was crowned at Kalanaur in detachment, the tide of battle was in favour
1556 at the young age of thirteen years and of Hemu when an arrow hit him in the eye
four months. and he fainted, the leaderless Afghan army
Akbar succeeded to a difficult position. was defeated, Hemu was captured and
The Afghans were still strong beyond Agra, executed.
and were regrouping their forces under the Early Phase -
leadership of Hemu for a final showdown. Contest with the Nobility (1556-67)
Kabul had been attacked and besieged. Bairam Khan remained at the helm of
Sikandar Sur, the defeated Afghan ruler, was affairs of the empire for almost four years.
loitering in the Siwalik Hills, However, During the period, he kept the nobility fully
Bairam Khan, the turor of the prince and a under control. Meanwhile, Akbar was
loyal and favourite officer of Humayun, rose approaching the age of maturity. Bairam
to the occasion. He became the wakil of the Khan had offended many powerful persons
kingdom, with the title of Khan-i-Khanan and while he held supreme power. There was
rallied the Mughal forces. The threat from friction on small points which made Akbar
the side of Hemu was considered the most realise that he could not leave the affiars of
serious. Adil Shah had appointed him the the state in someone elses hands for any
wazir with the title of Vikramajit, and length of time.
entrusted him with the task of expelling the Akbar played his cards deftly. He left
Mughals. Hemu captured Agra, and with an Agra on the pretext of hunting, and reached
army of 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a Delhi. From Delhi he issued a farman
strong park of artillery marched upon Delhi. dismissing Bairam Khan from his office, and
In a well-contested battle, Hemu calling upon all the nobles to come and
defeated the Mughals near Delhi and submit to him personally. Once Bairam Khan
42 Gist of NCERT (History)
realised that Akbar wanted to take power in till he had rooted them out. Meanwhile, a
his own hands, he was prepared to submit, rebellion by the Mirzas, who were Timurids
but his opponents were keen to ruin him. and were related to Akbar by marriage, there
They heaped humiliation upon him till fie was the areas west of modern Uttar Pradesh into
goaded to rebel. Finally, Bairam Khan was confusion. Encouraged by these rebellions,
forced to submit Akbar received him Akbars half- brother, Mirza Hakim, who
cordially, and gave him the option of serving had seized control of Kabul, advanced into
at the court or anywhere outside it or retiring the Punjab, and besieged Lahore. The Uzbek
to Mecca. rebels formally proclaimed him their ruler.
Bairam Khan chose to go to Mecca. Early Expansion of the Empire (1560-76)
However, on his way, he was assassinated at Following Bairam Khans regency, the
Patau near Ahmedabad by an Afghan who territories of the Mughal empire had been
bore him a personal grudge. Bairams wife expanded rapidly. Apart from Ajmer,
and a young child were brought to Akbar at important conquests during this period
Agra. Akbar married Bairam Khans widow captured earlier were that of Malwa and
who was his cousin, and brought up the child Gharh-Katanga. Malwa was being ruled, at
as his own son. This child later became that time, by a young prince, Baz Bahadur.
famous as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and The expedition against Malwa was led by
held some of the most important offices and Admam Khan, son of Akbars foster-mother,
commands in the empire. During Bairam Maham Anaga. Baz Bahadur was badly
Khans rebellion, groups and individuals in defeated (1561) and the Mughals took
the nobility had become politically active. valuable sopils, including Rupm-ati.
They included Akbars foster-mother, Maham However, she preferred to commit suicide
Anaga, and her relations. to being dragged to Adham Khans karem.
Though Maham Anaga soon withdrew Due to the senseless cruelties of Adham Khan
from politics, her son, Adham Khan was an and his succeessor, there was a reaction
impetuous young man who assumed against the mughals which enabled Baz
independent airs when sent to command an Bahadur to recover Malwa.
expedition against Malwa. Removed from the After dealing with Bairam Khans
command, he laid claim to the post of the rebellion, akbar sent another expedition to
wazir, and when this was not conceded, he Malwa. Baz Bahadur had to flee, and for
stabbed the acting wazir in his office. Akbar some time he took shelter with the Rana of
was enraged and had him thrown down from Mewar. After wandering about from one area
the parapet of the fort so that he died (1561). to another, he finally repaired to Akbasrs
Between 1561 and 1567 they broke out in court and was enrolled as a Mughal
rebellion several times, forcing Akbar to take mansabdar. The extensive country of Malwa
the field against them. Each time Akbar was thus came under Mughal rule. At about the
induced to pardon them. When they again same time, mughal arms overran the
rebelled in 1565, Akbar was so exasperated kingdom of Gharh-Katanga. The kingdom of
that he vowed to make Jaunpur his cpiatal Garh-Katanga included the Naramada valley
Mughal Empire 43
and the northern portions, of present Khan to disgorge his illegal gains. He
Madhya Pradesh. It had been welded restored the kingdom of Garh-Katanga to
together by one Aman Das who flourished Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram
in the second half of the fifteenth century. Shah, after taking ten forts to round off the
Aman Das had helped Bahadur Shah of kingdom of Malwa.
Gujarat in the conquest of Raisen and had During the next ten years, Akbar
received from him the title of Sangram Shah. brought the major part of Rajasthan under
The kingdom of Ghar-Kartanga his control and also conquered Gujarat and
included a number of Gond and Rajput Bengal. A major step in his campaign against
principalities. It was the most powerful the Rajpur states was the siege of Chittor.
kingdom set up by the Gonds. We do not Chittor fell (1568) after a gallant siege of six
know, however, to what extend these figures months. At the advice of his nobles, Rana
are dependable. Sangram Shah had further Udai Singh had retired to the hills leaving
strengthened his position by marrying off his the famous warriors, Jaimal and Patta, in
son to a princess of the famous Chandella charge of the fort. The rajput warriors died
rulers of Mahoba. This princess, who is after extracting as much vengeance as
famous as Durgavati, became a widow soon possible. In honour of the gallant Jaimal and
afterwards. But she installed her minor son Patta, Akbar ordered that two stone statues
on the throne and ruled the country with of these warriors, seated on elephants, be
great vigour and courage. Meanwhile, the erected outside the chief gate of the fort at
cupidity of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor Agra.
of Allahabad, was roused by the stories of The fall of Chittor was followed by the
the fabulous wealth and the beauty of the conquest of Ranthambhor reputed to be the
Rani. Asaf Khan advanced with 10,000 cavalry most powerful forteress in Rajasthan. Jodhpur
from the side of Bundeikhand. Some of the had been conquered earlier. As a result of
semi-independent rulers of Garha found it a these victories, most of the Rajpur rajas,
convenient moment to throw off the Gond including those of Bikaner and Jaisalmer,
yoke. The Rani was thus left with a small force. submitted to Akbar. Only Mewar continued
Though wounded, she fought on gallantly. to resist.
Finding that the battle was lost and that she In 1572, Akbar advanced on Ahmedabad
was in danger of being captured, she stabbed via Ajmer. Ahmedabad surrendered without
herself to death. Asaf Khan then stormed the a fight. Akbar then turned his attention to
capital, Chauragarh, near modern Jabalpur. the Mirzas who held Broach, Baroda and
Out of all the plunder Asaf Khan sent only Surat. At Cambay, Akbar saw the sea for the
two hundred elephants to the court, and first time and rode on it in boat. A group of
retained all the rest for himself. Kamaladevi, Portuguese merchants also came and met him
the younger sister of Rani, was sent to the for the first time. The Portuguese dominated
court. the Indian seas by this time, and had ambition
When Akbar had dealt with the of establishing an empire in India. Akbars
rebellion of the Uzbek nobles he forced Asaf conquest of Gujarat frustrated these designs.
44 Gist of NCERT (History)
While Akhars armies were besieging on the basis of the productivity of land.
Surat, Akbar crossed the river Mahi and Akbar adopted Sher Shahs system. But it was
assaulted the Mirzas with a small body of soon found that the fixing of central sched-
200 men which included Man Singh and ule of prices often led to considerable delyas,
Bhagwan Das of Amber. For some time, and resulted in great hardships to the peas-
Akbars life was in danger. But the antry.
impetuosity of his charge routed the Mirzas. Akbar, therefore, reverted to a system-
Thus, Gujarat came under Mughal control. of Annual assessment. The quangos, who
However, as soon as Akbar had turned his were hereditary holders of land as well as
back, rebellions broke out all over Gujarat. local officials conversant with local
Hearing the news, Akbar marched out of conditions, were ordered to report on the
Agra aride traversed across Rajasthan in nine actual produce, state of cultivation, local
days by means of camels, horses and carts. prices, etc. After returning from Gujarat
On the eleventh day, he reched Ahmedabad. (1573), Akbar paid-personal attention to the
In this journey, which normally took six land revenue system, Officials called karoris
weeks, only 3000 soldiers were able to keep were appointed all over north India. They
up with Akbar. With these he defeated an were responsible for the collection of a crore
enemy force of 20,000 (1573). of dams (Rs 2,50,000), and also checked the
After this, Akbar turned his attention facts and figures supplied by the quangos.
to Bengal. The Afghans had continued to On the basis of the information provided by
dominate Bengal and Bihar. Internal fights theist regarding the actual produce, local
among the Afhans, and the declaration of prices, productivity, etc., in 1580, Akbar
independence by the new ruler, Daud Khan, instituted a new system called the dahsala.
gave Akbar the opportunity he was seeking. Under this system, the average produce of
In a stiff battle in Bihar in 1576, Daud Khan different crops as well as the average prices
was defeated and executed on the spot. prevailing over the last ten year were
Thus ended the last Afghan kingdom in calculated. One third of the average produce
northern India. It also brought to an end the was the state share. The slate demand was,
first phase of Akbars expansion of the however, stated in cash. This was done by
empire. converting the state share into money on the
basis of a schedule of avberage prices over
Administration
the past ten years. Thus, the produce of a
During the decade following the con- bigha of land under share was given in
quest of Gujarat, Akbar found time to look manunds. But on the basis of average prices,
at the administrative problems of the empire. the state demand was fixed in rupees per
One of the most important problems bigha.
facing Akbar was the system of land revenue
There were number of advanteges of
administration. Sher Shah had instituted a
this system. As soon as the area sown by the
system by which the cultivated area was
peasant had been measured by means of the
menasured and a crop rate (ray) was drawn
bamboos linked with iron rings, the peasants
up, fixing the dues of the peasant crop-wise
as well as the state knew what the dues were.
Mughal Empire 45
The peasant was given remission in the land had first served under Sher Shah. But he was
revenue if crops failed on account of drought, only one of a team of brilliant revenue officials
floods, etc. The system of measurement and who came to the forefront under Akbar.
the assessment based upon it is called the zabti Organisation of Government
system. Akbar introduced this system in the
Hardly any changes were made by
area from Lahore to Allahabad, and in Malwa Akbar in the organisation of local government
and Gujarat. The dahsala wsystem was a
The pargana and the sarkar continued as
further development of the zabti system.
before. The chief officers of the sarkar were
A number of other systems of the faujdar and the amalguzar, the former
assessment were also followed under Akbar. being in charge of law and order, and the
The most common and, perhaps, the oldest latter responsbile for the assessement and
was called batai or ghalla-bakhshi. In this collection of the land revenue. The territories
system, the produce was divided between of the empire were divided into jagir, khalisa
the peasants and the state in fixed proportion. and inam. Income from khalisa villages went
The crop was divided after it had been directly to the royal exchequer. The inam
thrashed, or when it had been cut and tied lands were those which were allotted to
in stacks, or while it was standing in the field. learned and religious men. The amalguzar
A third system which was widely used was required to exercise a general
in Akbars time was nasaq. It seems that it supervision over all types of holdings so that
meant a rough calculation of the amount the imperial rules and regulations for the
payable by the peasant on the basis of what assessment and collection of land revenue
he had been paying in the past. It is also called were followed uniformly. Even there, Akbar
kankut. encouraged them to follow the imperial
Land which remained under cultivation system.
almost every year was called polaj. When it Akbar paid great attention to the
remained uncultivated it was called parati organisation of the central and provincial
(fellow). Parati land paid at the full (polaj) governments. His system of central
rate when it was cultivated. Land which had government was based on the structure of
been fallow for two to three years was called government which had eveolved under the
chachar, and if longer than that, banjar. Delhi Sultanat, but the functions of the
The dahsala was not a ten-year vbarious departments were carefully
settlment. Nor was it a permanent one, the reorganised, and menticulous rules and
state retaining the right to modify it. regulations were laid down for the conduct
However, with some changes, Akbars of affairs. Thus, he gave a new shape to the
settlement remained the basis of the land system and breathed new life into it.
revenue system of the Mughal empire till the The Central Asian and Timurid tradition
end of the seventeenth century. The zabti was of having an all-powerful wazir under
system is associated with Raja Todar Mal and whom various heads of departments
is sometimws called Todar mals bandobast. cunfctions. He was the principal link between
Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer who the ruler and the administration. In course
46 Gist of NCERT (History)
of time, a separate department, the military The mir bakhshi was also the head of
department, had come into being. The the intelligence and information agenceies of
judiciary had always been separate. Thus, in the empire. Intelligence officers (barids) and
practice, the concept of an all-powerful wazir news reporters (waqia-navis) were posted to
had been given up. However, in his capacity all parts of the empire. There reports were
as wakil, Bairam khan had exefcised the presented to the emperor at the court
power of an all-powerful wazir. through the mir bakhshi.
Akbar reogganised the central It will thus be seen that the diwan and
machinery of administration on the basis of the mir bakhshi were almost on a par with,
the division of power between various and supported and checked, each other.
departments, and of checks and balances. The third important officer was the mir
While the post of wakil was not abolished, it saman. He was in charge of the imperial
was stripped of all power and became largely houshold, including the supply of all the
decorative. The head of the revenue provisions and articles for the use of the
department continued to be the wazir. He inmates of the harem or the female
was not generally a person who held a high apartments. The maintenance of etiquette at
position in the nobility. Many nobles held the court, the control of the royal bodyguard,
mansabs which were higher than his./ Thus, etc, were all under the overall supervision of
he was no longer the principal adviser to the this officer.
ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs. To The fourth important department was
emphasise this point, Akbar generally used the judicial department headed by the chief
the title of diwan or divan-i-ala in preference qazi. It fell into bad odoour due to the
to the word wazir. Sometimes, several corruption and venality of Akbars chief qazi,
persons were asked to discharge the duties Abdun Nabi.
of diwan jointly. The diwan was responsible CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS
for all income and expenditure, and held
control over kahlisa, jagir and inam lands. THERE WAS an outburst of many-sided
cultural activity in India under the Mughal
The head of the military department was
rule. The traditions in the field of
called the mir bakhshi. It was the mir bakhshi
archietecture, painting, literature and music
and not the diwan who was considered the
created during this period set a norm and
head of the nobility. Therefore, only the
deeply influenced the succeeding
leading grandees were appointed to this post.
generations. It his sense, the Mughal period
Recommendations for appointment to
can be called a second classical age following
mansabs or for promotions, etc. were made
the Gupta age in northern India. In this
to the emperor through the mir bakhshi.
cultural development, Indian traditions were
Once the emperor had accepted a
amalgamated with the Turko-Iranian culture
recommendation, it was sent to the diwan
brought to the country by the Mughals. The
for confirmation and for assigning a jagir to
Timurid court at Samarqand had developed
the appointee. The same procedure was
as the cultural centre of West and Central
followed in case of promotions.
Asia. Babur was conscious of this cultural
Mughal Empire 47
heritage. He was critical of many of the at Agra. Built in red sandstone, this massive
cultural forms existing in India and was fort had many magnificent gates. The climax
determined to set proper standards. The of fort building was reached at Delhi where
development of art and culture in various Shah Jahan built his famous Red Fort.
regiosns of India during the fourteenth and In 1572, Akbar commenced a palace-
fifteenth centuries had led to a rich and cum-fort complex at Fatehpur Sikri, 36
varied development from which it was kilometers from Agra, which he completed
possible to draw upon. But for this, the in eight years. Built atop a hill, along with a
cultural efflorescence of the Mughal age large artificial lake, it included many
would hardly have been possible. Peoples buildings in the style of Gujarat and Bengal.
from different areas of India, as well as These included deep eaves, balconies, and
peoples belonging to different faiths and fanciful kiosks. In the Panch Mahal built for
races contributed to this cultural taking the air, all the types of pillars uded in
development in various ways. In this sense, various temples were employed to support
the culture developed during the period was flat roofs. The Gujarat style of architecture
tending towards a truly national culture. is used most widely in the palace built
Architecture probably his Rajput wife of ow wives.
The Mughals built magnificent forts, Buildings of a similar type were also built in
palaces, gates, public buildings, mosques, the fort at Agra, though only a few of them
baolis (water tank or well), etc. They also laid have survived. Akbar took a close personal
out many formal gardens with running water. interest in the work of construction both at
In facts, use of running water even in their Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. Persian or Central
palaces and pleasure resorts was a special Asian influence can be seen in the glazed blue
feature of the Mughals. Babur was very fond tiles used for decoration in the walls or for
of gardens and laid out a few in the tiling the roofs. But the most magnificent
neighbourhood of agra and Lahore. Some of building was the mosque and the gateway
the Mughal gardens, such as the Nishat Bagh to it called the Buland Darwaza or the Lofty
in Kashmir, the Shalimar at Lahore, the Pinjor Gate, built to commemorate Akbars victory
garden in the Punjab foothilas, tec. have in Gujarat. The gage is in the style of what is
survived to this day. A new impetus to called a half-dome portal. What was done was
architecture was given by Sher Shah. His to slice a dome into hald. The sliced portion
famous mauoleum at Sasaram (Bihar) and his provided the massive outward facade of the
mosque in the old fort at Delhi are considered gate, while smaller doors could be made in
architectur\al marvels. They form the climax the rear wall where the dome and the floor
of the pre-Mughal style of architecture, and meet. This devise, borrowed from Iran,
the starting point for the new. became feature in Mughal buildings later.
Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who With the consolidation of the empire,
had the time and means to undertake the Mughal architecture reached its climax.
construction on a large scale. He built a series Towards the end of Jahangirs reign began
of forts, the most famous of which is the fort the practice of putting up buildings, entirely
48 Gist of NCERT (History)
of marble and decorating the walls with floral Golden, Temple at Amritsar which was re-
designs made of semi-precious stones. This built several times during the period was
method of decoration, called pietradura built on the arch and dome principle and in-
became even more popular under Shah Jahjan corporated many features of the Mughal tra-
who used it on a large scale in the Taj Mahal, ditions of architecture.
justly regarded as a jewel of the builders art. Painting
The Taj Mahal brought together in a pleasing The Mughals made distinctive
manner all the archietectural forms contribution in the field fo painting. They
developed by the Mughals. Humauyuns introduced new themes depicting the court,
tomb built at Delhi towards the beginning of battle scenes and the chase, and added new
Akbars reign, and which had a massive dome colours and new forms. They created a living
of marble, may be considered a precursor of tradition of painting which continued to
the Taj. The double dome was another feature work in different parts of the country long
of this building. This devise enabled a blgger after the glory of the Mughals had
dome to be built with a smaller one inside. disappeared. The richness of the style, again,
the chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome was due to the fact that India had an old
and the four slender minarets linking the tradition of painting. The wall-paintings of
platform to the main building. The Ajanta are an eloquent indication of its vigour.
decorations are kept to a minimum, delicate After the eighth century, the tradition seems
marble screens, pietra dura inlay work and to have decayed, but palm-leaf manuscripts
kiosks (chahatris) adding to the effect. The and illustrated Jain texts from the thirteenth
building gains by being placed in the mindst century onwards show that the tradition had
of a formal garden. not died.
Mosque-building also reached its climax Aprt from the Jains, some of the
under Shah Jahan, the two most noteworthy provincial kingdoms, such as Malwa and
ones being the Moti Masjid in the Agra fort Gujarat extended their patronage to painting
built like the Taj entirely in marble, and the during the fifteenth century. But a vigorous
other the Jama Masjid at Delhi build tin red revival began only under Akbar. While at the
sandstone. A lofty gate tall, slender minarets, court the court of the Shah of Iran, Humayun
and a series of domes are a feature of the had taken into his service two master painters
Jama Masjid. who accompanied him to India. Under therir
Although not many buildings were leadership, during the reign of Akbar,
build up by Aurangzeb who was economy- painting was organised in one of the imperial
minded, the Mughal archietctural traditions establishments (karkhanas). A large number
based on a combination of Hindu and Turko- of painters from different parts of the
Iranian forms and decorative designs, con- country were invited, many of them form
tinued without a break into the eighteenth lowly castes. From the beginning, both
and early nineteenth centuries. Thus, Mughal Hindus and Muslims joined in the work. Thus
traditions influenced the palaces and torts of Daswant and Basawan were two of the
many provincial and local kingdoms. Even famous painters of Akbars court. the scholl
the Harmandir of the Sikhs, called the
Mughal Empire 49
developed rapidly, and soon became a Barahmasa, that is, the seasons Ragas
celebrated centre of production. Apart from (melodies). The Pahari school continued these
illustrating Persian books of fables, the traditions.
painters were soon assigned the task of Language, Literature and Music
illustrating the Persian text of the
The important rule of Persian and
Mahabharata, the historical work Akbar Sanskrit as vehicles of thought and
Nama, and others Indian themes and Indian
government at the all India level, and the
scenes and landscapes, thus, came in vogue
development of regional languages, largely
and helped to free the school from Persian as a result of the growth of the Bhakti
influence. Indian colours, such as peacock
Movement, have already been mentioned.
blue, the Indian red, etc. began to be used. Regional languages also developed due to the
Above all, the somewhat flat effect of the
patronage extended to them by local and
Persian style began to be replaced by the regional rulers.
foundedness of the Indian brush, giving the
These trends continued during the
pictures a three-dimensional effect.
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. By the
Mughal painting hunting, battle and time of Akbar, knowledge of Persian had
court scenes, under Jahangir, special progress
become so widespread in north India that he
was made in portrait painting and painting dispensed with the tradition of keeping
of animals. Mansur was the great name in revenue records in the local language
this field. Portrait painting also became
(Hindawi) in addition to Persian. However,
fashionable. the tradition of keeping revenue records in
Under Akbar, European painting was the local language continued in the Deccani
introduced at the court by the Portuguese states till their extinction in the last quarter
priests. Under their influence, the principles of the seventeenth century.
of foreshortening, whereby near and distant
Persian prose and poetry reached a
people and things could be placed in climax under Akbars reign. Abul Fazl who
perspective was quietly adopted.
was a great scholar and a stylist, as well as
While the tradition continued under the leading historian of the age, set a style of
Shah Jahan, Aurangzebs lack of interest in prose-writing which was memulated for
painting led to a dispersal of the artists to many generations. The leading poet of the
different places of the country. This helped age was his brother Faizi who also helped in
in the development of painting in the states Akbars translation department. The
of Rajasthan and the Punjab hills. translation of the Mahabharata was carried
The Rajasthan style of painting out under his supervision. Utbi and Naziri
combined the themes and earlier traditions were the two other leading Persian poets.
of western India or Jain school of painting Though born in Persia, they were among the
with Mughal forms and styles. Thus, in many poets and scholars who migrated from
addition to hunting and court scenes, it had Iran to India during the period and made the
paintings on mythological themes, such as the Mughal court one of the cultural centres of
dalliance of Krishna with Radha, or the the Islamic world. Hindus also contributed
50 Gist of NCERT (History)
to the growth of Persian literature. Apart of Akbar, Hindi poets began to be attached
from literary and historical works a number to the Mughal court. A leading Mughal noble,
of famous dictionaries of the Persian Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, produced a
language were also compiled during the fine blend of Bhakti poetry with Persian ideas
period. of life and human relations. Thus, the Persian
Although not much significant and and the Hindi literary traditiona began to
original work was done in Sanskrit during influence each other. But the most influential
the period, the number of Sanskrit works Hindi poet was Tulsidas whose hero was
produced during the period is quite Rama and who used a dialect of Hindi spoken
impressive. As befor, most of the works were in the eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh. Pleading
produced in south and east India under the for a modified caste system based not on
patronage of local rulers, though a few were birth but on individual qualities, Tulsi was
produced by brahmanas employed in the essentially humanistic poet who upheld
translation department of the emperors. family ideals and complete devotion to Rama
Regional languages acquired stability as a way of salvation open to all, irrespective
and maturity and some of the finest lyrical of caste.
poetry was produced during this period. The In south India, Malyalam started its
dalliance of Krishna with Radha and the literary career as a separate language in its
milkmaids, pranks of the child Krishna and own right. Marathi reached its apogee at the
stories from Bhagawat figure Iargely in hands of Eknath and Tukaram. Asserting the
Iyrical poetry in Bengali Oriya, Hindi, importance of Marath, Eknath exclaims. If
Rajasthani and Gujarat! during this period. Sanskrit was made by God, was Prakrit bom
Many devotional hymns to Rama were also of thieves and knaves? Let these errings of
composed and the Mahabharata translated vanity along. God is no partisan of tongues.
into the regional languages, especially if they To Him Prakrit and Sanskrit are alike. My
had not been translated earlier. A few language Marathi is worthy of expressing the
translations and adaptations from Persian highest sentiments and is rich laden with the
were also made Both Hindus and Muslims fruits of divine knowledge.
contributed in this. Thus, Also composed in This undoubtedly expresses the
Bengal and also translated from Persian. In sentiments of all those writing in local
Hindi, the Padmavat, the story written by language. It also shows the confidence and
the Sufi saint, Malik muhammad Jaisi, used the status acquired by these languages. Due
the attack of Alauddin Khalji on Chittor as to the writings of the Sikh Gurus, Punjabi
an allegory to expound Sufi ideas on the received a new life.
relations of soul with God, along with Hidu Music
ideas about maya. Another branch of cultural life in which
Medieval Hindi in the Brij form, mat is Hindus and Muslims cooperated was music.
the diaalect sopken in the neighbourhood of Akbar patronize Tansen of Gwalior who is
Agra, was also patronised by the Mughal credited with composing many new melodies
emporors and Hindu rulers. From the time (ragas). Jahangir and Shah Jahan as well as
Mughal Empire 51
many Mughal nobles followed this example. harem and by the noble. That is why the
There are many apocryphal stories about the larges number of books on classical Indian
burial of music by the orthodox Aurangzeb. music in Persian were written during
Recent research shows the Aurangzeb Aurangzebs reign. But some of the most
banished singing from his court, but not important development in the field of music
playing of musical instruments. In fact, took place later on in the eighteenth century
Aurangzeb himself was an accomplished during the reign of Muhammad Shah
veena player. Music in all forms continued to (1719-48).
be patronized by Aurangzebs queens in the
Gist of NCERT
Indian History
ISBN: 9789382732785
Book Code: F16
52
7
Gist of NCERT (History)
study the Bible in the original he learnt Greek Hinduism would lead him to embrace
and Hebrew. In 1809 he wrote in Persian his Christianity, Rammohan Roy insisted on
famous work Gift to Monotheists in which applying rationalism to Chirstianity too,
he put forward weighty arguments against particularly to the elements of blind faith in
belief in many gods and for the worship of a it. In 1820, he published his Precepts of Jesus
single God. in which he tried to separate the moral and
He settled in Calcutta in 1814 and soon philosophic meassage of the New Testament,
attracted a band of young men with whose which he praised, from its miracle stories. He
cooperation he started the Atmiya Sabha. wanted the high moral message of Christ to
From now on he carried on a persistent be incorporated in Hinduism. This earned for
struggle against the religious and social evils him the hostility of the missionaries.
which were widely prevalent among the Thus, as far as Rammohan was con-
Hindus in Bengal, In particular he vigorously cerned there was to be so blind reliance on
opposed the worship of idols, the rigidity of Indias own past or blind aping of the West.
caste, and the prevalence of meaningless On the other hand, he put forward the idea
religious rituals. He condemned the priestly that new India, guided few reasons should
class for encouraging these practices. He held acquire and treasure all that was best in the
that all the principal ancient texts of the East and the West, Thus he w-anted India to
Hindus preached monotheism or worship of learn from the West; but this learning was to
one God. He published the Bengali translation be an intellectual and creative process
of the Vedas and of five of the principal through which India culture and thought
Upanishads to prove his point. He also wrote were to be renovated; it was not to be an
a series of trans and pamphlets in defence of imposition of Western culture on India. He,
monotheism. threfore, stood for the reform of Hinduism
While citing ancient authority for his and opposed its supresession Christianity. He
vigorously defended Hindu religion and
philosophical views, Rammohan Roy relied
philosophy from the ignorant attacks of the
ultimately on the power of human reason
missionaries at the same time. He adopted
which was in his view the final touchstone of
an extremely friendly attitude towards other
the truth of any doctrine, Eastern or Western.
relgions. He believed that basically all
He believed that the philosophy of Vedanta
regligions prereach a common message and
was based on this principle of reason. In any
that their followers are all brothers under the
case, one should not hesitate to depart from
skin.
holy books, scriptures and inherited
All his life Rammohan Roy paid heavily
traditions if human reason so dictates and if
for his daring religious outlook. The
such traditions are proving harmful to the
orthodox condemned him for criticizing
society, But Rammohan Roy did not confine
idolatry and for his philosophic aminiration
his application of the rational approach to
of Christianity and Islam. They organized a
Indian religions and traditions alone. In this
social boycott against him in which even his
he disappointed his many missionary friends
mother joined. He was branded a heretic and
who had hoped that his rational critique of
an outcaste.
54 Gist of NCERT (History)
In 1828 he founded a new religious women and opposed the prevailing idea that
society, the Brahma Sabha, later known as the women were inferior to men in intellect or
Brahmo Samaj, whose purpose was to be in a moral sense. He attacked polygamy and
based on the twin pillars of reason, and the the degraded state to which widows were
Vadas and Upanishads. It was also to often reduced. To raise the status of women
incorporate the teachings of other religions. he demanded that they be given the right of
The Brahmo Samaaj laid emphasis on human inheritance and property.
dignity, opposed idolatry, and criticized such Rammohan Roy was one of the earliest
social evils as the practice of sati. propagators of modern education which he
Rammohan Roy was great thinker. he looked upon as a major instrument for the
was also a man of action. There was hardly spread of modern ideas in the country. In
any aspect of nation-building which he left 1817, David hare, who had come out to India
untouched. In fact, just as he began the reform in 1800 as a watchmaker but who spent his
of Indian society. The best example of his life- entire life in the promotion of modern
long crusade against social evils was the education in the country founded the famous
historic agitation he organized against the Hindu College. Rammohhun Roy gave most
inhuman custom of women becoming sati. enthusiastic assistance to Hare in this and his
Beginning in 1818 he set out to rouse public other educational projects. In addition, he
opinion on the question. On the one hand he maintained at his own cost an English school
showed by citing the authority of the oldest in Calcutta from 1817 in which, among other
sacred books that the Hindu religion at its subjects, mechanics and the philosophy of
best was opposed to the practice; on the other, Voltaire were taught. In 1825 he established
he appealed to the reason and humanity and a Vedanta College in which courses both in
compassion of the people. He visited the India learning and in Western social and
burning ghats at Calcutta to try to persuad physical sciences were offered.
the relatives of widows to give up their plan Rammohan Roy was equally keen on
of self-immolation. He organized groups of making Bengali the vehicle of intellectual
like minded the relatives of widows to give intercourse in Bengal. He compiled a Bengali
up their plan of self-immolation. He grammar. Through his translations,
organized groups of like-minded people to pamphlets and journals he helped evolve a
keep a strict check on such, performances and modern and elegant prose style for that
to prevent any attempt to force the widows language. Rammohan represented the first
to become sati. When the orthodox Hindus glimmerings of the rise of national
petitioned to Parliament to withhold its consciousness in India.
approval of Benticks action of banning the The vision of an independent and
rite of sati, he organized a counter-petition resurgent India guided his thoughts and
of enlightened Hindus in favour of Benticks actions. He believed that by trying to weed
action. out corrupt elements form Indian religions
He was a stout champion of womens and society and by preaching the Vedantic
rights. He condemned the subjugation of message of worship of one God he was laying
Social and Cultural Awakening in the First Half of the 19th Century 55
the foundations for the unity of Indian society has rightly remarked: Rammohan was the
which was divided into divergent groups. In only person in his time, in the whole world
particular he opposed the rigidities of the of man, to realize completely the significance
caste system which he declared, has been of the Modern Age. He knew that the ideal
source of want of unity among us. He of human civilization does not lie in the
believed that the caste system was doubly isolation of Independence, but in the
evil: it created inequality and it divided brotherhood of interdendence of individuals
people and deprived them of patriotic as wail as nations in all spheres of thought
feeling. Thus, according to him one of the and activity. Rammohan Roy took a keen
aims of religious reform was political uplift. interest in international events and
Rammohan Roy was a pioneer of Indian everywhere he supported the cause of liberty
journalism. He brought out journals in democracy, and nationalism and opposed
Bengali, Persian, Hindi and English to spread injustices oppression and tyranny in every
scientific; literary and political knowledge form. The new of the failure of the Revolution
among the people, to educate public opinon in Naples in 1821 made him so sad that fee
on topics of current interest, and to represent cancelled all his social engagements on the
popular demands and grievances before the other hand he celebrated the success of the
Government. Revolution in Spanish America in 1823 by
He was also the initiator of public giving a public dinner. He condemned the
agitation on political question in the country. miserable condition of Ireland under the
He condemned the oppressive practices of oppressive regime of absentee English
the Bengal zamindars which had reduced the landlordism. He publicly declared that the
peasants to a miserable condition. He would emigrate from the British Empire if
demanded that the maximum rents paid by Parliament failed to pass the Reform Bill.
the actual cultivators of land should be Rammohan was fearless as a lion. He
permanently fixed so that they too would did not hesitate to support a just cause. All
enjoy the benefits of the Permanent his life he fought against social injustice and
Settlement of 1793. He also protested against inequality even at great personal loss and
the attempts to impose taxes on taxes on tax- hardship. In his life of service to society he
free lands. He demanded the abolition of the often clashed with his family, with rich
Companys trading rifht and the removal of zamindars and powerful missionaries, and
heavy export duties on Indian goods. He also with high officials and foreign, authorities.
raised the demands for the Indianization of Yet he never showed fear nor sharank from
the superior services; separation of the his chosen course.
executive and the judiciary, trial by jury, and Rammohan was the brightest star in the
judicial equality between Indians and Indian sky during the first falf of the 19th
Europeans. century, but he was not a lone star. He had
Rammohan was a firm believer in many distinguished associates, followers and
internationalism and in free cooperation successors. In the field of education he was
between nations. Feet Rabindranath Tagore greatly helped by the Dutch watchmaker
56 Gist of NCERT (History)
David Hare and the Scottish missionary no other class or group in Indian society at
Alexander Duff. Dwarkanath Tagore was the the time which could support their advanced
foremost of his Indian associates. He other ideas. Moreover they foregot to maintain
prominent followers were Prasanna Kumar their links with the people. In fact, their
Tagore, Chandrashekhar Deb and Tarachand radicalism was bookish; they failed to come
Chakravarti, the first secretary of the Brahma to grips with the Indian reality. Even so, the
Sahha. Derozians carried forward Rammohans
Derozio and Young Bengal tradition of educating the people in social,
A radical trend arose among the Bengali economic and political questions through
intellectuals during the late 1820s and the newspapers, pamphlets and public
1830s. This trend was more modern than even associations. They carried on public agitation
Rammohan Roys and was known as the on public questions such as the revision of
Young Bengal movement. Its leader and in- the Companys Charter, the freedom of the
spirer was the young Anglo-Indian. Henry Press, better treatment for Indian labour in
Vivian Derozio who was born in 1809 and British colonies abroad, trial by fury,
who taught at Hindu College from 1826 to protection of the Press, better treatment for
1831. Derozio possessed a dazzling intellect Indian labour in British colonies abroad, trial
and followed the most radical views of the by fury, protection of the ryots from
time drawing his inspiration from the great oppressive zamindars, and employment of
French Revolution. He was a brillinat teacher Indians in the higher grades of government
who, in spite of his youth, attached to him- services. Surendranath Banerjee, the famous
self a host of bright and droing students. He leader of the nationalist movement, described
inspired these students to think rationally and the Derozians as the pioneeers of the modern
freely, to question all authority, to love lib- civilization of Bengal, the conscript fathers
erty, equality and freedom, and to worship of our race whose virtues will excite
truth. Derozio and his famous followers, veneration and whose failings will be treated
known as the Derozians and Young Bengal, with gentlest cosideration.
were fiery patriots. Derozio was perhaps the Debendranath
first nationalist poet of modern India. Tagore and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Derozio was removed from the Hindu The Branhamo Samaj had in the
College in 1831 because of his radicalism and meanwhile continued to exist but without
died to cholera soon after at the young age much life till Debendranath Tagore, father of
of 22. The Derozians attacked old and Rabindranath Tagore, revitalized it.
