.

: .. .. ..
. .

.

 . 1

:
.

. . . .

1.

2.

1)

2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

3)

4)

5)
6)

2560
 2 .

3.

(error)

3.1
3 Gross Error, Systematic Error Random Error

3.1.1 Gross Error 32 23

3.1.2 Systematic Error

calibrate
correction


zero error

3.1.3 Random Errors

()

3.2

3.2.1


(average deviation from the mean)
=

2560
 . 3

: 7.65, 7.62, 7.66 7.68

7.6525 7.65
0.00, 0.03, 0.01 0.03 0.0175
0.018 0.02
()
= 7.65 0.02 cm

3.2.2

()

4.63 cm
0.5 mm 0.05 cm
4.63 0.05 cm

(
)
0.05 cm
7.82 0.05 cm
0.2 cm
7.8 0.2 cm ( 0.2 cm )

3.2.3

3.2.1
7.6, 7.6, 7.7, 7.6 7.6 cm
0.02 cm 7.62 0.02 cm

( 3.2.2) 0.1 cm
0.1 cm 0.02 cm 7.6 0.1 cm

1:
(normal distribution) (standard error)

sn -1 1 1 n
(xi - x )
2
Dx =
n
=
n

n - 1 i =1

2560
 4 .

2:
x
Dx Dx
Dx 100
x x

:
7.65 0.02 cm 0.02 cm
Dx 0.02
100 = 100 = 0.261438 % 0.02
x 7.65
0.3% 7.65 cm 0.3%

3.3 (Error Propagation)

( )

Calculus
f (x , y, z ) x, y, z f
x, y, z f differentiate
f f f
Df @ Dx + Dy + Dz
x y z

: f = x 2 Df = 2x Dx
f = sin x Df = cos x Dx
f = a x a Df = f ln a Dx

2 2 2
f f f
Df = Dx + Dy + Dz
x y z

( .)

1) R x y R
x y
DR , Dx , Dy R = R DR , x = x Dx y = y Dy
DR = Dx + Dy

2560
 . 5

:
: 6.69 0.01 kg
0.42 0.01 kg
6.27 kg 0.02 kg
6.27 0.02 kg

2) R x y R
x y

x DR Dx Dy
R = x y R = 100 = 100 + 100
y R x y
DR Dx Dy
= +
R x y
:

M = 345.1 0.1 g
V = 41.55 0.05 cm 3
M 345.1
D = = = 8.306 g/cm 3
V 41.55

DM 0.1
M : 100 = 100 = 0.028977 = 0.03%
M
345.1
DV 0.05
V : 100 = 100 = 0.120337 = 0.12%
V 41.55
D = M + V
DM DV
= 100 + 100
M V
= 0.03% + 0.12% = 0.15%
DD
D = 100
D
D DD = 0.012 g cm3 = 0.01 g cm3 ( 1 )
: D = 8.31 0.01g cm3

( DD ) 8.306
8.31

3) R n x R n
x

DR Dx Dx Dx
R = xn = ++ =n
R x x
x
n terms
( n )

2560
 6 .

:
: r = 3.65 0.02 cm
: V = 43 pr 3 = 203.6887 cm 3
Dr
r : 100 = 0.5%
r
Dr
V : n 100 = 3 0.5% = 1.5%
r
DV
100 = 1.5%
V
1.5 V
\ DV = = 3 cm 3
100
: V = 204 3 cm3

1. R = x + y ; DR = Dx + Dy Dx Dy
Rmax = x max + y max = ( x + Dx ) + ( y + Dy ) = ( x + y ) + ( Dx + Dy ) = R + ( Dx + Dy )

Rmin = x min + y min = ( x - Dx ) + ( y - Dy ) = ( x + y ) - ( Dx + Dy ) = R - ( Dx + Dy )

R R ( Dx + Dy ) Dx + Dy DR
R = x -y

DR Dx Dy
2. R = xy , = +
R x y
Dx Dy
R x y R x y

Rmax = (x + Dx )(y + Dy ) = xy + Dx Dy + y Dx + x Dy
Rmin = (x - Dx )(y - Dy ) = xy + Dx Dy - y Dx - x Dy

R (
= xy + Dx Dy y Dx + x Dy )
Dx, Dy x , y Dx Dy xy
DR = y Dx + x Dy
DR DR yDx x Dy Dx Dy
= = + = +
R xy xy xy x y

x
3. R = R = x n
y
R R R
DR = Dx + Dy + Dz
x y z

2560
 . 7

3.4 (Significant Figures)

(significant) 572
5 7 7 2 2

3 3
2 2 5 7
5.7 102 m (scientific number)
570 m 2 0
3 3 570. m

1)
2) ()
3)

7.654 cm 4
4

() 1 ( 2
)

:
: d = 3.4568 0.002137 cm
0.002137 4 ( )
1 0.002 cm
3.4568 3
d = 3.457 0.002 cm

() 395,000 cm, 3950.00 cm

3.95000 cm 0.000395 cm

:
35, 429 cm/s
5 3
3.54 104 cm/s 3

2560
 8 .