decadent customs, rites and traditions. They Debendranath was a product of the best in
were passionate advocates of womens rights the traditional Indian learning and the new
and demanded education for them. They did thought of the West. In 1839 he founded the
not, howeever, succeed in creating a Tatvabodhini Sabha to propagate Rammohan
movement because social conditions were not Roys ideas. In time it came to include most
yet ripe for their ideas to flourish. They did of the prominent followers of Rammohan and
not take up the peasants cause and there was Derozio and other independent thinkers like
Social and Cultural Awakening in the First Half of the 19th Century 57
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and Akshay He seldom possessed a warm coat for he
Kumar Dutt. The Tatvabodhini Sabha and its inviriably gave it to the first naked beggar
organ the Tatvabodhini Patrika promoted a he met on the street.
systematic study of Indias past in the Bengali Vidyasagars contribution to the mak-
language. It also helped spread a rational ing of modern India is many sided. He
outlook among the intellectuals of Bengal. In evolved a new methodology of teaching San-
1843 Debendranath Tagore reorganised the skrit. He wrote a Bengali primer whiche is
Brahmo Samaj and put new life into it. The used till this day. By his writings he helped
samaj actively supported the movement for in the evolution of a modern prose style in
widow remarriage, abolition of polygamy Bengali. He opened the gates of the Sanskrit
womens education improvement of the college to non-brahmin students for he was
ryots condition and temperance. opposed to the monopoly of Sanskrit studies
The next towering personality to appear that the priestly caste was enjoy at the time.
on the Indian scene was Pandit Ishwar He was determined to break the priestly
Chandra Vidyasagar, the great scholar and monoploy of scriptural knowledge. To free
reformer. Vidyasagar dedicated his entire life Sanskrit studies from the harmful effects of
to the cause of social reform. Born in 1820 in self-imposed isolation, he introduced the
a very poor family, he struggled through study of Wester though in the Sanskrit Col-
hardship to educate himself and in the end lege. He also helped found a college which is
rose in 1851 to the position of the principal now named after him.
ship of the Sanskrit College Though he was a Above all Vidyasagar is remembered
great Sanskrit scholar, his mind was open to gratefully by his countrymen for his
the best in Western thought, and he came to contribution to the uplift of Indias down
represent a happy blend of Indian and trodden womanhood. Here he proved a
Western culture. His greatness lay above all worthy successor to Rammohun Roy. He
in his streling character and shining intellect. waged a long struggle in favour of widow
Possessed of immense courage and a fearless remarriage. His humanism was aroused to
mind he practised what he believed. There the full by the sufferings of the Hindu
was no lag between his beliefs and his action, widows. To improve their lot he gave his all
between his thought and his practice. He was and virtually ruined himself. In 1855, he raifed
simple in dress and habits and direct in his his powerful voice, backed by the weight of
manner. He was a great humanist who immense traditional learning in favour of
possessed immense sympathy for the poor, widow remarriage. Soon a powerful
the unfortunate and the oppressed. movement in favour of widow remarriage
In Bengal, innumerable strories was started which continues till this day.
regarding his high character, moral qualities Later in the year 1855, a large number of
and deep humanism are related till this day. petitions from Bengal, Madras, Bombay,
He resigned from government service for he Nagpur and other cities of India were
would not tolerate undue official interference. presented to the Government asking it to
His generosity to the poor was fabuulous. pass an act legalising the remarriage of
widows. This agitation was successful and
58 Gist of NCERT (History)
such a law was enacted. The first lawful Pioneers of Reform in Western India
Hindu widow remarriage among the upper The impact of Western ideas was felt
castes in our country was celebrated in much earlier in Bengal than in Western India
Calcutta on 7 December 1856 under the which was brought under effective British
inspiration and superivision of Vidyasagar. control as late as 1818, Bal Shastri Jambekar
Widows of many other castes in different was one of the first reformers in Bombay. He
parts of the country already enjoyed this right attacked Brahmanical orthodoxy and tried to
under customary law. An observer has reform popular Hinduism. In 1832, he started
described the ceremony in the following a weekly, the Darpan, whith the objective of
words: chasing away the mist of effor and ignorance
For his advocacy of widow re-marriage, which clouded mens minds, and shedding
Vidyasagar had to face the bitter enmity of over them the light of knowledge, in which
the orthodox Hindus, At times even his life the people of Europe have advanced so far
was threatened. But he fearlessly pursued his before the other nations of the world. 1849,
chosen course. Through his efforts, which the the Praramahansa Madali was founjded
included the grant of monetary help to needy in Maharashta. Its founders believed in one
couples twenty-five widow-remarriages God and were primarily interested in
were performed between 1855 and 1880. breaking caster rules. At its meetings
In 1850, Vidyasagar protested against members took food cooked by low-caste
child-marriage. All his life he campaigned people.
against polygamy. He was also deeply They also believed its permitting widow
interested in the education of women. As a remarriage and in the education of women.
Government Inspector of Schools, he Branches of the Mandalis influence on young
organised thirty-five girls schools, many of people, R.G. Bhandarkar, the famous
which he ran at his own expense. As Secretary historian, later recalled: When we went for
to the Bethune School he was one of the long wals in the evening. we talked about
pioneers of higher education for women. the evils of caste distinctions, how much
Some even believed that educated damage was done by this division between
women would lose their husband. The first high and low, and how true progess for this
steps in giving a modern education to girls country could never be acieved without
were taken by the missionaries in 1821, but removing these distrinctions. In 1848, several
these efforts were marred by the emphasis educated young men formed the Students
on Christian religious education. The Literary and Scientific Society, which had two
Bethune School had great difficulty in branches, the Gujarat and the Marathi Dnyan
securing students. The young students were Prasarak Mandalis. The Society organised
shouted at and abuded and sometimes even lectures on popular science and social
their parents were subjected to social boycott. questions. One of the aims of the society was
Many believed that girls who had received to start shcool at Poona and soon many other
Western education would make slave of their scholls came up. Among the active promoters
husbands. of the these schools were Jagannath Shankar
Social and Cultural Awakening in the First Half of the 19th Century 59
Seth and Bhau Daji. Phule was also a pioneer association to reform the Zoroastrian religion
of the widow remarriage movement in and the Parsi Law Association which agitated
Maharashtra. Vishnu Shastri Pundit founded for the grant of a legal status to women and
the Widow Remarriage Association in the for uniform laws of inheritance and marriage
1850s Another prominent worker in this field for the Parsis. From the very beginning, it
was Karsondas Mulji who started the Saiya was, in the main, through the Indian
Prakash m Gujarati in 1852 to advocate language press and literature that the
widow remarriage. reformers, carried on their straggle. To
An outstanding champion of new enable. To enable Indian languages to play
learning and social reform in Maharashtra this role successfully, they undertook such
was Gopal Hari Deshmukh, who became humdrum tasks as preparation of language
famous by the pen-name Lokahitawadi. He primers, etc. For example, both Ishwar
advocated fee reorganisation of the Indian Chandra Vidyasagar and Rabindranath
society on rational principles m & modern Tagore wrote Bengali primers which are
humanistic and secular values. Jotiba Phule, being used till this day. In fact, the spread of
born in a low caste Mali family, was also modern and reformist ideas among the mass
acutely aware of the socially degraded of people occurred primarily through Indian
position of non-Brahmins and untouchables languages.We should also remember that the
in Maharashtra. All his life he carried on a signiciance of the 19th century reformers lay
campaign against upper caste domination and not in their number but in the fact that they
Brahmanical, supremacy.Dadabhai Naoroji were the trend, setters-it was their thought
was another leading social reformer of and activity that were to have decisive impact
Bombay. He was one of the founders of an on the making of a new India.
Gist of NCERT
Geography
ISBN: 9789382732761
Book Code: F17
60
8
Gist of NCERT (History)
chief grounds of dissatisfaction with our these sepoys had helped the British conquer
government. The petty officials lost no the rest of India. But they did possess regional
opportunity of enriching themselves at the and local patriotism and did not like that their
cost of the ryots and the zamindars. The homelands should come under the
complex judicial system enabled the rich to foreigners- sway. Moreover, the annexation
oppress the poor. Flogging, torture and of Awadh adversely affected the sepoys
jailing of the cultivators for arrears of rent purse. He had to pay higher taxes on the land
or land revenue or interest on debt were his family held in Awadh.
quite common. Thus the growing poverty of The excuse Dalhousie had advanced for
the people made them desperate and led them annexing Awadh was that he wanted to free
to join a general revolt in the hope of the people from the Nawabs
improving their lot. mismanagement and taluqdars oppression,
Another basic cause of the unpopularity but,, in practice, the people got no relief.
of British rule was its very foreignness. The Indeed, the common man had now to pay
British remained perpetual foreigners in the higher land revenue and additional taxes on
country. They had a feeling of racial articles of food, houses, ferries, opium, and
superiority and treated Indians with justice. The dissolution of the Nawabs
contempt and arrogance. As Sayyid Ahmad administration and army threw out of jobs
Khan wrote later: Even natives of the highest thousands of nobles, gentlemen and officials
rank never came into the presence of officials together with their retainers and officers and
but with an inward fear and trembling. Their soldiers, and created unemploy-ment in
main aim was to enrich themselves and then almost every peasants home. These
go back to Britain along with their wealth. dispossessed taluqdars, numbering nearly
The people of India were aware of this 21,000, anxious to regain their lost estates and
basically foreign character of the new rulers. position, became the most dangerous
They refused to recognize the British as their opponents of the British rule. The annexation
benefactors and looked with suspicion upon of Awadh, along with the other annexations
every act of theirs. They had thus a vague of Dalhousie, created panic among rulers of
sort of anti-British feeling which had found the native states. This policy of annexation
expression even earlier than the Revolt in and subordination was, for example, directly
numerous popular uprisings against the responsible for making Nana Sahib, the Rani
British. of Jhansi and Bahadur Shah their staunch
The annexation of Awadh by Lord enemies. Nana Sahib was the adopted son of
Daihousie in 1856 was widely resented in Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British
India iii general and in Awadh in particular, refused to grant for Nana Sahib the pension
More specifically, it created an atmosphere they were paying to Baji Rao II, the last
of rebellion in Awadh and in the Companys Peshwa, and forced him to live at Kanpur,
army. Daihousies action angered the far away from his family seat at Poona.
Companys sepoys, 75,000 of whom came Similarly, the British insistence on the
from Awadh. Lacking an all-India feeling, annexation of Jhansi -incensed the proud Rani
62 Gist of NCERT (History)
Lakshmibai who wanted her adopted son to Government had undertaken on the advice
succeed her deceased husband. The house of of Indian reformers. They believed that an
the Mughals was humbled when Dalhousie alien Christian government had no right to
announced in 1849 that the successor to interfere in their religion and customs. The
Bahadur Shah would have to abandon the abolition of the custom of Sati, the legalisation
historic Red Fort and move to a humbler of widow remarriage, and the opening of
residence at the Qutab on the outskirts in Western education to girls appeared to them
1856, Canning announced that after Bahadus as examples of such undue interference. The
Shahs death the Mughals would lose the title Revolt of 1857 started with the mutiny of the
of kings and would be known as mere Companys sepoys. The sepovs were after all
princes. a part of Indian society and, therefore, felt
An important factor in turning the and suffered to some extent what other
people against British rule was their fear that Indians did. The hopes, -sires, and, despairs
it endangered their religion. This fear was of the other sections of society, especially the
largely due to the activities of the Christian peasantry, were reflected in them. an Act was
missionaries who were to be seen passed under which every new recruit under
everywhere in the schools, in the hospitals, took to serve even oversas. if required. This
in the prisons and at the market places. hurt the sepoys sentiments as, according to
These missionaries tried to convert people the current religious beliefs of the Hindus,
and made violent and vulgar public attacks travel across the sea was forbidden and led
on Hinduism and Islam. The actual to loss of caste. The sepoys also had
conversions made by them appeared to the numerous other grievances. A wide gulf had
people as living proofs of the threat to their come .into existence between the officers and
religion. Popular suspicion that the alien the sepoys who were often treated with
Government supported the activities of the contempt by their British officers. A more
missionaries was strengthened by certain acts immediate cause of the sepoys dissatisfaction
of the Government and the actions of some was the recent order that they would not be
of its officials. In 1850, the Government given the foreign sendee allowance (baita)
enacted a law which enabled a convert to when serving in Sindh or in the Punjab. This
Christianity to inherit his ancestra1property. order resulted in a big cut in the salaries of a
Moreover, the Government maintained at its large number of them. The annexation of
cost chaplains or Christian priests in the army. Awadh, the home of many sepoys, further
Many officials, civil as well as military, inflamed their feelings.
considered it their religious duty to The Immediate Cause
encourage missionary propaganda and to By 1857, the material for a mass up-
provide instruction in Christianity in heaval was ready, only a spark was needed
government schools and even in jails. to set it afire, The episode of the greased car-
The conservative religious and social tridges provided this spark for the sepoys
sentiments of many people were also hurt by and their mutiny provided the general popu-
some of the humanitarian measures which the lace the occasion to revolt. The new Enfield
The Revolt of 1857 63
rifle had been first introduced in the army. European officers, and seized the city.
Its cartridges had a greased paper cover The rebellious soldiers now proclaimed
whose end had to be bitten off before the the aged and powerless Bahadur Shah the
cartridge was loaded into the rifle. The grease Emperor of India Delhi was soon to become
was in some instances composed of beef and the centre of the Great Revolt and Bahadur
pig fat. The sepoys, Hindu as well as Mus- Shah its great symbol. This spontaneous
lim, were enraged. The use of the greased raising of the last Mughal king to the
cartridges would endanger their religion. leadership of the country was recognition of
Many of them believed that the Government the fact that the long reign of the Mughal
was deliberately trying to destroy their reli- dynasty had made it the tracliti6nal symbol
gion and convert them to Christianity. The of Indias political unity. With this single act,
time to rebel had come. the sepoys had trans-formed a mutiny of
The Beginning and Course of the Revolt soldiers into a revolutionary. This is why
The Revolt began at Meerut, 58 km from rebellious sepoys from all over the country
Delhi, on 10 May 1857 and then, gathering automatically turned their steps towards
force rapidly it cut across Northern India as Delhi and all Indian chiefs who took part in
if like sword, It soon embraced a vast area the Revolt hastened to proclaim their loyalty
form the Punjab in the north and the Narmada to the Mughal Emperor. Bahadur Shah, in
in the south to Bihar in the east and Rajputana turn, under the instigation and perhaps the
in the west. pressure of the sepoys, and alter initial
Even before the outbreak at Meerut, vacillation wrote letters to all the chiefs and
Mangal Pande had become a martyr at rulers of India urging them to organize a
Barrackpore. Mangal Pande, a young soldier, confederacy of Indian states to fight and
was hanged on 29 March 1857 for revolting replace the British regime.
single-handed and attacking his superior The entire Bengal Army soon rose in
officers. And then came the explosion at revolt which spread quickly. Awadh,
Meerut. On 24 April, ninety men of the 3rd Rohilkhand, the Doab, the Bundelkhand,
Native Cavalry refused to accept the greased Central India, large parts of Bihar, and the
cartridges. On 9 May, eighty-five of them East Punjab all shook off British authority. In
were dismissed, sentenced to 10 years many of the princely states, rulers remained
imprisonment and put into fetters. This loyal to their British overlord but the soldiers
sparked off a general mutiny among the revolted or remained on the brink of revolt.
Indian soldiers, stationed at Meerut. The Many of Indores troops rebelled and joined
very next day, on 10 May, they released their the sepoys. Similarly over 20,000 of Gwaliors
imprisoned comrades, killed their officers, troops went over to Tantia Tope and the Rant
and unfurled the banner of revolt. As if of Jhansi. Many small chiefs of Rajasthan and
drawn by a magnet, they set off for Delhi Maharashtra revolted with the support of the
after sunset. When the Meerut soldiers people who were quite hostile to the British.
appeared in Delhi the next morning, the local Local rebellions also occurred in Hyderabad
infantry joined them, killed their own and Bengal.
64 Gist of NCERT (History)
The tremendous sweep and breadth of orders were immediately issued banning
the Revolt was matched by its depth. cow-slaughter out of respect for Hindu
Everywhere in Northern and Central India, sentiments. Moreover, Hindus and Muslims
the mutiny of the sepoys triggered popular were. equally well represented at all levels
revolts of the civilian population. After the of the leadership. The role of Hindu-Muslim
sepoys had destroyed British authority, the unity in the Revolt was indirectly
common people rose up in arms often fighting acknowledge later by Aitchison, a senior
with spears and axes, bows and arrows, lathis British official, complained: In this instance
and sickles, arid crude muskets. They took we could not play off the Mohammedans
advantage of the Revolt to destroy the against the Hindus. In fact the events of 1857
money-lenders account books and records clearly bring cut that the people and politics
of debts. They also attacked the British- of India were basically not communal in
established law courts, revenue offices medieval times and before 1858.
(tehsils) and revenue records, and thanas. It The storm-centres of the Revolt of 1857
is of some importance to note that in many were at Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly,
of the battles commoners far surpassed the Jhansi, and Arrah in Bihar. At Delhi the
sepoys in numbers. According to one nominal and symbolic leadership belonged
estimate, of the total number of about 150.000 to the Emperor Bahadur Shah, but the real
men who died fighting the English in Awadh, command lay with a Court of Soldiers headed
over 100,000 were civilians. by General Bakht Khan who had led the
The popular character of the Revolt of revolt of the Bareilly troops and brought
1857 also became evident when the British them to Delhi. In the British army he had
ferried to crush it. They had to wage a been an ordinary subedar of artillery. Bakht-
vigorous and ruthless war not only against Khan represented the popular and plebeian
the rebellious sepoys but also against- the element at the headquarters of the Revolt.
people of Delhi Awadh, North-Western The Emperor Bahadur Shah was perhaps the
Provinces and Agra, Central lndias arid weakest link in the chain of leadership of the
Western Bihar, burning entire villages and Revolt. His weak personality, old age and
massacring villagers and urban people. lack of qualities of leadership, ctreated
Much of the strength of the Revolt of political weakness at the nerve centre of the
1857 lay in Hindu-Muslim unify Among the Revolt and did incalculable damage to it.
soldiers and the people as well as among the At Kanpur the Revolt was led by Nana
leaders there was complete cooperation as Sahib, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last
between Hindus and Muslims. All the rebels Peshwa. Nana Sahib expelled the English
recognized Bahadur Shah, a Muslim, as their from help of the sepoys and proclaimed
Emperor. Also the first thoughts of the Hindu himself the Peshwa. At the same time he
sepoys at Meerut was to march straight to acknowledged Bahadur Shah as the Emperor
Delhi. The Hindu and Muslim rebels and of India and declared himself to be his
sepoys respected each others sentiments. For Governor. The chief burden of fighting on
example, wherever the Revolt was successful, behalf of Revolt was Nana Sahib fell on the
The Revolt of 1857 65
shoulders of Tantia Tope, one of his most the oath to her followers that with our own
loyal servants, Tantia Tope has won immortal hands we shall not our Azadshahi
fame by his patriotism, determined lighting, (independent rule) bury. She captured
and skillful guerrilla operations. Azimullah Gwalior with the help of Tantia Tope and her
was another loyal servant of Nana Sahib. He trusted Afghan guards Maharaja Sindhia,
was an expert in political propaganda loyal to the British, made an attempt to fight
Unfortunately, Nana Sahib tarnished his the Rani but most of his troops deserted to
brave record by deceitfully killing the British her. Sindhia sought refuge with the English
garrison at Kanpur after he had agreed to at Agra. The brave Rani died fighting on 17
give them safe conduct. June 1858, clad in the battle dress of a soldier
The revolt at Lucknow was led by and mounted on a companion, a Muslim girl.
Hazrat Mahal, the Begum of Awadh, who had Kunwar Singh, a ruined and
proclaimed her young son, Birjis Kadir, as the discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur near
Nawab of Awadh. Helped by the sepoys at Arrah, was the chief organizer of the Revolt
Lucknow, and by the zamindars and peasants in Bihar. Though nearly 80 years old, he as
of Awadh, the Begum, organized an. all-out perhaps the most Outstanding military leader
attack on the British, Compelled to give up and strategist of the Revolt. Maulavi
the city, the latter entrenched themselves in Ahmudullah of Faizabad was another
the Residency building. In the end, the siege outstanding leader of the Revolt. He was a
of the Residency failed, as the small British native of Madras where he had started
garrison fought back with exemplary preaching armed rebellion. In January 1857
fortitude and valour. he moved towards the north to Faizabad
One of the great leaders of the Revolt where he fought a large-scale battle against
of l957s and perhaps one of the greatest a company of British troops sent to stop him
heroines of Indian history, was the young from preaching sedition When the general
Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi. The young Rani revolt broke cut in May, he emerged as one
joined the rebels when the British refused to of its acknowledged leaders in Awadh. The
acknowledge right to adopt an heir to the greatest heroes of the Revolt were, however,
Jhansis gaddi, annexed her state, and the sepoys, many of whom displayed great
threatened to treat her as an instigator of the courage in the field of battle and thousands
rebellion of the sepoys at Jhansi- The Rani of whom unselfishly laid down their lives.
vacillated for some time. But once she had More than anything else, it was their
decided to throw in her lot with the rebels, determination and sacrifice that nearly led
she fought valiantly at the head of her troops. to the expulsion of the British from India In
Tales of her bravery and courage and this patriotic struggle, they sacrificed even
military skill have inspired her countrymen their deep religious prejudices They had
ever since. Driven out of Jhansi by the British revolted on the question of the greased
forces after a fierce battle in which even cartridges but now to expel the hated
women were seen working the batteries and foreigner they freely used the same
distributing ammunition, she administered cartridges in their battles.
66 Gist of NCERT (History)
find other characters on the stage, with Nana Sahib was defeated at Kanpur. Defiant
whom to contend, besides the princes of to the very end and refusing to surrender,
India. he escaped to Nepal early in 1859, never to
In the end, British imperialism, with a be heard of again. Tantia Tope escaped into
developing capitalist economy and at the the jungles of Central India where he carried
height of its power the world over, and OR bitter and brilliant guerrilla warfare until
supported by most of the Indian princes and April 1859 when he was betrayed by a
chiefs, proved militarily too strong for the zamindar friend and captured while asleep-
rebels. The British Government poured He was put to death after a hurried trial on
immense supplies of men, money and arms 15 April 1859. The Rani of Jhansi had died on
into the country, though Indians had later to the field of battle earlier on 17 June 1858. By
repay the entire cost of their own 1859, Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan
suppression. The Revolt was suppressed. Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib, brother
Sheer courage could not win against a of Nana Sahib, and Maulavi Ahmadullah were
powerful and determined enemy who all dead, while the Begum of Awadh was
planned its every step. The rebels were dealt compelled to hide in Nepal.
an early blow when the British captured Delhi By the end of 1859, Bntish authority
on 20 September 1857 after prolonged and over India was fully re-established, but the
bitter fighting. The aged Emperor Bahadur Revolt had not been in vain. It is a glorious
Shah was taken prisoner. The Royal Princes landmark in our history. Though it was a
were captured and butchered on the spot. desperate effort to save India in the old way
The Emperor was tried and exiled to and under traditional leadership, it was the
Rangoon where he died in 1862, lamenting first great struggle of the Indian people for
bitterly the fate which had buried him Tar freedom from British imperialism, it paved
away from the city of his birth. Thus the great the way for the rise of the modern national
House of the Mughals was finally and movement. The heroic and patriotic struggle
completely extinguished. of 1857, and the series of rebellions preceding
With the fall of Delhi the focal point of it, left an unforgettable impression on the
the Revolt disappeared. The other leaders of minds of the Indian people, established
the Revolt carried on the brave but unequal valuable local traditions of resistance to
struggle, with the British mounting a British rule, and served as a perennial source
powerful offensive against them. John of inspiration in their later struggle for
Lawrence, Outram, Have lock, Neil, freedom. The heroes of the Revolt soon
Campbell, and Hugh Rose were some of the became household names in the country, even
British commanders who earned military though the very mention of their names was
fame in the course of this campaign. One by frowned upon, by the rulers.
one, all the great leaders of the Revolt fell.
The Revolt of 1857
9 69
and superstitious practices and rituals, in fact Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901). It was
to the entire Brahmanical system. They could powerfully influenced by the Brahmo Samaj.
worship one God without the mediation of Its activities also spread to south India as a
the priests. The Brahmos were also great result of the efforts of the Telugu reformer,
social reformers. They actively opposed the Viresalingam. One of the greatest rationalist
caste system and child-marriage and thinkers of modern India, Gopal Ganesh
supported the general uplift of women, Agarkar, also lived and worked in
including widow remarriage, and the spread Maharashtra at this time. Agarkar was an
of modern education to men and women. advocate of the power of human reason. He
The Brahmo Samaj was weakened by sharply criticised any blind dependence on
internal dimensions in the second half of the tradition or false glorification of Indias past.
19th century. Moreover, its influence was Ramakrishna and Vivekananda
confined mostly to urban educated groups. Ramakrishna Parmahamsa (1834-86 was
Yet it had a decisive influence on the a saintly person who sought religious
intellectual, social, cultural and political life salvation in the traditional ways of
of Bengal, and the rest of India in the 19th renunciation, meditation and devotion
and 20th centuries. (bhakti). In his search for religious truth or
Religious Reform in Maharashtra the realisation of God, he lived with mystics
Religious reform was begun in Bombay of other faiths, Muslims and Christians. He
in 1840 by the Parmahans Mandali which again and again emphasised that there were
aimed at fighting idolatry and the caste many roads to God and salvation and that
system. Perhaps the earliest religious service of men was service of God, for man
reformer in western India was Gopal Hari was the embodiment of God.
Deshmukh, known popularly as Lokahit It was his great disciple, Swami Viveka-
wadi, who wrote in Marathi, made powerful nanda (1863-1902), who popularised his
rationalist attacks on hindu orthodoxy. and religious message and who tried to put it in
preached religious anti social equality. a form that would suit the needs of
He also said that if religion did not contemporary Indian society. Abode all,
sanction social reforms then religion should Vivekananda stressed social action.
be changed, for after all religion was made Knowledge unaccompanied by action in the
by human beings and scriptures, written long actual world in which we live was useless,
ago. might not remain relevant to later times. he said. He too, like his guru, proclaimed the
Later the Prarthana Samaj was started with essential oneness of all religions and
the aim of reforming hindu religious thought condemned any narrowness in religious
and practice in the light of modern matters. Thus, he wrote in 1898; For our
knowledge. It preached the worship of one own motherland a junction of the two great
God and tried to free religion of caste systems, Hinduism and Islam is the only
orthodoxy and priestly domination. Two of hope. At the same time, he was convinced
its great leaders were R G. Bhandarkar, the of the superior approach of the Indian
famous Sanskrit scholar and historian, and philosophical tradition. He himself
Growth of New India - Religious and Social Reform After 1858 71
by .modern scientific thought and worked Hindu and 285 Muslim students in the
all his life to reconcile it with Islam. This he college. Out of the seven Indian teachers, two
did, first of all, by declaring that the Quran were Hindu, one of them being a Professor
alone was the authoritative work for Islam of Sanskrit. However, towards the end of his
and all other Islamic writings were secondary. life, he been to talk of Hindu domination to
Even the Quran he interpreted in the light of prevent his followers from joining the rising
contemporary rationalism and science. In his national movement. This was unfortunate,
view any interpretation of the Quran that though basically he was not a communalist.
conflicted with human reason science or He only wanted the backwardness of the
nature was in reality a misister-pretation. Nor Muslim middle and upper classes to go. His
were religious tenets immutable, he said. If politics were the result of his firm belief that
religion tenets change with time, it would immediate political progress was not possible
become fossilised as had happened in India. because the British.
All his life he struggled against blind Government could not be easily
obedience to tradition, dependence on dislodged. On the other hand, any hostility
custom, ignorance and irrationalism. He by the officials might prove dangerous to the
urged the people to develop a critical educational effort which he saw as the need
approach and freedom of thought So long as of the hour. He believed that only when
freedom of thought is not developed, there Indians had become as modern in their
can be no civilised life, he declared. He also thinking and actions as the English were,
warned against fanaticism, narrow could they hope to successfully challenge
mindedness, and exclusiveness, and urged foreign rule. He, therefore, advised all
students and others to be broadminded and Indians and particularly the educationally
tolerant. A closed mind, he said, was the backward Muslims to remain aloof from
hallmark of social and intellectual politics for some time to come. The time for
backwardness. politics, he said, had not yet come. In fact, he
Sayyid Ahmad Khan was a great had become so committed to his college and
believer in religious toleration. He believed the cause of education that he was willing to
that all religions had a certain underlying sacrifice all other interests to them.
unity which could be called practical Consequently, to prevent the orthodox
morality. Believing that a persons religion was Muslims from opposing his college, he
his or her private affair, he roundly virtually gave up his agitation in favour of
condemned any sign of religious bigotry in religious reform. For the same reason, he
personal relations. He was also opposed to would not do anything to offend the
communal friction. Appealing to Hindus and government and, on the other hand,
Muslims to unite. encouraged communalism and separatism.
Moreover, Hindus, Parsis and Christians This was, of course, a serious political error,
had freely contributed to the funds of his which was to have harmful consequences in
college whose doors were also open to all later years. Moreover, some of his followers
Indians. For example, in 1898, there were 64 deviated from his broad-mindedness and
74 Gist of NCERT (History)
tended later to glorify Islam and its past patriotism, though later he encouraged
while criticizing other religions. Muslim separatism.
Sayyid Ahmads reformist zeal also Religious Reform among the Parsis
embraced the social sphere. He urged Religious reform was begun among the
Muslims to give up medieval customs ways Parsis in Bombay in the middle of the 19th
of thought and behaviour. In particular he century. In 1851, the Rehnumai Mazdayasan
wrote in favour of raising womens status in Sabha or Religious Reform Association was
society and advocated removal of purdah started by Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai
and spread of education among women. He Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee, and others. It
also condemned the customs of polygamy and campaigned against the entrenched
easy divorce. orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated
Sayyid Ahmad Khan was helped by a the modernization of Parsi social customs
band of Joyal followers who are collectively regarding the education of women, marriage
describe as the Aligarh School. Chiragh Au, and the social position of women in general.
the Urdu poet Altaf Husain Hali, Nazir In course of time, the Parsis became socially
Ahmad and Maulana Shibli Nomani were the most westernized section of Indian society.
some of the other distinguished leaders of Religious Reform among the Sikhs
the Aligarh School.
Religious reform among the Sikhs was
Muhammad Iqbal
begun at the end of the 19th century when
One of the greatest poets of modern the Khalsa College was started at Amritsar.
India, Muhammad Iqbal (1876-1938) also But the reform effort gained momentum after
profoundly influenced through his poetry the 1920 when the Akali Movement rose in the
philosophical and religious outlook of the Punjab. The main aim of the Akalis was to
younger generation of Muslims as well as of purify the management of the gurudwaras
Hindus. Like Swami Vivekananda, he or Sikh shrines. These gurudwara had been
emphasised the need for constant change and heavily endowed with land and money by
ceaseless activity and condemned resignation devout Sikhs But they had come to be
contemplation, and quiet contentment. He managed autocratically by Corrupt and
urged the adoption of a dynamic outlook that selfish mahants. The Sikh masses led by the
would help change the world. He was Akalis started in 1921 a powerful satyagraha
basically a humanist. In fact, be raised human against the mahants and the Government
action to the status of a prime virtue. Man which aided them.
should not submit to nature or powers that The Akalis soon forced the Government
be, he said, but should control this world to pass a new Gurudwara Act in 1922 which
through constant activity. Nothing was more was later amended in 1925. Sometimes with
sinful in his eyes than the passive acceptance to aid of the Act, but often through direct
of things as they were. Condemning ritualism action, the Sikhs gradually turned out of the
and other-worldly attitude, he urged men to gurudwaras the corrupt mahants, even
work for and achieve happiness in this world though hundreds of lives had to be sacrificed
of the living. In his earlier poetry, he extolled in the process.
Growth of New India - Religious and Social Reform After 1858 75
Apart from the reform movements and intercourse?... Shall we revive the hacatombs
individual reformers discussed above, there of animals sacrificed from years end to
were numerous other similar movements and years end, in which even human beings were
individuals during the 19th and 20th not spared as propitiatory offering to God?
centuries. ... Shall we revive the sati, and infanticide
The religious reform movements of customs?
modern tines had an underlying unity -most And he came to the conclusion that the
of them were based on the twin doctrines of society as a living organism is constantly
Reason (Rationalism) and Humanism, though changing and can never go back to the past.
they also sometimes tended to appeal to faith The dead and-the buried or burnt are dead,
and ancient authority to bolster their appeal. buried, and burnt once for all, and the dead
Moreover, it was to the rising middle classes past cannot, therefore, be revived. he wrote.
and the modem educated intellectuals that Every reformer, who appealed to the past,
they appealed most. They tried to free from so interpreted it as to make it appear to agree
anti-intellectual religious dogmas and blind with the reforms he was suggesting. Often
faith the human intellects capacity to think the reforms and the outlook were new, only
and reason They opposed the ritualistic, su- their justification was based on an appeal to
perstitious, irrational and obscurantist ele- the past. Many of the ideas which conflicted
ments in Indian religions. Many of them aban- with, modern scientific knowledge were
doned, though to varying degrees, the prin- usually declared to be a later accretion or
ciple of authority in religion and evaluated misinter-pretation. And since the orthodox
truth in any religion and its holy books by could not accept this view, the religious
its conformity to logic reasons, are science. reformers came into conflict with the
Some of these religious reformers orthodox sections and became, at least in the
appealed to tradition and claimed that they beginning, religious and social rebels.
were merely reviving the pure doctrines,
Similarly, Sayyid Ahmed Khan aroused
beliefs and practices of the past. But, in fact,
the anger of the traditionalists. They abused
the past could not be revived. Often there
him, issued fatwas (religious decrees) against
was no agreed picture of the past. The
him and even threatened his life.
problems that an appeal to the past often
The humanist aspect of the religious
created were posed by Justice Ranade, who
reform movements was expressed in the
has himself often asked the people to revive
general attack on priesthood and rituals, and
the best tradition of the past, in the following:
the emphasis on the individuals right to
What shall we revive? Shall we revive the
interpret religious scriptures in the light of
old habits of our people when the most sacred
human reason and human welfare. A
of our castes indulged in all the abominations,
significant feature of humanism was
as we now understand them, of animal food
expressed in a new humanitarian morality
and intoxicating drink? Shall we revive the
which include the notion that humanity can
twelve forms of sons, or eight forms of
progress and has progressed and that moral
marriage, which included capture, and
values are, ultimately, those which favour
recogised mixed and illegitimate
76 Gist of NCERT (History)
human progress. The social reform Indians began to acquire a modern, this-
movements were an embodiment of this new worldly, secular and national outlook in place
humanitarian morality. of a narrow outlook dominated by
Though the reformers tried to reform considerations of caste and religion, though
their religions, their general outlook was the latter tendency by no means came to an
universalistic. Rammohan Roy saw different end. Moreover, more and more people began
religions as particular expression of a to think in terms of promoting their physical
universal God and religious truth. Sayyid and cultural welfare in this world in place of
Ahmad Khan said that prophets had the same passively accepting their lot and waiting for
faith or din and every people had been sent improvement in life after death. These
prophets by God. Keshab Chandra Sen movements also-to some extent ended
expressed the same idea as follows: Our Indias cultural and intellectual isolation from
position is not that truths are to be found in the rest of the world and enabled Indians to
all religions, but all established religions are share in the stream of world ideas. At the
true. same time, they were no longer bewitched
Apart from purely religious by everything in the West; those who copied
considerations, these religious reform the West blindly were increasingly looked
movements fostered among Indians greater down upon. In fact, while adopting a critical
self-respect, self-confidence, and pride in their attitude towards backward elements of
country. By interpreting their religious past traditional religions and culture and
in modern rational terms and by weeding out welcoming positive elements of modern
many of the corrupting and irrational Culture, most of the religious reformers
elements from the 19th century religious opposed blind imitation of the West and
beliefs and practices, the reformers enabled waged an ideological struggle against the
their followers to meet the official taunt that colonialisation of Indian culture and thought.
their religions and society were decadent and The problem here was to maintain a balance
inferior. between the two aspects. Some went too far
The religious reform movements helped in modernisation and tended to encourage
many Indians to come to terms with the colonialisation of culture; others defended
modern world. In fact they arose to recast traditional thought, culture and institutions
the old religions into a new modern mould to the extent of glorifying them and opposing
to suit the needs of new social groups of any introduction of modern ideas and
society. Thus pride in the past did not prevent culture. The best of reformers argued that
Indians from accepting the essential - modern ideas and culture could be best
superiority of the modern world in general imbibed by integrating them into Indian
and modern science in particular. Of course, cultural streams.
some people insisted that they were merely Two negative aspects of the religious
going back to the original, most ancient reform movements may also be noted. Firstly,
scriptures which were suitably interpreted. all of them catered to the needs of a small
As a result of the reformed outlook, many percentage of the population -the urban
middle and upper classes. None of them could
Growth of New India - Religious and Social Reform After 1858 77
reach the vast masses of the peasantry and minded man like Swami Vivekananda talked
the urban poor, who continued by and large of the Indian spirit or Indias past
to lead their lives in the traditional, custom- achievements in this sense alone. These
ridden ways. This was because they basically reformers looked upon the medieval period
gave voice to the urges of the educated and of Indian history as essentially an era of
urban strata of Indian society. decadence. This was not only unhistorical but
The second limitation, which later also socially and politically harmful. It tended
became a major negative factor, was the to create the notion of two separate peoples.
tendency to look backward, appeal to past Similarly an uncritical praise of the ancient
greatness, and to rely on scriptural authority, period and religions could not be fully
these tended to go against the positive acceptable to the persons coming from lower
teachings f the reform movements castes who -had for centuries suffered under
themselves. They undermined to some extent the most destructive caste oppression which
the supremacy of human reason and scientific had developed precisely during the ancient
outlook. period. The result of all these factors was that
They encouraged mysticism in new instead of all Indians taking an equal pride
garbs, and fostered pseudo-scientific in their past material and cultural
thinking. Appeals to past greatness created achievements and deriving inspiration from
false pride and smugness, while the habit of them, the past became a heritage of the few.
finding a Golden Age in the past acted as a Moreover the past itself tended to be torn
check on the full acceptance of modern science into compartments on a partisan basis. Man
and hampered the effort to improve the in the Muslim middle classes went to the
present. But, most of all, there tendencies extent of turning to the history of West Asia
tended to divide Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and for their traditions and moments of pride.