() (exponents)

:
d = 0.00006563 0.0000002 cm d = ( 6.56 0.02 ) 10-5 cm

()
:

:

4.23 + 57.83 _ 57.83 _
107.2 2.671 2.676
111.4 55.16 55.15

/ (
) 107.2 1
107.20 (4.23)
4.23 2
4.2 107.2 + 4.2 = 111.4

()

:
1.2 144.11 = 172.932 = 1.7 102
318 1.8946 = 167.84546 = 168

: sin(45) = 0.71, cos(36.0) = 0.809, log10 (4.25) = 0.629

2560
 . 9

4.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(1)
(2)
(3) systematic errors

2560
 10 .

5.

5.1

(independent variable) x


(kg)


()
()



Error bars

5.2

(1)

(2) ()
empirical equation
3

y = mx + b (1)

2560
 . 11

m tangent q y
m y2
b ( y ) b y
y x = 0 y1
x (independent variable) x
() b x
y (dependent variable) 0 x1 x2
y y 2 y1
m tan
x x 2 x1

m = Dy = 30.0 cm = 2.00
Dx 15.0 cm
Dy 3.0 cm
m= = = 2.0
Dx 1.5 cm

y1, y2, x1 x 2

2

c
y = xy = c (2)
x
y =c ( x1 )
y x1 c

3
power function

y = cx n (3)

c n logarithms
log y = n log x + log c (4)

log y log x n y-intercept log c

2560
 12 .

6.
(true value)
systematic
errors random errors x n
i xi i 1 n (normal
distribution) n

n
1
x = n ( ) xi (5)
1

x 18.60, 19.30, 17.70 20.40

x = 1 ( 18.60 +19.30 +17.70 + 20.40 ) = 19.00 (6)
4

(standard
deviation) sn -1
n 2
s = 1 x -x (7)
n -1 n -1 i
1

(7)
sn -1 = ( 1 )[ ( 18.6 - 19.0 )2 + ( 19.3 - 19.0 )2 + ( 17.7 - 19.0 )2 + ( 20.4 - 19.0 )2 ] = 1.14
4-1
sn -1 ( sample standard deviation )

sample standard deviation
standard error function
(7)
68.3%
x - sn -1 x + sn -1 99.73%
x 3sn -1 x 3sn -1

100 68 19.00
1.14 17.86 20.14 (expected range)
10 20

99.73% x 3sn -1
15.58 22.42

x sn -1 100 68 x sn -1

2560
 . 13

x sn -1
sn -1

g +



(standard error) sx
sx sn -1
s
sx = n - 1 (8)
n

sn -1 n
n n sn -1 = 1.14 n = 4 sx
= 0.57
(8) 100
n 68.3 ( 68.3% )
sx n
68.3% sx
sx n
sx sx

= sx
sn -1
= x sx = x
n

19.00 0.57 ( 19.00 1.14 )

19.0 0.6

sx
3

**************************************************

2560
 14 .

2560
 . 15

x (
, Vernier calipers, micrometer, etc.) x Dx Dx
1 ( 2 ) x Dx Dx

1

1 n
x = x Dx x x = xi n
n i=1
Dx

(mean deviation) 1 n
Dx = xi - x
( . ) n i=1

s 1 1 n 2
Dx = sx = n -1 =
(standard error)
n n

n - 1 i =1
x i - x

x, y ( x , y ) Dx, Dy
R x y DR R DR

R
R = x + y
(Dx ) + (Dy )
2 2
DR = Dx + Dy DR =
R = x - y
R = xy 2 2
DR Dx Dy DR Dx Dy
x = + = +
y
R = R x y R x
y

2560
 16 .

f (x, y, z )
f x, y, z ( f x , y , z ) (
)
2 2 2
f f f
Df = Dx + Dy + Dz
x y z
f f f
Dx, Dy, Dz Df = Dx + Dy + Dz
x y z
f = x 2 Df = 2x Dx
f = sin x Df = cos x Dx
f = ax a Df = f ln a Dx

3 4


error bar ()

error bars
least square fitting ( )

,, ,
( )

1

2

3

2560
 . 17

1.1

1.2

2560
 18 .