Parsis as also high caste Hindus from low Increasingly, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and
caste Hindus. Any over-emphasis on religion Parsis, and later on lower-caste Hindus who
in a country containing many religions was had been influenced by the reform
bound to have a divisive effect. Moreover, movements tended to be different from one
the reformers put a one-sided emphasis on another. On the other hand, the Hindu and
the religious and philosophical aspects of the Muslim masses who followed traditional
cultural heritage. These aspects were, ways untouched by the reform movements
moreover, not a common heritage of all still lived in harmony, practising their
people. On the other hand, art and different religious rituals. To some extent the
architecture, literature, music, science and process of the evolution of a composite
technology, etc., in which all sections of culture that had been going on for centuries
people had played an equal role, were not was arrested; though in other spheres
sufficiently emphasised. national unification of the Indian people was
In addition, the Hindu reformers accelerated. The evil aspects of this
invariably confined their praise of the Indian phenomenon became apparent when it was
past to its ancient period. Even a broad- found that, along with a rapid rise of national
consciousness, another conscious-ness
78 Gist of NCERT (History)
communal consciousness - had begun to rise While social reform was linked with
among the middle classes. Many other factors religious reform in some cases during the
were certainly responsible for the birth of 19th century, in later years it was increasingly
communalism in modern times; but, secular in approach. Moreover, many people
undoubtedly, the nature of the religious who were orthodox in their religious
reform movements also contributed to it. approach participated in it. Similarly, in the
Social Reform beginning social reform had largely been the
effort of newly educated Indians belonging
The major effect of national awakening
in the 19th century was seen in the field of to higher castes to adjust their social
behaviour to the requirements of modem
social reform. The newly educated persons
increasingly revolted against rigid social western culture and values. But gradually it
penetrated down to the lower strata of
conventions and outdated customs. They
could no longer tolerate irrational and society and began to revolutions strata of
dehumanizing social practices. in their revolt society and began to revolutionize and
reconstruct the social sphere. In time the ideas
they were inspired by the humanistic ideals
of social equality and the equal worth of all and ideals of the reformers won almost
universal acceptance and are today enshrined
individuals.
in the Indian Constitution.
Nearly all the religious reformers con-
tributed to the social reform movement. This The social reform movements tried in
was because the backward features of Indian the main to achieve two objectives: (a) eman-
society, such as the caste system or inequal- cipation of women and extension of equal
ity of the sexes, had religious sanctions in the rights to them; and (b) removal of caste
past. In addition, certain other organisations rigidities and in particular the abolition of
like the Social Conference, Servants of India untouchability.
Society, an, the Christian missionaries worked Emancipation of Women
actively for social reform. Many prominent For countless centuries women in India
persons Jotiba Govind Phule, Gopal Han had been subordinated to men and socially
Deshmukh, Justice Ranade. K T. Telang. B.M. oppressed. The various religions practised in
Malabari. O.K Karve, Sasipada Banerjee, B.C. India as well as the personal laws based on
Pal. Viresalingam, Sri Narayn Guru. E.V. them consigned women to a status inferior
Ramaswami Naiker and B.R. Ambedkar, and to that of men. The condition of upper class
many others - also played an important role. women was in this respect worse than that
In the 20th century, and especially after 1919. of peasant women. Since the latter worked
the national movement became the main actively in the fields alongside men, they
propagator of social reform. Increasingly, the enjoyed relatively greater freedom of
reformers took recourse to propaganda in the movement and in some respects a better
Indian language to reach the masses. They status in the family than the upper class
also used novels, dramas, poetry, short sto- women. For example, they seldom observed
ries, the Press and, in the thirties, the cinema purdah and many of them had the right to
to spread their views. remarry. The traditional view often praised
Growth of New India - Religious and Social Reform After 1858 79
the role of women as wives and mothers but pattern, and do not in any way change the
as individuals, they were assigned a very picture.
lowly social position. They were supposed Moved by the humanitarian and
to have no personality of their own apart egalitarian impulses of the 19th century, the
from their ties to their husbands. They could social reformers started a powerful
not find any other expression to their inborn movement to improve the position of women.
talents or desires except as housewives. In While some reformers appealed to doctrines
fact, they were seen as just adjuncts to men. of individua-lism and equality, others
For example, a woman could only marry once declared that true Hinduism or islam or
among Hindus, a man was permitted to have Zoroastrianism did not sanction the infe-rior
more than one wife. Among Muslims too this status of women and that true religion
custom of polygamy prevailed. In large parts assigned them a high social position.
of the country women had to live behind the Numerous individuals, reform societies;
purdah. and religious organizations worked hard to
The custom of early marriage prevailed, spread education among women, to
and even children of eight or nine were encourage widow remarriage, to improve the
married Widows could not remarry and had living conditions of widows, to prevent
to lead an ascetic and new life. In many parts marriage of young children, to bring women
of the country, the horrifying custom of Bati out of the purdah, to enforce- girl They were
or self-immolation of widows prevailed. bound to assert their monogamy, and to
Hindu women had no right to inherit enable middle class rights as human beings
property, nor did they enjoy the right to women to take up professions or public.
terminate an undesirable marriage. Muslim Another Important development was
women could inherit property but only half employment. After the l880s, when the birth
as much as a man could; and in the matter of of a womens movement in the Dufferin
divorce even theoretically there was no hospitals (named after Lady country. Up to
equality between husband and wife. In fact, the l920s enlightened men Dufferin the wife
Muslim women dreaded divorce. of the Viceroy) were started, efforts were
The social position of Hindu and Muslim made to make modern medicine and child
women as well as their values were similar. delivery techniques available to Indian
Moreover, in both cases they were women.
economically and socially totally dependent The movement for the liberation of the
on men. Lastly, the benefit of education was most outstanding of women received a great
denied to most of them. In addition, women stimulus from the rise of the militant national
were taught to accept their subjection and movement in the 20th century. Women played
even to welcome it as a badge of honour. It an active and important role in the struggle
is true that occasionally women of the for freedom. They participated in large
character and personality of Razia Sultana, numbers in the agitation against the partition
Chand Bibi or Ahilya Bai Holkar arose in of Bengal and in the Home Rule movement.
India. But the were exceptions to the general After 1918, they marched in political
80 Gist of NCERT (History)
processions, picketed shops selling foreign Hindu Succession Act of 1956 made the
cloth and liquor, spun and propagated khadi. daughter an equal co-heir with the son. The
went to jail in the non-cooperation Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 permitted
movements, faced lathis is, tear gas and dissolution of marriage on specific grounds.
bullets during public demonstrations, Monogamy was also made mandatory on
participated actively in the evolutionary men as well as women. But the evil custom
terrorist movement, and voted in elections of dowry still continues even though the
to legislatures and even stood as candidates. demanding of dowry has been banned. The
Sarojini Naidu, the famous poetess, became Constitution gives women equal right to
the president of the National Congress. work and to get employment in state
Several women became ministers or agencies. The Directive Principles of the
parliamentary secretaries in the popular Constitution lay down the principle of equal
ministries of 1937. Hundreds of them became pay for equal work for both men and women.
members of municipalities and other organs Of course many visible and invisible obstacles
of local government. When the trade union still remain in putting the principle of the
and kisan movements arose in the 1920s, equality of sexes into practice. A proper social
women were often found in their forefront. climate has still to be created. But the social
More than any other factor, participation in reform movements, the freedom struggle,
the national movement contributed to the womens own movement, and the
awakening of Indian women and their Constitution of free India have made a big
emancipation. For how could those who had contribution in this direction.
braved British jails and bullets be declared Struggle Against Caste
inferior. And how could they any longer be The caste system was another major
confined to the home and be satisfied with
target of attack for the social reform
the life of a doll or a slave girl? They were
movement. The Hindus were at this time
bound to assert their rights as human beings. divided into numerous castes (jatis). The
Another important development was caste into which a man was born determined
the birth of a womens movement in the large areas of his life. It determined whom
country. Up to the 1920s enlightened men had he would marry and with whom he would
worked for the uplift of women. Now aware dine. It largely determined his profession as
and self-confident women under-took the also his social loyalties. Moreover, the castes
task. They started many organisations and were carefully graded into a hierarchy of
institutions for the purpose, the most status. At the bottom of the ladder came the
outstanding of which was the All India untouchables or scheduled castes as they
Womens Conference founded in 1927. came to be called later, who formed about 20
Womens struggle for equality took a per cent of the Hindu population. The
big step forward with the coming of untouchables suffered from numerous and
independence. Articles 14 and 15 of the severe disabilities and restrictions, which of
Indian Constitution (1950) guaranteed the course varied from place to place. Their touch
complete equality of men and women. The was considered impure and was a source of
Growth of New India - Religious and Social Reform After 1858 81
pollution. In some parts of the country, railways and buses and growing urbanisation
particularly in the south, their very shadow made it difficult to prevent mass contact
was to be avoided, so that they had to move among persons of different castes, especially
away if a brahrnin was seen or heard coming. in the cities. Modern commerce and industry
An untouchables dress, food, place of opened new fields of economic activity to all.
residence, all were carefully regulated. He For example, a brahmin or upper caste
could not draw water from wells and tanks merchant could hardly miss the opportunity
used by the higher castes; he could do so only of trading in skins or shoes nor would he
from wells and tanks specially reserved for agree to deny himself the opportunity of
untouchables. Where no such well or tank becoming a doctor or a soldier. Free sale of
existed, he had to drink dirty water from land upset the caste balance in many villages.
ponds and irrigation canals. He could not The close connection between caste and
enter the Hindu temples or study the vocation could hardly continue, in a modern
shastras. Often his children could not attend industrial society in which the profit motive
a school in which the children of caste Hindus was increasingly becoming dominant.
studied. Public services such as the police and In administration, the British intro-
the army were closed to him. The duced equality before law, took away the
untouchables were forced to take up menial judicial functions of caste panchayats, and
and other such jobs which were considered gradually opened the doors of administrative
unclean, for example, scavenging, shoe- services to all castes. Moreover, the new
making, removing dead bodies, skinning educational system was wholly secular and,
dead animals, tanning hides and, skins. therefore, basically opposed to caste
Usually denied ownership of land, many of distinctions and .caste outlook.As modern
them worked even as tenants-at-will and democratic and rationalist ideas spread
field labourers. among Indians, they began to raise their voice
The caste system was an evil in another against the caste system. The Brahmo Samaj,
respect. Not only was it humiliating and the Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj the
inhuman and based on the anti-democratic Ramakrishna Mission, the Theosophists, the
principle of inequality by birth, it was a cause Social Conference, and nearly all the great
of social disintegration. It splintered people reformers of the 19th century, attacked it.
into numerous groups. In modern times it Even though many of them defended the
became a major obstacle in the growth of a system of four varnas, they were critical of
united national feeling and the spread of the caste (Jan) system. In particular they
democracy. It may also be noted that caste condemned the inhuman practice of
consciousness particularly with regard to untouchability. They also realised that
marriage prevailed also among Muslims, national unity and national progress in
Christians, and Sikhs, who practised political, social and economic fields could not
untouchability though in a less virulent form. be achieved so long as millions were
British rule released many forces which deprived of their right to live with dignity
gradually undermined the caste system. The and honour.
introduction of modern industries and
82 Gist of NCERT (History)
uplift was closely related to the problem of further forbids any restriction the use of
political and economic uplift. for example, wells, tanks, and bathing ghats, or on the
economic progress was essential for raising access to shops, restaurants, hotels and
the social status of the depressed castes; so cinemas. Furthermore, one of the Directive
also were the spread of education and Principles it has laid down for the guidance
political rights. This was fully recognised by of the government says: The State shall
Indian leaders. strive to promote the welfare of the people
The Constitution of 1950 has provided by securing and protecting as effectively as
the legal framework for the final abolition of it may a social order in which justice, social,
untouchability. It has declared that economic and political, shall inform all the
untouchability is abolished and its practice institutions of the national life. The struggle
in any form is forbidden. The endorsement against the evils of the caste system, however,
of any disability arising out of still remains an urgent task before the Indian
untouchability shall be an offence punishable people, especially in the rural areas.
in accordance with law. The Constitution
Gist of NCERT
Indian Economy
ISBN: 9789351720256
Book Code: F22
84
10
Gist of NCERT (History)
NATIONALIST MOVEMENT
mentioned above. The singing of Bande condition impossible. The militant nationalist
Mataram in public streets in East Bengal was tried to transform the Swadeshi and Anti
banned. Public meetings were restricted and Partition agitation into a mass movement and
sometimes forbidden. Laws controlling the gave the slogan of independence from foreign
Press were enacted. Swadeshi workers were rule. Aurobindo Ghose openly declared:
prosecuted and imprisoned for long periods. Political freedom is the life breath of a nation.
Many students were awarded even corporal Thus, the question of partition of Bengal
punishment. From 1906 to 1909, more than became a secondary one and the question of
550 political cases came up before Bengal India s freedom became the central question
courts. Prosecutions against a large number of Indian politics. The militant nationalists
of nationalist newspapers were launched and also gave the call for self-sacrifice without
freedom of the Press was completely which no great aim could be achieved.
suppressed Military police was stationed in It should be remembered, however, that
many towns where it clashed with the the militant nationalists also failed in giving
people. One of the most notorious examples a positive lead to the people. They were not
of repression was the police assault on the able to give effective leadership or to create
peaceful delegates of the Bengal Provincial an effective organisation to guide their
Conference at Barisal in April 1906. Many of movement. They aroused the people but did
the young volunteers were severely beaten not know how to harness or utilise the newly
up and the Conference itself was forcibly released energies of the people or to find new
dispersed. In December 1908, nine Bengal forms of political struggle. Passive resistance
leader, including the venerable Krishna and non-cooperation -remained mere ideas.
Kumar Mitra and Ashwini Kumar Dutt, were They also failed to reach the real masses of
deported. Earlier, in 1907, Lala Lajpat Rai and the country, the peasants. Their movement
Ajit Singh had been deported following riots remained confined to the urban lower and
in the canal colonies of the Punjab. In 1908, middle classes and zamindars. They had come
the great Tilak was again arrested and given to a political dead end by the beginning of
the savage sentence of 6 years imprisonment. 1908. Consequently, the government
Chidambaram Pillai in Madras and succeeded to a large extent in suppressing
Harisarvottam Rao and other in Andhrawere them.
put behind bars. Their movement could not survive the
As the militant nationalists came to the arrest of their main leader, Tilak and the
fore, they gave the call for passive resistance retirement from active politics of Bipin
in addition to Swadeshi and Boycott. They Chandra Pal and Aurobind Ghose.
asked the people to refuse to cooperate with But the upsurge of nationalist sentiments
the Government and to boycott government could not die. People had been aroused from
service, the courts, government school and their slumber of centuries; they had learned
colleges and municipalities and legislative to take a bold and fearless attitude in politics.
councils, and thus, as Aurobindo Ghose put They had acquired self-confidence and self-
it, to make the administration under present reliance and learnt to participate in new
88 Gist of NCERT (History)
forms of mass mobilization and political society of revolutionaries. After 1905, several
action. They now waited for a new newspapers had begun to advocate
movement to arise. Moreover, they were able revolutionary terrorism. The Sandhya the
to learn valuable lessons from their Yugantar in Bengal and the Kal in
experience. Gandhiji wrote later that after Maharashtra were the most prominent
the Partition, people saw that petitions must among them.
be backed up by force and that they must be In December 1907 an attempt was made
capable of suffering. The Anti-Partition to the life of the Lieutenant Governor of
agitation in fact marked a great Bengal, and in April 1908 Khudiram Bose and
revolutionary leap forward for Indian Prafulla Chaki threw a bomb at a carriage
nationalism. The later national movement which they believed was occupied by
was to draw heavily on its legacy. Kingsford, the unpopular Judge at
Growth of Revolutionary Nationalism Muzaffarpur. Prafulla Chaki shot himself
Government repression and frustration dead while Khudi Boss tried and hanged. The
caused by the failure of the leadership to era or revolutionary terrorism had begun.
provide a positive lead to the people Many secret societies of terrorist youth came
ultimately resulted in revolutionary into existence. The most famous of these were
terrorism. The youth of Bengal found all the Anushilan Samiti whose Dhaka Section
avenues of peaceful protest and political alone had 500 branches, and soon
action blocked and out of desperation they revolutionary terrorist societies became I
fell back upon individual heroic action and active in the rest of the country also. They
the cult of the bomb. They no longer believed became so bold as to throw a bomb at the
that passive resistance could achieve Viceroy Lord Hardinge, while he was riding
nationalist aims. The British must, therefore, on an elephant m a state procession at Delhi.
be physically expelled. As the Yugantar wrote The Viceroy was wounded.
on 22 April 1906 after the Barisal Conference: The revolutionaries also established cen-
The remedy lies with the people themselves. tres of activity abroad. In London, the lead
The 30 crores of people inhabiting India must was taken by Shri Krisbnavarma, V.D.
raise their 60 crores of hands to stop this curse Savarkar, and Har Dayal, while in Europe
of oppression. Force must be stopped by Madame Cama and Ajit Singh were the
force. But the revolutionary young men did prominent leaders. Terrorism too gradually
not try to generate a mass revolution. Instead, petered out. In fact, terrorism as a political
they decided to copy the methods of the Irish weapon was bound to fail It could not mobi-
terrorists and the Russian Nihilists, that is, lize the masses; in fact it had no base among
to assassinate unpopular officials. A the people. But the terrorist did- make a valu-
able contribution growth of nationalism in
beginning had been made in this direction
India. As historian has put it, they gave us
when, in 1897, the Chapekar brothers
back the pride of our manhood. Because of
assassinated two unpopular British officials
their heroism, the terrorists became im-
at Poona. In 1904, V.D. Savarkar had
mensely popular among their compatriots
organized the Abhinava Bharat a secret
even though most of the politically conscious
Nationalist Movement 89
people did not agree with their political ap- pew stage of the national movement. The
proach. militant nationalists, on the other hand, were
The Indian National Congress 1905-1914 not willing to be held back. The split between
The agitation against the partition of the two came at the Surat accession of the
Bengal made a deep impact on the Indian National Congress in December 1907. The
National Congress. All sections of the moderate leaders having captured the
National Congress united in opposing the machinery of the Congress excluded the
Partition. its session of 1905, Gokhale the militant elements from it.
President of the Congress, roundly But, in the long run, the split did not
condemned the Partition as well as the prove useful to either party. The moderate
National Congress also supported the leaders lost touch with the younger
Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of Bengal. generation of nationalists. The British
There was much public debate and Government played the game of Divide and
disagreement between the moderate and the Rule. While suppressing the militant
militant nationalists. The latter wanted to nationalists, it tried to win over moderate
extend the Swadeshi and Boycott movement nationalist opinion so that the militant
from Bengal to the rest of the country and to nationalists could be isolated and suppressed.
extend the Boycott to every form of To placate the moderate nationalists: it
association with the colonial government. The announced constitutional concessions
Moderates wanted to confine the Boycott through the Indian Councils Act of 1909
movement to Bengal and even there to limit which are known as the Morle Minto Reforms
it to the boycott of foreign goods. There was of 1909. In 1911, the Government also
a tussle between the two groups for the announced the annulment of the Partition of
president ship of the National Congress for Bengal. Western and Eastern Bengals were
that year (1906). In the end, Dadabhai to be reunited while a new province
Naoroji, respected by all nationalists as a great consisting of Bihar and Orissa was to be
patriot, was chosen as a compromise. created at the same time the seat of the
Dadabhai electrified the nationalist ranks by Central Government was shifted from
openly declaring in his presidential address Calcutta to Delhi.
that the goal of the Indian national movement The Morley-Minto Reforms increased
was self-government or Swaraj like that of the number of elected members in the
the United Kingdom or the Colonies. Imperial Legislative Council and the
But the differences dividing the two provincial councils. But most of the elected
wings of the nationalist movement could not members were elected indirectly, by the
be kept in check for long. Many of the provincial councils in the case of the Imperial
moderate nationalists did not keep pace with Council and by municipal committees and
events. They were not able to see that their district boards in the case of provincial
outlook and methods, which had served a councils. Some of the elected seats were
real purpose in the past, were no longer reserved for landlords and British capitalists
adequate. They had failed to advance to the in India. For instance, of the 68 members of
90 Gist of NCERT (History)
the Imperial Legislative Council, 36 were cannot be the basis of political and economic
officials and 5 were nominated non officials. interests or of political groupings. What is
Of the 27 elected members, 6 were to even more important, this system proved
represent the big landlords and 2 the British extremely harmful in practice. It checked the
capitalists. Moreover, the reformed councils progress of Indias unification which had
still enjoyed no real power, being merely been a, continuous historical process. It
advisory bodies. The reforms in no way became a potent factor in the growth of
changed the undemocratic and foreign communalism -both Muslim and Hindu- in
character of British rule or the fact of foreign the country. Instead of removing the
economic exploitation of the country. They educational and economic backwardness of
were, in fact, not designed to democratize the middle class Muslims and thus integrating
Indian adminis-tration. Morley openly them into the mainstream of Indian
declared at the, time: If it could be said that nationalism, the system of separate
this chapter of reforms led directly or electorates ended to perpetuate their
necessarily to the establishment of a isolation from the developing nationalist
parliamentary system in India, I for one movement. It encouraged separatist
would have nothing at all to do with it. His tendencies. It prevented people from
successor as the Secretary of Sate, Lord concentrating on economic and political
Crewe, further clarified the position in 1912. problems which were common to all Indians,
There is a certain section in India which Hindu or Muslim.
looks forward to a measure of self- The moderate nationalists did not fully
government approaching that which has been support the Morley-Minto Reforms. They
granted in the dominions. I see no future for soon realised that the Reforms had not really
India on those lines. The real purpose of the granted much. But they decided to cooperate
Reforms of 1909 was to confuse the moderate with the government in working the reforms.
nationalists to divide the nationalist ranks, This cooperation with the government and
and to check the growth of unity among their opposition to the programme of the
Indians. militant nationalists proved very costly to
The Reforms also introduced the system them. They gradually lost the respect and
of separate electorates under which all support of the public and were reduced to a
Muslims were grouped in separate small political group.
constituencies from which Muslims alone The Nationalist and the First World War
could be elected. This was done in the name In June 1914, the First World War broke
of protecting the Muslim minority. Bi in
out between Great Britain, France, Russia and
reality this was a part of the policy of dividing Japan on one side (joined later by Italy and
Hindus and Muslims and thus maintaining
USA), and Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
British supremacy in India. The system of
Turkey on the other. In India the years of the
separate electorates was based on the notion War marked the maturing of nationalism.
that the political and economic interests of
In the beginning, the Indian nationalist
Hindus and Muslims were separate. This
leaders, including Lokamanya Tilak, who had
notion wasunscientific because religions
Nationalist Movement 91
been released in June 1914, decided to Indian people, and S. Subramaniya Iyer. The
support the way effort of the government in two Home Rule Leagues worked in
the mistaken belief that grateful Britain cooperation and carried out intense
would repay Indias loyalty with gratitude propaganda all over the country in favour of
and enable India to take a long step forward the demand for the grant of Home Rule or
on the road to self-government. They did not self-government to India after the War. It was
realise fully that the different powers were during this agitation that Tilak gave the
fighting the First World War precisely to popular slogan: Home Rule is my birthright
safeguard their existing colonies. and I will have it. The two Leagues made
The Home Rule Leagues rapid progress and the cry of Home Rule
At the same time, many Indian leaders resounded throughout the length and
breadth of India. Many moderate nation-
saw clearly that the Government was not
likely to give any real concessions unless alists, who were dissatisfied with the
popular pressure was brought to bear upon Congress inactivity, joined the Home Rule
agitation. The Home Rule Leagues soon
it. Hence, a real mass political movement was
necessary. Some other factors were leading attracted the governments anger. In June
1917, Annie Besant was arrested. Popular
the nationalist movement in the same
direction. The World War, involving mutual protest forced the govern-ment to release her
in September 1917.
struggle between the imperialist powers of
Europe, destroyed the myth of the racial The war period also witnessed the
superiority of western nations over the Asian growth of the revolutionary movement. The
peoples. Moreover the War led to increased terrorist, groups spread from Bengal and
misery among the poorer classes of Indians. Maharashtra to the whole of northern India.
For them the War had meant heavy taxation Moreover, man Indians began to plan a
and soaring prices of the daily necessities of violent rebellion to overthrow British rule.
life. They were getting ready to join any Indian revolutionaries in the United States
militant movement of protest. Consequently, of America and Canada had established the.
the war years were years of intense Ghadar (Rebellion) Party in 1913. Most of the
nationalist political agitation. members of the party were Punjabi Sikh
But this mass agitation could not be peasants and ex-soldiers, who had migrated
carried out under the leadership of the there in search of livelihood, and who faced
the fun brunt of racial and economic
Indian National Congress, which had
become, under Moderate leadership, a discrimination. Lala Har Dayal, Mohammed
Barkatullah, Bhagwan Singh, Ram Chandra
passive and inert political organisation with
no political work among the people to its and Sohan, Singh Bhakna were some of the
prominent leaders of the Ghadar Party. The
credit. Therefore, two Home Rule Leagues
party was built around the weekly paper the
were started in 1915 16, one under the
leadership of Lokamanya Tilak and the other Ghadar which, carried the caption on the
masthead: Angrezi Ka Dushman (An Enemy
under the leadership of Annie Besant, an
English admirer of Indian culture and the of British Rule). Wanted brave soldiers, the
Ghadar declared, to Stir up Rebellion in
92 Gist of NCERT (History)
India. Pay death; Price -martyrdom Pension Gurmukh Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Sohan
liberty; Field of Battle India. The ideology Singh Bhakna, Rahmat Ali Shah, Bhai
of the party was strongly secular. In the Parmanand, and Mohammad Barkatullah.
words of Sohan Singh Bhakna, who later Inspired by the Ghadar Party, 700 men
became a major peasant leader of Punjab: We of the 5th Light Infantry at Singapore
were not Sikhs or Punjabis. Our religion was revolted under the leadership of Jamadar
patriotism. The party had active members Chisti Khan and Subedar Dundey Khan. They
in other countries such as Mexico, Japan, were crushed after a bitter battle in which
China, Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, many died. Thirty-seven other were publicly
Thailand, Indo-China and East and South executed, while 41 were transported for life.
Africa. Other revolutionaries were active in
The Ghadar Party was pledged to wage India and abroad. In 191 during an unsuc-
revolutionary war against the British in India. cessful revolutionary attempt Jatin Mukherjee
As soon at the First World War broke out in popularly known as Bagha Jatin gave his life
1914, the Ghadarites decided to send arms fighting a battle with the police at Balasore.
and men to India to start an uprising with Rash Bihari Bose, Raja Mahendra Pratap, Lala
the help of soldiers and local revolutionaries. Hardayal, Abdu1 Rahim, Maulana
Several thousand men volunteered to go back Obaidullah Sindhi, Champa-karaman Pillai,
to India. Millions of dollars were contributed Sardar Singh Rana, and Madame Cama were
to pay for their expenses. Many gave their some of the prominent Indians who carried
life-long savings and sold lands and other on revolution-ary activities and propaganda
property. The Ghadarites also contacted outside India where they gathered the sup-
Indian soldiers in the Far East, South-East port of socialists and other anti-imperialists.
Asia and all over India and per-suaded Lucknow Session of the Congress (1916).
several regiments to rebel. Finally, 21 The nationalists soon saw that disunity
February 1915 was fixed as the date for an in their ranks was injuring their cause and
armed revolt in the Punjab. Unfortunately, that they must put up a united front before
the authorities came to know of these plans the Government. The growing nationalist
and took immediate action. The rebellious feeling in the country and the urge for
regiments were disbanded and their leaders national unity produced two historic
were either imprisoned or hanged. For developments at the Lucknow session of the
example, 12 men of the 23rd Cavalry were Indian National Congress in 1916. Firstly, the
executed. The leaders and members of the two wings of the Congress were reunited.
Ghadar Party in the Punjab were arrested on The old contro-versies had lost their meaning
a mass scale and tried. Forty-two of them and the split in the Congress had led to
were hanged, 114 were transported for life, political inactivity. Tilak, released from jail in
and 93 were sentenced to long terms of 1914, immediately saw the change in the
imprisonment. Many of them after their situation and set out to unify the two streams
release founded the Kirti and Communist of Congressmen. To conciliate the moderate
movements in the Punjab. Some of the nationalists, he declared:
prominent Ghadar leaders were: Baba
Nationalist Movement 93
I may state once for all that we are members. It gradually began to outgrow the
trying in India, as the Irish Home rulers have limited political outlook of the Aligarh school
been all along doing in Ireland, for a reform of thought and moved nearer to the policies
of the system of administration and not for of the Congress.
the Over throw of Government; and I have The Unity between the congress and the
no hesitation in saying that the acts of league was brought about by the singing of
violence which have been committed in the the Congress-league pact, known popularly
different parts of India are not only as the Lucknow pact. An important role in
repugnant to me, but have, in my opinion, bringing the two together was played by
only unfortunately retarded to a great extent, Lokamanya Tilak and Mohammed Au Jinnah
the pace of our political progress. because the two believed that India could win
On the other hand, the rising tide of self- government only through Hindu-
nationalism compelled the old leaders to Muslim unity. Tilak declared at the time It
welcome back into the Congress Lokamanya has been said, gentlemen, by some that we
Tilak and other militant nationalists. The Hindus have yielded too much to our
Lucknow Congress was the first united Mohammedan brethren. I am Sure I
Congress since 1907. It demanded further represent the sense of the Hindu community
constitutional reforms as a step towards self- all over India when I say that we could not
government. have yielded to much. I would not care if
Secondly, at Lucknow, the Congress and the rights of self- government are granted to
the All India Muslim League sank their old the Mohammedan community only- ... I
differences and put up common political would not care if they are granted to the
demands before the Government While the lower and the lowest classes of the Hindu
War and the two Home Rule Leagues were population. ... When we have to fight, against
creating a new sentiment in the country and a third party, it is a very important thing that
changing the character of the Congress, the we stand on this platform united, united in
Muslim League had also been undergoing race, united In religion, as regard all different
gradual changes. We have already noted shades of political creed.
earlier that the younger section of the The two organisations passed the same
educated Muslims was turning to bolder resolutions at their sessions, put forward a
nationalist politics. The War period witnessed joint scheme of political reforms based on
further developments in that direction. separate electorates, and demanded that the
Consequently, in 1914, the government British Government should make a
suppressed the publication of the Al-Hilal of declaration that it would confer self-
Abul Kalam Azad and the Comrade of government on India at an early date. The
Maulana Mohamed Ali. It also interned the Lucknow Pact marked an important step
Ali Brothers Maulanas Mohamed Ali and forward in Hindu-Muslim unity.
Shaukat Ali and Hasrat Mohani and Abul Unfortunately, it did not involve the Hindu
Kalam Azad. The League reflected, a least and Muslim masses and it accepted the
partially, the political militancy of its younger pernicious principle of separate electorates.
94 Gist of NCERT (History)
It was based on the notion of bringing Large number of radicial nationalist and
together the educated Hindus and Muslims revolutionaries had been jailed or interned
as separate political entities; in other words, under the notorious Defence of India Act and
without secularization of their political other similar regulations. The government
outlook which would make them realize that now decided to appease nationalist opinion
in politics they had no separate interests as and announced on 20 August 1917 that its
Hindus or Muslims. The Lucknow Pact, policy in India was the gradual development
therefore, left the way open to future of self-governing institutions with a view to
resurgence of communalism in India politics. the progressive realization of Responsible
But the immediate effect of the Government of India as an integral part of
developments at Lucknow was tremendous. the British Empire. And in July 1918 the
The unity between the moderate nationalist Montague Chelmsford Reforms were
and between the National Congress and the announced. But Indian nationalism was n
Muslim League aroused great political appeared. Infact, the Indian national
enthusiasm in the country. Even the British movement was soon to enter its third and
Government felt it necessary to placate the last phase- the era of mass struggle or the
nationalists. Hitherto it had relied heavily on Ghandian Era.
repression to quieten the nationalist agitation.
Gist of NCERT
General Science
ISBN: 9789351720188
Book Code: F20
Nationalist Movement 95
(iii) Valmiki wrote Katyayan Vartika (iv) Yaj nalkya Smriti first described the
and Astadhyayi. origin of Kayasthas.
(iv) Nirukta refers to the Etymology. (a) i, ii & iv (b) i & ii
(a) i, ii & iv (c) iii only (d) all of the above.
(b) ii only 17. Which Smriti describes the classes of
(c) none of the above Brahmanas who were against accepting
(d) i & iii alms.
13. Consider the following statements and (a) Narad Smriti
mark the option which is not correct. (b) Yajnalkya Smriti
(i) Panini was a greatest Grammarian (c) Parasar Smriti
and he wrote Astadhyayi, Patanjali (d) Manu Smriti.
Mahabhasya & Katyayan Vartika. 18. Which is not the feature of Puranas
(ii) Panini for the first time used the (a) Sarg (b) Vansa
word Sanskrit as nomenclature of (c) Chhanda (d) Manvantar
the literacy language.
19. Consider the following statements and
(iii) Harivanshapuran of Mahabharat
mark the option which is not correct.
comprises genealogy of the rulers.
(iv) manu is called Adikavi. (i) Vayu Puran mentions about
Geography of Indian Culture and
(a) i & iii (b) ii & iv
about prominent Indian Dynasties.
(c) ii & iii (d) i, ii & iv
(ii) Sulva Sutra means genealogy.
14. Which is known as Sat Saharsi Samhita?
(iii) Vishnu dharmottara Puran depicts
(a) Manu Smriti about wall paintings and
(b) Yajnalkya Smriti iconometry.
(c) Parasar Smriti (iv) Manu-Smriti describes about
(d) Mahabharat rituals related with Manu Mission
15. Which is the earliest Smriti? of Seth.
(a) Yajnovalkya Smriti (a) i & iii (b) ii & iii
(b) Manu Smriti (c) none of the above
(c) Narad Smriti (d) ii & iv
(d) Parasar Smriti. 20. Match the following
16. Consider the following statements and 1. Ashvini Kumars A. belonged to Kushava
period & wrote
mark the option which is true. charak Samhita
(i) Geeta is a part of Bhisma Parva. 2. Vagbhata B. wrote Astang thidya
(ii) Harivanshapuran of Mahabharat which mentions
about eight Major
compirises of genealogy of the Organs of Human
rulers. Body.
(iii) Mahabharta is also known as 3. Dhanvantri C. were physicians of
Panchasu veda. Celestial world who
got Knowledge of
98 Gist of NCERT (History)
Ayurveda from A B C D
Brahma. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
4. Charaka D. is considered as
(b) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
father of Ayurveda.
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (d) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(b) 4 2 1 3 24. Match the following
(i) Sulva Sutra A. described Decimal
(c) 3 4 2 1
system and about
(d) 2 3 1 4 zero.
21. Who wrote Asva Chikitsa (ii) Bhas Kara charya B. describes about vedic
Alters.
(a) Palkappya
(iii) Aryabhatta C. wrote Lilavati.
(b) Charka (iv) Shilpa Sutra D. Manual of
(c) Dhanvantri Architecture.
(d) Salihanna A B C D
22. Consider the following statements and (a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
mark the option which is correct. (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(c) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(i) Atharva Veda gives first hand (d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
information about Ayurveda
25. Consider the following statements and
System.
mark the option which is correct.