: 1

3 (Linear Graph)

3.1 y () t ()
(Linear Graph) t y
t (s) 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0
y (m) 38 78 94 113 141 170 190 230

y 10%

3.2

2560
 . 19

14

2560
 20 .

1
(Simple Pendulum)

(Simple pendulum) (T ) ( ) g

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 q 1 3 q 1 3 5 q
T = 2p

1 + sin + sin 2 + sin 3 +
g 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 6 2

q
q q sin2 1
2


T 2p ( )
g


q 10 T ( 10 ) ( 1.002 ) 2p
g

q 0 T ( 0 ) = 2p
g
T ( 10 ) T ( 0 ) 0.2%

, , , ,

( q < 10 ) ( !)
20 T = 20 cm, 25 cm, 30 cm,
AC
= 80 cm T 2 slope =
BC
4p 2 BC 22
g g = = ( 4p 2 ) cm/s2 p = 3.14159
slope AC 7

B
C

2560
 . 21

T2 ( s2 )
(cm)
20 s ( )
T ( s)

= ( )

2560
 22 .

2


(Ticker Timer)

(Ticker Timer)
50
50 Hz
(
1)


1
1 50

( 2) 1
( schoolphysics.co.uk)

( 3)

Dx v = Dx
Dt
t
x 4 - x2
v (t3 ) =
t 4 - t2

2560
 . 23

g
9.8 m/s2
9.78 m/s2

50 Hz , , , ,
, ,/

1.

2.
3.
4.
5. g
6. g
7. g

: g

2560
 24 .

-

0 x 0
0 11

1
1
t (s ) 50
x2 - x 0

Dx (cm )
t2 - t 0

Dt (s)

v (cm/s)

2560
 . 25

(Archimedes principle) (buoyant force)

, , , , , ,

1. W1
2.
W 2
3. 2

V =
rVg ( r )
3 rVg
( 2) ( 1) = W2 - W1 = rVg

2560
 26 .

d = ................................ cm
a = ................................ cm 2
M 1 = ................................ g

W1 = ................................ N

r = 1.00 g/cm3 g = 9.8 m/s2

W2 = M 2g ( N ) W2 - W1 ( N )
y (cm) V = ay ( m3 ) M2 (g ) rVg ( N )

2560
 . 27

W + Paa = ( Pa + rgy ) a


W , a
r
()
g

y
y
Pa
W = rgya

W (: Buoyant force) rgya

, (), , ,

1. m ( )

2. ( D ) a ( )

3. ( y ) h

4. y n ( n )
5. r

2560
 28 .

______ = ............................... g

1 m = .............................. g

D = ............................. cm

a = ............................. cm 2

n h ( cm )
0

= ( )

2560
 . 29

r = m
V

h
DVwater = ha ( a )

nVclip = DVwater

n , Vclip m

m
n = ha
r

, , , ,

1.
2.
3.
4. 2-3

5. h
6.

7.

2560
 30 .

D = .................... cm

a = .......................... cm2

_____ = .......................... g
m = .......................... g

n h (cm )

= ( )

2560
 . 31

6

Simple harmonic motion

m k M
g

x ( )
v

x x v
x
dx m d x
x

( )
x x 2
1 1 m 1
Mv 2 + v dx = (M + 13 m )v2
2 2 0 x x 2

1 x m 1 1
k ( x - )2 - Mgx - g x d x = k ( x - )2 - Mgx - mgx
2 0 x 2 2
1 1 1
(M + 13 m )v2 + k ( x - )2 - Mgx - mgx
2 2 2
()

d 1
{ 1
( M + 1 3 m ) v 2 + k ( x - )2 - Mgx - mgx
dt 2 2
1
2 }=0
d2
(M +
dt 2
1
x = -kx + M + m g + k
1
3m)
2 ( )
k
Simple harmonic motion f = 1
2p ( M + 1 3 m )

T = 1 = 2p ( M + 3 m )
1

f k
4p 2
T2 = (M + 1
3m )
k

, , (), ,

T2 (s2)
Amplitude M T 2 A

M slope = AC
BC
2
4p B
k k = OP C
slope

P O M (kg)

2560
 32 .

() = .
() ________ = .

M (g) T2 ( s2 )
____ s
( )
T ( s)

= ( )
= ( )
k m m

2560
 . 33

1 1 1
+ = (Thin Lenses)
u v f
u, v
u v (
)
. .