(ii) Shshurut wrote Shrshrut Samhita
which also refers to surgical (i) Earliest information about painting
operation. and iconometry is given in
Vishnudharmottara Purana.
(iii) Palkappya wrote on Gaja Chikitsa.
(ii) Sulva Sutra is the earliest text
(iv) Srimad Bhagvat Purana is the
which comprises information on
greatest puran in respect to Bhakti
Geometry.
cult.
(iii) Bhasa wrote 8 palys
(a) i & ii
(Sivapanvashaduttam and Pratisna
(b) i & iii
Yangandhanaiyan are his most
(c) none of the above famous plays).
(d) all of the above. (iv) Buddha charitam was written by
23. Match the following Asvagosh.
1. Vriksha Parasa A. is considered as (a) i, ii & iii (b) iii
earliest text on
astrology as well as (c) i, ii & iv (d) ii, iii & iv
astronomy. 26. Match the following
2. Aryabhatta B. describes about (i) Sudraka A. Swapan
numerous. Medicinal Vashaduttam
herbs and plants. (ii) Visakhadutta B. Sutra Lankar
3. Vedang Jyotisha C. wrote Brahmsphuta (iii) Asvagosh C. Devi Chandra
Sidhanta. Guptam
4. Brahm Gupta D. wrote Surya (iv) Bhasa D. Mricheha Katikam
Sidhantika.
Multiple Choice Question 99
57. Consider the following statements and overlap period has been discovered
mark the option which is correct. from Bhagvanpura.
(i) The first man made port was found (iv) The steatite figure of a bearded
in Harappa. man has been recovered from
(ii) The main crops of Indus Valley Mohanjodaro.
civilization were wheat & Barley. (a) All of the above
(iii) The Largest Harappan Settlemtn in (b) ii & iii
India is Rakhigarhi in Haryana. (c) none of the above
(iv) The Largest number of settlements (d) i & iv
are in Ghaggar-Hakar Valleys. 61. Match the following
(a) i & ii (i) Mohanjodaro A. Absence of Mother
(b) all of the above Goddess figurines
(ii) Chanhudaro B. Assembly Hall &
(c) ii, iii & iv Collegiate Building
(d) none of the above. (iii) Rangpur C. Bead Making factory
58. Match the following (iv) Harappa D. Sandstone Make
Dancer
(i) Mohanjodaro A. Daya Ram Sahni
(ii) Chanhudaro B. S.R. Rao A B C D
(iii) Harappa C. R.D. Banerjee (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(iv) Lothal D. M.G. Majumdar (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
A B C D (c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(a) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (d) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) 62. Consider the following statements and
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) mark the option which is correct.
(d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(i) Broken Ivory were used as a scale
59. Match the following in Chanhudaro.
(i) Ghaggat A. Mohanjodaro
(ii) During Burial bodies were
(ii) Ravi B. Kalibangan
(iii) Indus C. Lothal extended in North-South Direction.
(iv) Bhogava D. Harappa (iii) Ganerinkla site is situated in
A B C D Bahwalpur, Pakistan.
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (iv) The Great Bath of Mohanjodaro
(b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) Measures 12 7 3 mts.
(c) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (a) i, ii & iii (b) ii & iii
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (c) ii & iv (d) all of the above.
60. Consider the following statements and 63. Assertion : Vedas are also known as
mark the option which is correct. Shrutt
(i) Rice Husk has been found from Reason : Vedas have bee passed on from
Lothal & Rangpur. one generation to another through
(ii) Evidence of signage on wall has verbal transmission.
been discovered from Dholavira.
(a) Assertion is correct, Reason is
(iii) A thirteen roomed house from the
incorrect
104 Gist of NCERT (History)
78. Consider the following statements and (ii) Tirthas B. Highest category of
officials & were
mark the option which is correct.
Eighteen in numbers.
(i) The Sacred literature of Saivas is (iii) Adhyakshya C. functioned in
known ast Saivagama. administrative and
(ii) The collection of the Songs of 63 judicial capacity.
(iv) Mahamattas D. The Arthashastra
Nayanars is known as Sangam. uses this term in the
(iii) Wema Kadphises, the Kushava sense of a Minister.
King adopted Saivism. A B C D
(a) all of the above (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b) none of the above (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(c) 1 & iii (d) ii & iii (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
79. Consider the following statements and (d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
mark the option which is correct. 82. Match the following
(i) LakshanandhyokshaA. Mint
(i) Ashoka the great founded the (ii) Sansthadhyasksha B. commerce/ fixed
Mauryana Empire with help of his price
Brahmin Minister Chankya. (iii) Panyadhayaksha C. Market
(ii) Asthashastras is contains 15 A B C
chapters. (a) (ii) (i) (iii)
(iii) Magasthenes in his book Indika (b) (i) (iii) (ii)
gives reference to absence of usury. (c) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) i, & iii (b) ii & iii 83. Consider the following statements and
(c) i & ii mark the option which is correct.
(d) none of the above. (i) Pulisanj were the public relation
80. Match the following officers who reported public
(i) Junagarh Rock A. Jaluka was the opinion to the King.
inscription of successor of (ii) Vyavharika Mahamatta were the
Rudradaman I Ashoka in judicial officers.
Kashmir
(ii) Rajatarigini B. Construction of
(iii) Gudha - Purusha were the secret
Sudarsana Lake agents mentioned in Arthashastra.
(iii) Jatakas C. Social & Economic (a) all of the above
conditions
(b) only ii
A B C
(c) none of the above (d) i & iii
(a) (ii) (i) (iii)
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) 84. Which committee was entrusted with
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) the work related to Manufactured
(d) (iii) (i) (ii) goods?
81. Match the following (a) Fifth committee
(i) Amatyas A. concerned with (b) First committee
econo-mic functions (c) Third committee
& some military
duties. (d) Sixth committee.
Multiple Choice Question 107
(a) i & ii (b) all of the above 97. Which of the following term was used
(c) iii for Supreme Court in the Sangam Age?
(d) none of the above (a) Puhar (b) Sangam
93. Who patronised Mathura Art & built a (c) Maharum (d) Korai
stupa at Purushpur? 98. Match the following term of Sangam
(a) Kijula Kadiphises Age?
(b) Rudradaman (i) Panchvaram A. Spies
(ii) Enadi B. Ministerial
(c) Wima Kadiphises
Council
(d) Moga (iii) Orar C. Senapati
94. Consider the following statements and A B C
mark the option which is true. (a) (i) (ii) (iii)
(i) Hathigumpha Inscription of (b) (iii) (i) (ii)
Kharvela of Kalinga is also sources (c) (ii) (iii) (iv)
of Sangam Age. 99. Consider the following statements and
(ii) Wima Kadiplises, inspired by his mark the option which is true.
teacher Parva convened a buddhist (i) Devdana is a single plot of land of
convict at Kandalvana in Kashmir. village to an individual Brahmin or
(iii) Greeks introduced Hellinistic Art group of Brahmins.
into India, the impact of which can (ii) Apad Dharma implies what a man
be seen in the Gandhara Art. may legitimately do when he
(a) ii cannot earn a living by the normal
(b) none of the above deeds performed by his class.
(c) i & iii (d) all of the above (iii) Niyoga was the practice of
95. Match the following allowing a widow to cohabit with
(i) First Sangam A. Madurai
her husbands younger brother till
(ii) Second Sangam B. Tenmadurai the birth of a male child.
(iii) Vird Sangam C. Kavatuparani (a) ii
A B C (b) i & iii
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (c) all of the above
(b) (iii) (i) (ii)
(d) ii & iii
(c) (iv) (iii) (i)
100. Match the following
96. Match the following
(i) Ghatiyantra A. An imporant guild in
(i) First Sangam A. August & Kerala.
Tolkappiyar (ii) Manigraman B. Irrigation Device
(ii) Second Sangam B. Nakkirar (iii) Shrotriyas C. Learned Brahmins
(iii) Vird Sangam C. August who had the know-
A B C ledge of Vedas.
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) A B C
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (a) (i) (ii) (iii)
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (b) (ii) (i) (iii)
(c) (iii) (ii) (i)
Multiple Choice Question 109
(a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (c) (3) (4) (2) (1)
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (d) (2) (3) (4) (1)
(c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) 118. Match the following
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) 1. Pala A. Ajay Raj
115. Arrange the following according to 2. Chandela B. Rao Siha
their chronological order. 3. Chauhan C. Gopal
4. Rathore D. Nanunka
1. Battle of Bilgram and Second & (a) 2 - A 3 - D 1 - C 4 - B
final defeat of Humayun by Sher (b) 1 - C 2 - D 3 - A 4 - B
Shah. (c) 4 - A 3 - B 2 - C 1 - D
2. Battle of Ghagra and Baburs 119. Match the following
defeat of Afghans under Mohd. (i) Kachhavaha A. Rana Kumbha
Lodhi. (ii) Rashtra Kuta B. Bhoja
3. Battle of Dharmat in which Dara (iii) Parmar C. Man Singh
was defeated by Aurangzeb. (iv) Sisodia D. Krishna I
4. Battle of Chausa & first defeat of A B C D
Humayun by Sher Shah. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (1) (2) (3) (4) (b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(b) (3) (4) (1) (2) (c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(c) (2) (4) (1) (3) (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(d) (3) (2) (1) (4) 120. Consider the following statements and
116. Arrange the following according to mark the option which is correct.
their chronological order. (i) The four class dominated by early
1. Rebellion of Prince Khullan Rajputs arose from the ruins of
older Pratihara Kingdom.
2. Revolt of Jats under Gokla
(ii) The Solankis established their
3. Rebellion of Prince Khusrau
control in Malwa with their capital
4. Revolt of Chatrasal Bundela. at Dhar near Indore.
(a) (1) (3) (4) (2)
(iii) All the four classes of early Rajputs
(b) (3) (1) (2) (4)
claimed their descent from
(c) (4) (3) (2) (1)
Mythical figure who arose out of
(d) (3) (1) (2) (4)
vast sacrificial fire pit near Mt. Abu.
117. Arrange the following according to
(a) i & iii (b) ii
their chronological order.
(c) all of the above
1. Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao.
(d) none of the above.
2. Death of Aurangzeb at Aurangzeb.
121. Consider the following statements and
3. Third Battle of Panipat between mark the option which is correct.
Marathas & Afghans.
(i) The Temple Arthitecture or South
4. Peshwaship of Balaji Vishvanath.
Indian style of Architecutre
(a) (2) (4) (1) (3)
reached the pinnacle of glory
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
during the cholas reign.
112 Gist of NCERT (History)
143. Who introduced Du-Aspah & Site- (i) The Revenue official at the level of
Aspah system? Pargana was Amil.
(a) Shahjahan (ii) The village affairs were looked
(b) Aurangzeb after by the Panchayat whose head
(c) Jehangir was called Lambardar.
(d) Akbar (iii) Atharva Veda was translated into
Persian by Haji Ibrahim Sirhindi.
144. Consider the following statements and
(a) i & ii
mark the option which is correct.
(b) none of the above
(i) Aurangzeb confronted a number
(c) all of the above
of rebelluris including Jats under
Rajaram & Chauraman; Sikhs and (d) iii
Rajputs. 148. Match the following:
(ii) Dara Shikoh was a devotee of (i) Nal Damyanti A. translated into
Persian by Mulla
Qadiri order of Sufis. Shah Mohd.
(iii) Shahjahan executed Guru Arjun (ii) Ramayana B. translated into
Dev with charge of giving help of persian by Faizi.
the prince Khusrao after his Revolt (iii) Rajtarangini C. translated into
in 1606. persian by Abdul
Qadir Badayuni.
(a) i & iii (b) i & ii A B C
(c) all of the above (a) (iii) (i) (ii)
(d) none of the above. (b) (i) (ii) (iii)
145. Match the following: (c) (ii) (iii) (i)
(i) Aurangzeb A. built Magnificent 149. Consider the following statements and
edifices like Red Fort, mark the option which is correct.
Jama Masjid.
(ii) Babar B. was ragarded as (i) Akbar established Royal Karhana
Zind Pir for painting.
(iii) Shahjahan C. introduced Gaz-i-ilahi (ii) Shalimar garden was laid out by
of 41 digits a new
Shahjehan.
yard for land
Measurement. (iii) Jehangir was a painter himself and
A B C loved paintings on animal & Birds.
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (a) i & iii
(b) (iii) (i) (ii) (b) none of the above
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (c) all of the above
146. Who among the following is the Head (d) ii
of Royal Household? 150. Which one the following is the actual
(a) Sarkar (b) Subah collection from Land?
(c) Mir Bakshi (d) Khan-i-Saman. (a) Hasil
147. Consider the following statements and (b) Jama
mark the option which is true. (c) Khalisa (d) Dasturs
116 Gist of NCERT (History)
151. Match the following: tried for waging war against the
(i) Al-Tamgha A. efficient troops British.
not under the (a) ii & iii
control of
Emperor.
(b) all of the above
(ii) Amir B. Jagirs given to (c) none of the above
Muslim Nobles. (d) i only
(iii) Ahadis C. Commander of
155. Consider the following statements and
Hundred.
A B C mark the option which is correct.
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (i) Guru Ramdas was the political
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) guru of Shivaji.
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (ii) Shivaji adopted the title of
152. Consider the following statements and Chattarpati and Kshtriya
mark the option which is correct. Kulavatamsa.
(i) Sawar was a Mughal rank that (iii) Sivaji belonged to Bhonsle Clan.
determined the number of cavalary (a) all of the above
men. (b) ii
(ii) Watan Jagirs was an area where (c) none of the above
there was objection made by the (d) ii & iii
Zamindars. 156. Match the following
(iii) Waqf was the grants for religious (i) Peshwa A. Baroda
and educational institutions. (ii) Bhonsle B. Indore
(a) i & iii (b) ii (iii) Gackwad C. Poona
(iv) Holkar D. Nagpur
(c) all of the above A B C D
(d) none of the above (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
153. During whose tenure the practice (b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
Revenue farming of Ijara was started. (c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(a) Bahadur Shah 157. Match the following
(b) Farruk Siyar (i) Peshwa A. Prime Minister
(ii) Sar-i-Naubat B. Royal Corres-
(c) Jahandar Shah
pondence
(d) Mohd. Shah (iii) Sachiv C. Chief of Armed
154. Consider the following statements and forces
mark the option which is correct. A B C
(i) Banda Bahadur, the sikh leader was (a) (i) (iii) (ii)
defeated and captured by Farrukh (b) (iii) (ii) (i)
Siyar. (c) (ii) (i) (iii)
(ii) Muhammad Shahs original name 158. Consider the following statements and
was Raushan Akhtar. mark the option which is true.
(iii) Bahadur Shah II was deposed and (i) Shivajis Biography by Sabhasad is
known as Bakhar.
Multiple Choice Question 117
(ii) Watandars were the local lnaded 162. Consider the following statements and
elements in Maratha Kingdom. mark the option which is true.
(iii) The lowest unit of the country was (i) The first Anglo Maratha war fought
termed as Prants in the Maratha due to conflict for power betwen
Kingdom. narayan Rao and Raghunath Rao.
(a) i & ii (b) iii (ii) Mamlatdar was the subedar of
(c) all of the above bigger provinces under the
(d) none of the above. Peshwas.
159. Consider the following statements and (iii) During the invasion of Ahmad Shah
mark the option which is true. Addali nominal Head of the
(i) Balaji Vishwanath introduced Maratha Army was Viswas Rao.
Saranjami System. (a) i & ii
(ii) Baji Rao I campaigned against the (b) i & iii
Sidis of Janjira. (c) all of the above
(iii) Deshmukhs were equivalent to (d) none of the above.
Chandharib of North and Desais 163. Consider the following statements and
of Gujarat. mark the option which is true.
(a) none of the above (i) Baji Rao I propounded concept of
(b) ii & iii (c) all of the above Hindu Pad Padshahi and was also
(d) only i the real architect of Marath Empire.
160. Match the following: (ii) Moksha Mahal were the Land
(i) Barbosa A. Achyutdevaraya grants given during the time of
(ii) Nicolo B. Krishnadeva Marathas.
Saya (iii) During the reign of Baji Rao I the
(iii) Nuniz C. Devaraya I
Maratha Capital shifted from
A B C
Satara to Poona.
(a) (i) (ii) (iii)
(b) (iii) (i) (ii) (a) all of the above
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (b) i & ii
161. Match the following (c) ii & iii
(i) Balaji Visvanath A. Greatest exponent of (d) none of the above.
Guerilla tacties after 164. Arrange the following according to
Shivaji. their charonological order.
(ii) Madhav Rao B. Introduced
Saran-jami (i) Baji Rao I
system. (ii) Narayan Rao
(iii) Baji Rao I C. defeated Haider (iii) Madhav Rao
Ali.
A B C (iv) Balaji Vishwanath
(a) (iii) (i) (ii) (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
118 Gist of NCERT (History)
work was compiled in the Adi (a) ii & iii (b) i & ii
Granth. (c) all of the above
(iii) Chaitanya was the most radical (d) none of the above
disciple of Ramananda. 178. Who among the following is also known
(a) ii & iii (b) all as Kabir of the Deccan
(c) 1 & 2 (d) none (a) Basava
174. Who among the following said, God (b) Nimbarkacharya
is the breath of all Breaths (c) Madhvacharya
(a) Shankracharya (d) Tukaram
(b) Kabir (c) Guru Nanak 179. Consider the following statements and
(d) Chaitanya mark the option which is correct.
175. Who among the following is also known (i) Narsi Mehta was exponder of
as crypto - Buddhist? Lingayat Sect and wrote Vachanas.
(a) Ramanuja (ii) Madhvacharya expounded the
(b) Ramananda theory of Dwaitvad (Dualism) &
(c) Shankarcharya was a devotee of Vishnu.
(d) Chaitanya (iii) Eknath was the saint of
176. Match the following Maharashtra Dharma.
(i) Dadu Dayal A. declared that Allah & (a) none of the above
Ram were names of (b) i & ii only (c) all of the above
the same God. (d) ii & iii
(ii) Shankaracharya B. devotee of Nirankar
Brahma & ______ 180. Match the following
supported of (i) Mirabai A. author of Ramcharit
Nirguna School of Manas
Bhakti cult. (ii) Tulsidas B. follower of Krishna
(iii) Kabir C. emphasized True cult of Vaishnavism.
Education (iii) Basava C. composed Marathi
A B C commentary of
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) Bhagvat Gita.
(iv) Jnanadeva D. expounder of
(b) (iii) (i) (ii)
Liagayat Sect.
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) A B C D
177. Consider the following statements and (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
mark the option which is correct. (b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(i) Shankar dev is also famous as (c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Chaitanya of Assam. (d) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(ii) Tulsidas depicted Rama as the 181. Consider the following statements and
incarnaton of Vishnu. mark the option which is true.
(iii) Nimbarkacharya published the (i) Mimbarkacharya identified
Theory of Dwaith Advaitvad Brahmana with Krishna. He was a
(Dualism - non dualism). Telugu Brahmin of Andhra
120 Gist of NCERT (History)
(2) Dalhousie was the Architect of (3) Chin Qulich Khan was the leader
Third Anglo-Maratha War. of the Turani Party.
Which of the above statements is / Which of the above statements is /
are true. are true.
(a) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 2 & 3 (b) 1 & 3
(b) 1 only (c) All of the above (d) 1 & 2
(c) 2 only (d) Both 1 & 2 200. Consider the following statements.
196. Consider the following statements. (1) British supported Nasir Jung in a
(1) Guru Gobind Singh was the war of succession against Muzaffar
contemporary to Bahadur Shah I. Jung.
(2) Banda Bahadurs revolt was (2) Nizam of Hyderabad was neutral
suppressed by Aurangzeb. in the second Anglo-Mysore War.
Which of the above statements is / Which of the above statements is /
are true. are true.
(a) Both 1 & 2 (b) 2 only (a) 1 & 2 (b) 2 & 3
(c) 1 only (c) All of the above (d) 1 & 3
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 201. Consider the following statements.
197. Consider the following statements. (1) Murshid Kuli Khan was
(1) Jats Revolt against the Mughal contemporary to Jahadar Shah.
authority started from the time of (2) Anwar-ud-din as the Nawab of
Aurengzeb. Carnatic murdered by Chanda
(2) Churaman & Bodan Singh founded Sahib with the help of French.
the Jat State of Bharatpur. Which of the above statements is /
Which of the above statements is / are true.
are true. (a) Both 1 & 2 (b) 2 only
(a) Both 1 & 2 (b) 1 only (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) 1 only
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) 2 only 202. According to their Ruling period
198. In the Later Mughal period there are Arrange the following Bengal Success.
some states were established by the (1) Shuja-ud-din
Mughal provincial governors, which (2) Murshid Kuli Khan
state is not in that list. (3) Alivardi Khan
(a) Awadh (b) Bengal (4) Siraj-ud-daula.
(c) Hyderabad (a) 1, 2, 3, 4
(d) None of these (b) 2, 1, 4, 3
199. Consider the following statements. (c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 4, 3, 1, 2
(1) Ahmad Shah to grant the title of 203. Under the tenure of Siraj-ul-daula a
Burhan-ul-mulk to Saadat Khan. alliance made by some people to
(2) Chin Qulich Khan took the title of dethrone him who was not in that
Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Khan. alliance.
Multiple Choice Question 123
(a) Jagat Seth (b) Raja Janki Ram 207. Consider the following statements
(c) Manik Chand about Battle of Buxar.
(d) None of these (1) Mir Kasim formed in alliance with
204. Consider the following statements Shah Alam II & Shuja-ud-daula of
about Black hole tragedy. Awadh.
(1) During Black hole tragedy (2) The combined forces defeated
Murshid Kuli Khan was the Britishers.
Nawab of Bengal. Which of the above statements is /
(2) Holwell was one of the Survivor are true.
of this tragedy. (a) Both 1 & 2
Which of the above statements is / (b) 2 only
are true. (c) 1 only
(a) 1 2only (b) 1 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 & 2 208. Consider the following statements
205. Consider the following statements about Treaty of Allahabad.
about Battle of Plassey. (1) Treaty of Allahabad was signed in
(1) The English continued fortification 1765.
of Fort Willium dissegarding the (2) Mir Kasim granted the diwani of
orders of Nawab was one of the Bengal, Bihar & Orissa to the
main reasons of Battle. company.
(2) Mir Jafar dethroned Sir-ud-daula (3) Treaty of Allahabad gave the
with the help of Clive. diwani rights from Nawab to the
Which of the above statements is / company.
are true. Which of the above statements is /
(a) 1 only (b) Both 1 & 2 are true.
(c) 2 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) All of the above
206. Consider the following statements. (b) 1 & 2
(1) British were granted the (c) 1 & 2
Zamindari of Burdwan, (d) 2 & 3 only
Midnapore & Chittagon by Mir 209. Consider the following statements
Jafar. about the Regulating Act of 1773.
(2) As an Nawab of Bengal Mir Kasim (1) Act established the office of
was the replacement of Mir Jafar. Governor-General at Fort William.
Which of the above statements is / (2) Warren Hastings was appointed as
are true. the Governor of Bengal in 1773.
(a) 2 only Which of the above statements is /
(b) 1 only are true.
(c) Both 1 & 2 (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 & 2
124 Gist of NCERT (History)
237. Consider the following statements 241. Consider the following statements.
about Illbert Bill. (1) Saligram idol eare is related to
(1) Illbert Bill was introduced in Lokmanya Tilak.
Legislative Council during the era (2) Vernacular Press Act passed during
of Lord Ripon. Lord Lyttons tenure.
(2) Bill arrested that the Indian Judges (3) W.C. Banerjee was the first
were not fit to administer Justice president of Indian National
of a white offender. Congress.
(3) The Anglo Indian Community was Which of the above statements is /
in favour to this Bill. are true.
Which of the above statements is / (a) All of the above (b) 1 & 2 only
are true. (c) 1 & 3 only (d) 2 & 3
(a) All of the above (b) 1 & 3 242. Consider the following statements.
(c) 1 & 2 (d) 2 & 3 (1) Lord Curzon known as the father
238. Which Governor General once said that of Indian Nationalism.
Indians are cheats. (2) Muslim League came into existence
(a) Lord Curzon in 1906.
(b) Lyutton Which of the above statements is /
(c) Dalhousie are true.
(d) Minto (a) Both 1 & 2 (b) 1 only
239. Consider the following statements. (c) 2 only
(1) British Indian Association Founded (d) Neither 1 nor 2
in 1851. 243. Consider the following statements
(2) The Indian League was founded by about the provisions of Indian council
Surendranath Banerjee. Act of 1861.
Which of the above statements is / (1) Indians could be nominated to the
are true. Supreme Legislative Council.
(a) 1 only (2) The members were to be
(b) Both 1 & 2 nominated by Governor-General.
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) 2 only (3) Local Legislations to be set up in
240. Consider the following statements. Mumbai.
(1) Prarthna Samaj founded in 1867 by Which of the above statements is /
Ranade. are true.
(2) Madras Mahajan Sabha was (a) All of the above (b) 1 & 2 only
founded in 1884. (c) 2 & 3 only (d) 1 & 3
Which of the above statements is / 244. Consider the following statements
are true. about Indian Council Act of 1892.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (1) The number of members of councils
(c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 of Bengal & North-Western
Multiple Choice Question 129
(3) Congress Labour (C) Punjab 268. Consider the following statements.
Party
(4) Labour Kisan Party(D) Mumbai (1) Hindu Mahasabha founded in 1918
(a) 1 - a 2 - b 3 - c 4 - d under the presidentship of Madan
(b) 1 - b 2 - c 3 - d 4 - a Mohan Malviya.
(c) 1 - c 2 - d 3 - b 4 - a (2) Fazl-i-Husain was related to
(d) 1 - d 2 - a 3 - c 4 - b unionist party of Punjab.
265. Consider the following statements. Which of the above statements is /
are true.
(1) All India trade Union Congress
held its first session in Kanpur. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(2) Meerut conspiracy cases accused (c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
were defended by J.L. Nehru, M.A. 269. Consider the following statements.
Ansari & M.C. Chagla. (1) The Nagpur Flag satyagraha was
Which of the above statements is / started in mid-1923.
are true. (2) Vaikom Satyagraha was fought for
(a) 1 only (b) Both 1 & 2 temple entry.
(c) 2 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Which of the above statements is /
266. Consider the following statements are true.
about CSP. (a) 1 only (b) Both 1 & 2
(1) Congress socialist party was (c) 2 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2
formed in 1934. 270. Consider the following statements.
(2) J.L.Nehru & base did not support (1) Simon Commission enumerated
CSP. two features of Indian states,
(3) The Cabinet Mission plan was British territory & not British
rejected by CSP. subjects.
Which of the above statements is / (2) The Government of India Act of
are true. 1935 proposed a system of
(a) All of the above (b) 1 & 2 federation.
(c) 2 & 3 (d) 1 & 3 Which of the above statements is /
267. Consider the following statements. are true.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(1) Under the presidentship of C.R.
Das, Swaraj party formed in 1922. (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 & 2
(2) Swaraj party win 42 out of 101 271. Consider the following statements.
elective seats in the central (1) The Butler Committees report
legislative assembly. (1929) rankly said that the princes
Which of the above statements is / had no sovereign authority.
are true. (2) Gandhi start Salt Satyagraha in
(a) Both 1 & 2 (b) 1 only August 1929.
(c) 2 only Which of the above statements is /
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 are true.
Multiple Choice Question 133
279. Consider the following statements (2) The Hindu Muslim Unity was
about the main points of Jinnahs 14 totally missing in Civil
points Charter. disobedience movement.
(1) In the central legislature muslim Which of the above statements is /
reporesentation shall be 1/3rd of are true.
the total seats. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(2) The residuary powers should vert (c) Neither 1 nor 2
in the provinces. (d) Both 1 & 2
(3) Separation of Sindh should be 283. Consider the following statements.
postponed. (1) Muslim League did not participate
Which of the above statements is / in the First Round Table
are true. Conference.
(a) 1 & 2 (b) 1 & 3 (2) Ambedkar participate in all the
(c) 2 & 3 (d) All of the above round table conference.
280. Consider the following statements Which of the above statements is /
about the Lahore session of congress are true.
(1929). (a) 2 only (b) 1 only
(1) Lahore session held under the (c) Both 1 & 2
presidentship of J.L. Nehru. (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(2) The congress issues a call to the 284. Consider the following statements
countrymen to celebrate 26 January about Gandhi-Irwin pact features.
1930 as poorna Swarajya day. (1) Return of confiscated lands not yet
Which of the above statements is / sold to third parties.
are true. (2) Immediate release of all political
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only prisoners.
(c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (3) Pact was concluded on 5 March
281. Consider the following statements 1931.
about the programmes of civil Which of the above statements is /
disobedience movement. are true.
(1) Picketing of shops dealing in liquor. (a) 1 & 2 only (b) 2 & 3
(2) Ban fire of foreign cloth. (c) All of the above (d) 1 & 3
(3) Boy cott of law courts. 285. Consider the following statements.
Which of the above statements is / (1) Gandhi attended the Second
are true. Round Table Conference.
(a) 1 & 2 (b) All of the above (2) The 2nd Round table conference
(c) 1 only (d) 2 only was meeting in the context of world
282. Consider the following statements. economic crisis.
(1) Abdul Ghaffar Khan formed Which of the above statements is /
Khudai Khidmatgar. are true.
Multiple Choice Question 135
(a) 1 only (b) Both 1 & 2 & the Muslim League formed a
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) 2 only coalition government int he
286. Consider the following statements. provincial election of 1937.
(2) H.S. Suhrawardy became premier
(1) Communal award announced on 10
of Sindh.
August 1932.
Which of the above statements is /
(2) The Award gave recognition to the are true.
Harijans as a minority.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(3) Award accepted the demand of (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 & 2
Muslims, Sikhs, Indian for separate
290. I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP,
electorate.
Sindh & Baluchistan amalgamated into
Which of the above statements is /
a single state.
are true.
Who had given this statement
(a) All of the above
during national movement.
(b) 1 & 2 only
(a) Jinnah (b) Mohammad Ali
(c) 2 & 3 (d) 1 & 3
(c) Md. Iqbal (d) Khali Kujamma
287. Consider the following statements
291. Consider the following statements.
about pund pact.
(1) Agreement was sign on 26 (1) Muslim League appointed a
committee heaed by Raja of Pirpur
September 1932.
to investigate Muslim complaints
(2) 148 seats were reserved against 71
against the congress governments
in the award. & submit a report.
Which of the above statements is /
(2) Asbab-e-Bagawat written by Md.
are true.
Ali Jinnah.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Which of the above statements is /
(c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 are true.
288. Consider the following statements (a) Both 1 & 2 (b) 1 only
about 3rd round table conference.
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) 2 only
(1) The invitation for the conference 292. Consider the following statements.
was sent only to those perons who
were loyal to the government. (1) Muslim League celebrated the day
(2) The Biggest outcome of this December 22, 1939 as the
conference was Government of deliverance day.
India Act 1935. (2) Muslim League at Karachi Session
Which of the above statements is / (1940) passed the in famous
are true. Pakistan Resolution.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only Which of the above statements is /
(c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 & 2 are true.
289. Consider the following statements (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
about the provincial elections of 1937. (c) Both 1 & 2
(1) In the Punjab, the Unionist party (d) Neither 1 nor 2
136 Gist of NCERT (History)
(a) 1 & 2 only (b) 2 & 3 only (2) The princely states would retain all
(c) 1 & 3 subjects.
(d) All of the above (3) The constituent assembly was to
300. Consider the following statements consist of 209.
about Royal Indian Navy Mutiny. Which of the above statements is /
(1) Royal Indian navy rose in rebellion are true.
on 18 February 1946. (a) 1 & 3 (b) 2 & 3
(2) Talwar (Ship) went on hunger (c) All of the above (d) 1 & 2
strike. 304. Consider the following statements
(3) B.C. Dutt was the leader of this about the elections to the constituent
mutiny. Assembly.
Which of the above statements is / (1) Congress Captured 199 seats.
are true. (2) Out of 78 Muslim seats League got
(a) All of the above 73.
(b) 1 & 2 only (3) 210 general seats alloted to the
(c) 2 & 3 British Indian provision.
(d) 1 & 3 Which of the above statements is /
301. There was three members in the Cabinet are true.
Mission. Which is not in the list. (a) All of the above (b) 1 & 2
(a) Pethick Lawrence (c) 2 & 3 (d) 1 & 3
(b) Sir John Simon 305. Consider the following statements.
(c) A.V. Alexander (1) Direct Action day (Muslim league)
(d) Stafford Cripps. fixed for August 16, 1946.
302. Consider the following statements. (2) Initially League supported the
Cabinet Mission Plan.
(1) Appointment of the cabinet mission
Which of the above statements is /
was a virtual declaration of Indias
are true.
independence.
(a) 1 only
(2) Cabinet Mission plan consisted of
a federal government with a (b) Both 1 & 2
limited number of subjects (c) 2 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the above statements is / 306. Consider the following statements
are true. about the Interim Government.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (1) The Interim Government was
(c) Both 1 & 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 sworn in on September 2, 1946.
303. Consider the following statements (2) It was composed of 14 members.
about recommendations of Cabinet (3) Jawahar Lal nehru was nominated
Mission Plan. as its Vice President.
(1) The Unity of India had to be Which of the above statements is /
retained. are true.
138 Gist of NCERT (History)
Answers
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (b) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (b) 49. (c) 50. (a)
51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (d) 57. (c) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (a)
61. (b) 62. (d) 63. (c) 64. (a) 65. (d) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (a) 69. (d) 70. (b)
71. (c) 72. (b) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (c) 76. (a) 77. (a) 78. (c) 79. (b) 80. (a)
81. (c) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (a) 85. (c) 86. (c) 87. (c) 88. (b) 89. (d) 90. (b)
91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (c) 94. (d) 95. (b) 96. (a) 97. (c) 98. (b) 99. (d) 100. (b)
101. (a) 102. (d) 103. (c) 104. (c) 105. (a) 106. (c) 107. (c) 108. (b) 109. (d) 110. (b)
111. (a) 112. (c) 113. (c) 114. (a) 115. (c) 116. (b) 117. (a) 118. (b) 119. (d) 120. (a)
121. (d) 122. (a) 123. (b) 124. (c) 125. (d) 126. (a) 127. (a) 128. (c) 129. (c) 130. (c)
131. (c) 132. (d) 133. (c) 134. (a) 135. (b) 136. (d) 137. (a) 138. (d) 139. (a) 140. (c)
141. (a) 142. (b) 143. (c) 144. (b) 145. (b) 146. (d) 147. (c) 148. (a) 149. (c) 150. (a)
151. (c) 152. (a) 153. (c) 154. (b) 155. (a) 156. (c) 157. (a) 158. (a) 159. (c) 160. (b)
161. (a) 162. (c) 163. (b) 164. (c) 165. (a) 166. (c) 167. (b) 168. (c) 169. (d) 170. (c)
171. (a) 172. (b) 173. (c) 174. (b) 175. (c) 176. (b) 177. (c) 178. (d) 179. (d) 180. (c)
181. (a) 182. (c) 183. (b) 184. (c) 185. (a) 186. (b) 187. (c) 188. (d) 189. (d) 190. (b)
191. (a) 192. (c) 193. (d) 194. (b) 195. (a) 196. (c) 197. (d) 188. (d) 199. (a) 200. (c)
201. (b) 202. (c) 203. (d) 204. (a) 205. (b) 206. (a) 207. (c) 208. (b) 209. (d) 210. (a)
211. (b) 212. (c) 213. (d) 214. (a) 215. (b) 216. (a) 217. (b) 218. (c) 219. (d) 220. (a)
221. (b) 222. (c) 223. (d) 224. (a) 225. (b) 226. (c) 227. (d) 228. (a) 229. (b) 230. (c)
231. (d) 232. (a) 233. (b) 234. (c) 235. (c) 236. (d) 237. (d) 238. (a) 239. (b) 240. (c)
241. (d) 242. (a) 243. (b) 244. (c) 245. (b) 246. (a) 247. (c) 248. (d) 249. (b) 250. (a)
251. (c) 252. (d) 253. (b) 254. (a) 255. (c) 256. (d) 257. (b) 258. (a) 259. (c) 260. (a)
261. (b) 262. (d) 263. (a) 264. (b) 265. (c) 266. (d) 267. (a) 268. (c) 269. (b) 270. (d)
271. (a) 272. (c) 273. (b) 274. (d) 275. (a) 276. (c) 277. (b) 278. (d) 279. (a) 280. (c)
281. (b) 282. (d) 293. (a) 284. (c) 285. (b) 286. (a) 287. (c) 288. (d) 289. (a) 290. (c)
291. (b) 292. (a) 293. (b) 294. (c) 295. (d) 296. (a) 297. (b) 298. (c) 299. (d) 300. (a)
301. (b) 302. (c) 303. (d) 304. (a) 305. (b) 306. (c) 307. (d) 308. (a) 309. (c) 310. (a)
311. (a) 312. (b) 313. (a) 314. (b) 315. (c) 316. (d) 317. (a)