.
u1 v1

u2 v2 .

Optical bench, , , ,

1. () () D
2. u1, v1 . u2, v2
.
3. D
4. 1 1 1/v
v u

a b
2
f = !
a+b

1/u

2560
 34 .

1 1 1 1
D u1 (cm) v1 (cm) (cm)-1 (cm)-1 u2 (cm) v2 (cm) (cm)-1 (cm)-1
u1 v1 u2 v2
(cm)

a = ( )
b = ( )
f

2560
 . 35

8

(refractive index)

Snells law n1 sin q1 = n2 sin q2

n1 1

n2 2 n1 1

sin q1
n glass = n 2 =
sin q2

(optical glass block), , , (),

q1 q2 n glass
q1 30 , 35 , 40 , 65
N
A
n1 1 B
P
K1 L1
n2 2

K2 L2
Q
C

1. K1L1, K2L2
2. P K1L1 PN
3. AB q1 PN A B
4. C A B
D A, B C C
5. DC K2L2 Q PQ q2
6. q1
7. n glass

2560
 36 .

( )

q1 ( ) q2 ( ) sin q1 sin q2

. .

=
n glass

2560
 . 37

9


Rx
e , Rx
, r
e
er r
r V =
Rx + r
V2 e2r V
r ( Rx ) P = =
2
r ( Rx + r )
r = 0 P = 0 r P = 0 r
P r ( r0 )
dP
P r =0 r0
dr
2
( Rx + r0 ) - 2 ( Rx + r0 ) r0 e2
2
e =0 r r0 = Rx P
( R + r )
4 4Rx
x 0

Load
load (Rx ) Impedance (
Match ) Impedance !
Rx

e
r

r 3 ( 17 )
V r V 2 r r
r = ...?... W

2560
 38 .

RA = W, RB = W, RC = W

r (W) V (...........) V2
(............)
r
1 RA
2 RB
3 RC
4 RA + RB
5 RA + RC
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

V 2 r r r r0 = W
Rx

2560
 . 39

10

1 C
2 t = 0
C
t

t VC = e e-RC R
RRM
R + RM

RM
e = 2.71828

lnVC = -
t
R C
+ ln e

1
lnVC t -
R C

1
C =
R slope

1. ( 1
2
VC )
2. VC t = 0 VC 10 120
3. log10 VC t
C

2560
 40 .

10

-
R = W , RM = W
VC () =

t (s) VC (.........) lnVC

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120

= ( )
C

2560
 . 41

11
(Diode)

(Diode)

I () V
() I V
(Ohms Law) (Diode)
I V
V
( )
nVT
I = I s [e - 1]

I s VT = kBT / e 25.6 mV n
n 1 2
V
( )
V VT I I se nVT

V
ln I ln I s +
nVT
n I s ln I V

(1N4148), , 9V

n Is
1. 9V

2.

3.
4. ln I V n I s

2560
 42 .

11

1

V (.) () (..) I () ln I

= ( )
n Is

2560
 . 43

12

1. :
2. :

3. : ( 11)

4 (A, B, C D), ,

2560
 44 .

12

2560
 . 45

2560
 46 .

13

m O CM

O D
O
D m
g I CM
CM CM I CM mk 2 k

mg k
L ( << )
L
k
2 3
O I O

I O I CM mD 2
t
d 2
IO mgD sin
dt 2

() sin
k 2 D2
T 2
gD
T D D k
2k
Tmin 2
g
g
8 2k
g 2
Tmin
L
4 L
g
2
22.79 L
2 2
3 Tmin Tmin

2560
 . 47

, ,

1. CM
2.
T
3. T D

Tmin

D
Dmin

3. g k

2560
 48 .

13

D (cm) ( s)
T ( s)

T D g k

2560
 . 49

14

R N i
m0Ni
B B = tesla
2R
m0 = 4p 10-7 SI
O
R

i Ni MM (-), BE
i , B

B MM q B E

B mN
tan q = = 0 i
BE 2RBE

50 , , 12 V, 3 ( 9),

1. MM (-
) 0 !
2. i r
3 ( 9) V i
q1 + q2
3. q1 q2 q=
2
4. 3 r ( i, q )
5. B E

M
q B
BE

M
V


r

2560
 50 .

14

RA = W, RB = W, RC = W

r (......) V (......) i (.........) q (.........) tan q (.........)

RA

RB

RC

RA + RB

RA + RC

___________ _________

= ( )

2560